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Cahill M, Illback R, Peiper N. Perceived Racial Discrimination, Psychological Distress, and Suicidal Behavior in Adolescence: Secondary Analysis of Cross-Sectional Data from a Statewide Youth Survey. Healthcare (Basel) 2024; 12:1011. [PMID: 38786419 PMCID: PMC11121279 DOI: 10.3390/healthcare12101011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2024] [Revised: 05/08/2024] [Accepted: 05/10/2024] [Indexed: 05/25/2024] Open
Abstract
Developmental, clinical, and epidemiological research have demonstrated the salience of perceived racial discrimination (PRD) as a contributor to negative mental health outcomes in adolescence. This article summarizes secondary analyses of cross-sectional data from a large-scale youth survey within a predominantly rural state, to estimate the prevalence and strength of the association between PRD and serious psychological distress (SPD), suicidal ideation, and prior suicidal attempts. Data from 93,812 students enrolled in 6th, 8th, 10th, or 12th grade within 129 school districts across Kentucky were examined, to determine prevalence rates for subgroups within the cohort. Logistic regression analyses assessed the differences and established comparative strength of the association among these variables for racial/ethnic subgroups. PRD was self-reported at high rates across several demographic subgroups and was most evident among Black (24.5%) and Asian (22.1%) students. Multiracial students experienced the highest rates of both SPD and suicidality (ideation and prior attempt). Both for the entire cohort and for each racial/ethnic subgroup, PRD was significantly associated with an increased likelihood of negative mental health outcomes, although the strength of these associations varied across the subgroups and developmental levels. The implications for early intervention and prevention are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Nicholas Peiper
- Department of Epidemiology and Population Health, University of Louisville, Louisville, KY 40202, USA;
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2
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Skinner-Dorkenoo AL, George M, Wages JE, Sánchez S, Perry SP. A systemic approach to the psychology of racial bias within individuals and society. NATURE REVIEWS PSYCHOLOGY 2023; 2:1-15. [PMID: 37361392 PMCID: PMC10196321 DOI: 10.1038/s44159-023-00190-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 04/19/2023] [Indexed: 06/28/2023]
Abstract
Historically, the field of psychology has focused on racial biases at an individual level, considering the effects of various stimuli on individual racial attitudes and biases. This approach has provided valuable information, but not enough focus has been placed on the systemic nature of racial biases. In this Review, we examine the bidirectional relation between individual-level racial biases and broader societal systems through a systemic lens. We argue that systemic factors operating across levels - from the interpersonal to the cultural - contribute to the production and reinforcement of racial biases in children and adults. We consider the effects of five systemic factors on racial biases in the USA: power and privilege disparities, cultural narratives and values, segregated communities, shared stereotypes and nonverbal messages. We discuss evidence that these factors shape individual-level racial biases, and that individual-level biases shape systems and institutions to reproduce systemic racial biases and inequalities. We conclude with suggestions for interventions that could limit the effects of these influences and discuss future directions for the field.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Meghan George
- Department of Psychology, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL USA
| | - James E. Wages
- Department of Psychology and Counseling, University of Central Arkansas, Conway, AR USA
| | - Sirenia Sánchez
- Department of Psychology, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL USA
| | - Sylvia P. Perry
- Department of Psychology, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL USA
- Institute for Policy Research, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL USA
- Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences, Stanford University, Stanford, CA USA
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3
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Xiao SX, Spinrad TL, Xu J, Eisenberg N, Laible DJ, Carlo G, Gal-Szabo DE, Berger RH, Xu X. Parents' valuing diversity and White children's prosociality toward White and Black peers. JOURNAL OF APPLIED DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.appdev.2022.101459] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/31/2022]
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4
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Freeman M, Martinez A, Raval VV. What Do White Parents Teach Youth About Race? Qualitative Examination of White Racial Socialization. JOURNAL OF RESEARCH ON ADOLESCENCE : THE OFFICIAL JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY FOR RESEARCH ON ADOLESCENCE 2022; 32:847-862. [PMID: 35818860 PMCID: PMC9542432 DOI: 10.1111/jora.12782] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Research has examined racial socialization practices within families of color, but less is known regarding what White parents teach their children about race and/or racism. To explore White racial socialization processes, we interviewed 30 White parents of White children ages 7-17 years living in the Midwest. Using thematic analysis, we identified 22 themes organized into four domains: Content of conversations, factors to consider in socialization, developmental differences, and White identity/privilege. A majority of parents reported conversations about current or historic racial events, while relatively few also reported speaking specifically about systemic racism and microaggressions. Parents viewed adolescents as better able to handle difficult topics than children. Findings contribute to theoretical frameworks and may inform the development of educational resources.
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5
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The Family Transmission of Ethnic Prejudice: A Systematic Review of Research Articles with Adolescents. SOCIAL SCIENCES-BASEL 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/socsci11060236] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/07/2022]
Abstract
Ethnic prejudice is one of the most studied topics in social psychology. Empirical research on its development and intergenerational transmission is increasing but still scarce. This systematic review collected and analyzed psychosocial studies focused on the transmission of ethnic prejudice within families with adolescents. Specifically, it aimed at addressing the following research questions: (a) To what extent is there a vertical (between parents and children) and horizontal (between siblings) transmission of ethnic prejudice within the family? (b) Is this process unidirectional (from parents to children) or bidirectional (between parents and children)? (c) Which individual and/or relational variables influence this process? (d) Can adolescents’ intergroup contact experiences affect the family influence on adolescents’ ethnic prejudice? The literature search of four databases (Ebsco, Scopus, PubMed, and Web of Science), carried out from February 2021 to May 2021, following the PRISMA guidelines, yielded 22 articles that matched the eligibility criteria. The findings highlighted a moderate bidirectional transmission of ethnic prejudice between parents and adolescents, which was influenced by several individual and relational variables (e.g., the adolescents’ age and sex and the family relationship quality). Moreover, the adolescents’ frequent and positive contacts with peers of different ethnicities reduced the parents’ influence on the adolescents’ ethnic prejudice. The findings are discussed, and their limitations and implications for intervention and future research are considered.
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6
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Sullivan J, Wilton L, Apfelbaum EP. How age and race affect the frequency, timing, and content of conversations about race with children. Child Dev 2022; 93:633-652. [PMID: 35587879 DOI: 10.1111/cdev.13787] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2021] [Revised: 03/27/2022] [Accepted: 03/29/2022] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
Anti-racist efforts require talking with children about race. The present work tested the predictors of U.S. adults' (N = 441; 52% female; 32% BIPOC participants; Mage = 35 years) conversations about race with children across two timepoints in 2019. Approximately 60% of adult participants talked to their children (3-12 years) about race during the preceding week; only 29% talked to other adults about race during the same period. This paper describes the content and predictors of conversations about race, revealing how conversations differ depending on the participant's race, a child's age, and whether the conversation occurs with children or another adult. These data have important implications for theorizing about when, why, and how adults actually talk about race with children and adults.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica Sullivan
- Department of Psychology, Skidmore College, Saratoga Springs, New York, USA
| | - Leigh Wilton
- Department of Psychology, Skidmore College, Saratoga Springs, New York, USA
| | - Evan P Apfelbaum
- Boston University, Questrom School of Business, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
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7
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Mesman J, de Bruijn Y, van Veen D, Pektas F, Emmen RAG. Maternal color-consciousness is related to more positive and less negative attitudes toward ethnic-racial outgroups in children in White Dutch families. Child Dev 2022; 93:668-680. [PMID: 35543415 PMCID: PMC9324943 DOI: 10.1111/cdev.13784] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
A prerequisite to anti-racist socialization in families is acknowledging ethnic-racial (power) differences, also known as color-consciousness. In a sample of 138 White Dutch families from the urban Western region of the Netherlands with children aged 6-10 years (53% girls), observations and questionnaires on maternal color-consciousness and measures of children's attitudes toward Black and Middle-Eastern ethnic-racial outgroups were collected in 2018-2019. Variable-centered analyses showed that maternal color-conscious socialization practices were related to less negative child outgroup attitudes only. Person-centered analysis revealed a cluster of families with higher maternal color-consciousness and less prejudiced child attitudes, and a cluster with the opposite pattern. The mixed results emphasize the importance of multiple methods and approaches in advancing scholarship on anti-racism in the family context.
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Affiliation(s)
- Judi Mesman
- Leiden University College, Leiden University, The Hague, The Netherlands
| | - Ymke de Bruijn
- Leiden University College, Leiden University, The Hague, The Netherlands
| | - Daudi van Veen
- Leiden University College, Leiden University, The Hague, The Netherlands
| | - Fadime Pektas
- Leiden University College, Leiden University, The Hague, The Netherlands
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8
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Bruijn Y, Emmen RAG, Mesman J. Navigating diversity: Maternal ideologies and associations with child interethnic prejudice in the Netherlands. SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT 2021. [DOI: 10.1111/sode.12579] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Ymke Bruijn
- Leiden University College Faculty of Governance and Global Affairs Leiden University The Hague The Netherlands
| | - Rosanneke A. G. Emmen
- Leiden University College Faculty of Governance and Global Affairs Leiden University The Hague The Netherlands
- Institute of Education and Child Studies Faculty of Social and Behavioural Sciences Leiden University Leiden The Netherlands
| | - Judi Mesman
- Leiden University College Faculty of Governance and Global Affairs Leiden University The Hague The Netherlands
- Institute of Education and Child Studies Faculty of Social and Behavioural Sciences Leiden University Leiden The Netherlands
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Perry SP, Skinner-Dorkenoo AL, Abaied JL, Waters SF. Applying the Evidence We Have: Support for Having Race Conversations in White U.S. Families. PERSPECTIVES ON PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE 2021; 17:895-900. [PMID: 34860623 DOI: 10.1177/17456916211029950] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Popular press articles have advocated for parent-child conversations about race and racism to prevent children from developing racial biases, yet empirical investigations of the impact of racial socialization in White U.S. families are scarce. In an article published in Perspectives on Psychological Science in 2020, Scott et al. warned that, given the lack of empirical evidence, parents might actually do more harm than good by talking to their children about race. In this comment, we draw upon the literature on (a) racial socialization, (b) parenting and parent-child discourse, and (c) the role of nonverbal communication in parental socialization to inform our understanding of parents' ability to engage in race-related conversations in the absence of empirical guidance. We also highlight emerging evidence of the potential benefits of these conversations (even if parents are uncomfortable). In sum, the wealth of existing literature suggests that parents can successfully navigate challenging conversations with their children-which tends to result in better outcomes for children than avoiding those conversations. Thus, although we support Scott et al.'s call for researchers to develop more empirical research, we part with the authors' assertion that researchers need to wait for more sufficient evidence before providing recommendations to White parents-we believe that the time for White families to begin talking about race and racism is now.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sylvia P Perry
- Department of Psychology, Northwestern University.,Institute for Policy Research, Northwestern University
| | | | - Jamie L Abaied
- Department of Psychological Science, University of Vermont
| | - Sara F Waters
- Department of Human Development, Washington State University Vancouver
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10
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Farmer N, Gordon T, Middleton KR, Brooks AT, Wallen GR. Reigniting Dr. Martin Luther King's call to action: the role of the behavioral scientist in the movement for social justice and racial equity. Transl Behav Med 2021; 12:6359855. [PMID: 34459912 DOI: 10.1093/tbm/ibab108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Nicole Farmer
- Translational Biobehavioral and Health Disparities Branch, National Institutes of Health, Clinical Center, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Talya Gordon
- Translational Biobehavioral and Health Disparities Branch, National Institutes of Health, Clinical Center, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Kimberly R Middleton
- Translational Biobehavioral and Health Disparities Branch, National Institutes of Health, Clinical Center, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Alyssa T Brooks
- Translational Biobehavioral and Health Disparities Branch, National Institutes of Health, Clinical Center, Bethesda, MD, USA.,Center for Scientific Review, National Institutes of Health, Division of AIDS, Behavior, and Population Sciences, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Gwenyth R Wallen
- Translational Biobehavioral and Health Disparities Branch, National Institutes of Health, Clinical Center, Bethesda, MD, USA
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11
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Morgan H. Whiteness: A Problem for our Times. BRITISH JOURNAL OF PSYCHOTHERAPY 2021. [DOI: 10.1111/bjp.12648] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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12
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Parks N, Kirby B. The Function of the Police Force: A Behavior-Analytic Review of the History of How Policing in America Came to Be. Behav Anal Pract 2021; 15:1205-1212. [PMID: 36605154 PMCID: PMC9744977 DOI: 10.1007/s40617-021-00568-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 02/18/2021] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The racial differentiation of policing in America has been widely researched and documented (Walker & Katz, 2008; Wilson & Kelling, 1982). Although these discrepancies are largely documented, there have been few changes within the policies, procedures and laws governing police officers. The results of this are two-fold. First, it has led to the continuation of individual acts of racism of police officers across the country. Second, it has upheld the systemic racism that results in the discrepancies in outcomes between Black people and white people, making it more likely that Black individuals will interact with police officers and have more negative outcomes as a result of these interactions. The reasons for this include lack of data regarding the race of the police officers involved in fatal officer-involved shootings, reliance on self-report of officers regarding instances of excessive force, and lack of accountability of individuals and departments alike. These issues are symptoms of the larger problems of individual and institutionalized racism that not only increases racism within those within the police force, but also increases the likeliness that any police officer will engage in violence against a person of color. To develop effective interventions that will change policing behaviors and the racism observed within the police force, one must first understand the historical development and function of policing and its intersection with both individual and institutional racism. This paper will provide a clear definition of racism followed by a function-based behavior analytic examination of the historical development of policing in America.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natalie Parks
- Behavior Leader, Inc., 1429 Schoal Creek Dr, St. Peters, MO 63366 USA ,TeamABA LLC, Rockville, MD USA ,Applied Behavior Analysis Program, School of Social Work, Saint Louis University, St. Louis, MO USA
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13
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Brodie N, Perdomo JE, Silberholz EA. The dual pandemics of COVID-19 and racism: impact on early childhood development and implications for physicians. Curr Opin Pediatr 2021; 33:159-169. [PMID: 33394742 DOI: 10.1097/mop.0000000000000985] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW The novel coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic has highlighted healthcare and racial inequities. This article discusses recent literature documenting the impact of racism on early childhood development, disparities in access to developmental services and ways healthcare providers and health systems can promote physician well being during these difficult times. RECENT FINDINGS Exposure to racism begins prenatally, and early childhood experiences with racism are intimately tied to adverse physical and mental health outcomes. Early intervention is key to treating children with developmental delay, but disparities exist in accessing eligibility screening and in the provision of services. Paediatric providers are at risk of developing secondary traumatic stress and burnout, which may affect the care that they provide. SUMMARY New research has led to the development of resources that help paediatric providers address racism, access developmental resources in a novel manner and protect the paediatric workforce from trauma and burnout.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Joanna E Perdomo
- Division of General Pediatrics, Boston Children's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Elizabeth A Silberholz
- Division of General Pediatrics, Boston Children's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
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14
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Chatard A, Selimbegovic L. The intergenerational transmission of social dominance: A three‐generation study. EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF PERSONALITY 2020. [DOI: 10.1002/per.684] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
This study examined the transmission of social dominance orientation (SDO) from parents and grandparents to children. It was predicted that parents as well as grandparents would pass their social dominance attitudes to children. Children's levels of SDO would thus be the highest when parental and grandparental attitudes are high; the lowest when parental and grandparental attitudes are low; and intermediate when parental and grandparental attitudes are incongruent. These hypotheses were examined in a sample of 93 families including children (in early adulthood), one of their parents, and one of their grandparents. Results yielded support for the predictions. These findings' implications are discussed in terms of their potential to explain previous inconsistent results on the transmission of social attitudes to children. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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Affiliation(s)
- Armand Chatard
- Department of Psychology, University of Geneva, Switzerland
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15
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Pahlke E, Patterson MM, Hughes JM. White parents’ racial socialization and young adults’ racial attitudes: Moral reasoning and motivation to respond without prejudice as mediators. GROUP PROCESSES & INTERGROUP RELATIONS 2020. [DOI: 10.1177/1368430220941065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
This study examined relations between parental racial socialization messages (i.e., egalitarianism, racemute, and preparation for bias) and racial attitudes in a sample of 282 White young adults (ages 18–22) in the United States. Egalitarianism messages were positively related to warmth toward racial outgroup members, whereas preparation for bias was negatively related to warmth toward racial outgroup members. In both cases the relation between racial socialization and racial attitudes was mediated by internal motivation to respond without prejudice and fairness/reciprocity moral orientation. Contrary to our expectations, racemute socialization messages were not directly related to participants’ warmth toward racial outgroup members. However, racemute socialization predicted internal motivation to respond without prejudice and fairness/reciprocity moral orientation, which in turn predicted outgroup warmth. These findings suggest possible mechanisms by which parents’ messages about race and racism may shape youths’ racial attitudes.
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16
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Anderson RE, Metzger I, Applewhite K, Sawyer B, Jackson W, Flores S, Majors A, McKenny MC, Carter R. Hands Up, Now What?: Black Families' Reactions to Racial Socialization Interventions. JOURNAL OF YOUTH DEVELOPMENT 2020; 15:93-109. [PMID: 35118161 PMCID: PMC8807343 DOI: 10.5195/jyd.2020.755] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Given the heightened national attention to negative race-related issues and the subsequent community solution-oriented outcry (e.g., Black Lives Matter movement), it is crucial to address healing from racial discrimination for Black Americans. Clinical and community psychologists have responded by developing and implementing programs that focus on racial socialization and psychological wellness, particularly given disproportionate issues with utilization, access, and the provision of quality services within urban and predominantly Black communities. The aim of this article is to describe 2 applied programs (Engaging, Managing, and Bonding through Race and Family Learning Villages), which seek to address and heal racial stress through crucial proximal systems—families and schools—and to highlight participant reactions. These programs offer solutions through strengths-based and participatory approaches which draw from Black Americans’ own protective mechanisms related to improved mental health. We conclude with a discussion on practice, assessments, and models specific to racial stress for researchers, practitioners, and consumers of mental health services.
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17
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Bagci SC, Cameron L, Turner RN, Morais C, Carby A, Ndhlovu M, Leney A. Cross-ethnic friendship self-efficacy: A new predictor of cross-ethnic friendships among children. GROUP PROCESSES & INTERGROUP RELATIONS 2019. [DOI: 10.1177/1368430219879219] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Across two studies ( NStudy 1 = 101; NStudy 2 = 262) conducted among children in the UK, we incorporate Bandura’s (1986) self-efficacy theory to intergroup contact literature and introduce the new construct of cross-ethnic friendship self-efficacy (CEFSE), the belief that one can successfully form and maintain high-quality cross-ethnic friendships. Study 1 examined whether sources of CEFSE beliefs (prior contact, indirect contact, social norms, and intergroup anxiety) predicted higher quality cross-ethnic friendships through CEFSE. Study 2 replicated Study 1 and extended it by including perceived parental cross-ethnic friendship quality as a further predictor. In both studies, sources of self-efficacy beliefs (except social norms) were related to CEFSE, which predicted higher quality cross-ethnic friendships. Study 2 demonstrated that parental cross-ethnic friendships had direct and indirect associations with children’s cross-ethnic friendships through sources of CEFSE and CEFSE beliefs. Findings are discussed in the light of self-efficacy and intergroup contact theories.
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18
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Racial/ethnic socialization for White youth: What we know and future directions. JOURNAL OF APPLIED DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.appdev.2018.05.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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19
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Diversity exposure in preschool: Longitudinal implications for cross-race friendships and racial bias. JOURNAL OF APPLIED DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.appdev.2018.02.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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20
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Benner AD, Wang Y, Shen Y, Boyle AE, Polk R, Cheng YP. Racial/ethnic discrimination and well-being during adolescence: A meta-analytic review. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2018; 73:855-883. [PMID: 30024216 DOI: 10.1037/amp0000204] [Citation(s) in RCA: 367] [Impact Index Per Article: 61.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
This meta-analytic study systematically investigates the relations between perceived racial/ethnic discrimination and socioemotional distress, academics, and risky health behaviors during adolescence, and potential variation in these relations. The study included 214 peer-reviewed articles, theses, and dissertations, with 489 unique effect sizes on 91,338 unique adolescents. Random-effects meta-analyses across 11 separate indicators of well-being identified significant detrimental effects. Greater perceptions of racial/ethnic discrimination were linked to more depressive and internalizing symptoms; greater psychological distress; poorer self-esteem; lower academic achievement and engagement; less academic motivation; greater engagement in externalizing behaviors, risky sexual behaviors, and substance use; and more associations with deviant peers. Metaregression and subgroup analyses indicated differences by race/ethnicity, Gender × Race/Ethnicity interactions, developmental stage, timing of retrospective measurement of discrimination, and country. Overall, this study highlights the pernicious effects of racial/ethnic discrimination for adolescents across developmental domains and suggests who is potentially at greater risk. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2018 APA, all rights reserved).
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Yijie Wang
- Department of Human Development and Family Studies
| | - Yishan Shen
- Department of School of Family and Consumer Sciences
| | | | | | - Yen-Pi Cheng
- Department of Human Development and Family Sciences
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21
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Qian MK, Quinn PC, Heyman GD, Pascalis O, Fu G, Lee K. Perceptual individuation training (but not mere exposure) reduces implicit racial bias in preschool children. Dev Psychol 2018; 53:845-859. [PMID: 28459274 DOI: 10.1037/dev0000290] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Two studies with preschool-age children examined the effectiveness of perceptual individuation training at reducing racial bias (Study 1, N = 32; Study 2, N = 56). We found that training preschool-age children to individuate other-race faces resulted in a reduction in implicit racial bias while mere exposure to other-race faces produced no such effect. We also showed that neither individuation training nor mere exposure reduced explicit racial bias. Theoretically, our findings provide strong evidence for a causal link between individual-level face processing and implicit racial bias, and are consistent with the newly proposed perceptual-social linkage hypothesis. Practically, our findings suggest that offering children experiences that allow them to increase their expertise in processing individual other-race faces will help reduce their implicit racial bias. (PsycINFO Database Record
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Affiliation(s)
- Miao K Qian
- Department of Psychology, Hangzhou Normal University
| | - Paul C Quinn
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, University of Delaware
| | - Gail D Heyman
- Department of Psychology, University of California, San Diego
| | - Olivier Pascalis
- Laboratoire de Psychologie et NeuroCognition, Université de Grenoble Alpes
| | - Genyue Fu
- Department of Psychology, Hangzhou Normal University
| | - Kang Lee
- Dr. Eric Jackman Institute of Child Study, University of Toronto
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22
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Pauker K, Xu Y, Williams A, Biddle AM. Race Essentialism and Social Contextual Differences in Children's Racial Stereotyping. Child Dev 2017; 87:1409-22. [PMID: 27684395 DOI: 10.1111/cdev.12592] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
The authors explored the differential emergence and correlates of racial stereotyping in 136 children ages 4-11 years across two broad social contexts: Hawai'i and Massachusetts. Children completed measures assessing race salience, race essentialism, and in-group and out-group stereotyping. Results indicated that the type of racial stereotypes emerging with age was context dependent. In both contexts in-group stereotyping increased with age. In contrast, there was only an age-related increase in out-group stereotyping in Massachusetts. Older children in Massachusetts reported more essentialist thinking (i.e., believing that race cannot change) than their counterparts in Hawai'i, which explained their higher out-group stereotyping. These results provide insight into the factors that may shape contextual differences in racial stereotyping.
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23
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McLoyd VC. Commentary: Advancing Our Understanding of Asian American Child Development: History, Context, and Culture as Essential Considerations. Child Dev 2016; 87:1051-4. [PMID: 27392798 DOI: 10.1111/cdev.12573] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The Special Section will help scholars make informed choices about how to conceptualize developmental processes and assess contextually and culturally relevant variables in future research with Asian American children and youth. It undertakes tasks and addresses challenges that have broad relevance to the study of developmental processes and stands as a reminder of the vital role of interdisciplinary perspectives in the advancement of developmental science.
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Serrano-Villar M, Calzada EJ. Ethnic identity: Evidence of protective effects for young, Latino children. JOURNAL OF APPLIED DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY 2016; 42:21-30. [PMID: 26778873 PMCID: PMC4709849 DOI: 10.1016/j.appdev.2015.11.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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Hughes DL, Watford JA, Del Toro J. A Transactional/Ecological Perspective on Ethnic-Racial Identity, Socialization, and Discrimination. ADVANCES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT AND BEHAVIOR 2016; 51:1-41. [PMID: 27474421 DOI: 10.1016/bs.acdb.2016.05.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
We first review current literature on three ethnic-racial dynamics that are considered to be resources and stressors in the lives of ethnic-minority youth: ethnic-racial identity, socialization, and discrimination. Next, we propose that a more contextualized view of these ethnic-racial dynamics reveals that they are interdependent, inseparable, and mutually defining and that an ecological/transactional perspective on these ethnic-racial dynamics shifts researchers' gaze from studying them as individual-level processes to studying the features of settings that produce them. We describe what is known about how identity, socialization, and discrimination occur in four microsystems-families, peers, schools, and neighborhoods-and argue that focusing on specific characteristics of these microsystems in which particular types of identity, socialization, and discrimination processes cooccur would be informative.
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Farago F, Sanders K, Gaias L. Addressing Race and Racism in Early Childhood: Challenges and Opportunities. DISCUSSIONS ON SENSITIVE ISSUES 2015. [DOI: 10.1108/s0270-402120150000019004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
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Jugert P, Eckstein K, Beelmann A, Noack P. Parents’ influence on the development of their children’s ethnic intergroup attitudes: a longitudinal analysis from middle childhood to early adolescence. EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY 2015. [DOI: 10.1080/17405629.2015.1084923] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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Miklikowska M. Like parent, like child? Development of prejudice and tolerance towards immigrants. Br J Psychol 2015; 107:95-116. [PMID: 25702782 DOI: 10.1111/bjop.12124] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2014] [Revised: 01/16/2015] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Although intergroup attitudes are assumed to develop due to the influence of parents, there is no longitudinal evidence supporting this claim. In addition, research on socialization of intergroup attitudes has omitted possible effects of adolescents on their parents. We also know little about the conditions under which intergroup attitudes are transmitted. This two-wave, 2 years apart, study of adolescents (N = 507) and their parents examined the relations between parents and adolescents' prejudice and tolerance from a longitudinal perspective. The study tested whether parental prejudice and tolerance would predict over-time changes in adolescents' attitudes and whether adolescents' prejudice and tolerance would elicit changes in parental attitudes. Additionally, it explored whether some of the effects would depend on perceived parental support. Results showed significant bidirectional influences between parents and adolescents' attitudes. In addition, adolescents who perceived their parents as supportive showed higher parent-adolescent correspondence in prejudice than youth with low parental support. These findings show that intergroup attitudes develop as a result of mutual influences between parents and adolescents. Hence, the unidirectional transmission model and previous research findings should be revisited. The results also suggest that parents' prejudice influence adolescents' attitudes to the extent that youth perceive their parents as supportive.
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Burns MP, Sommerville JA. "I pick you": the impact of fairness and race on infants' selection of social partners. Front Psychol 2014; 5:93. [PMID: 24575069 PMCID: PMC3921677 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00093] [Citation(s) in RCA: 95] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2013] [Accepted: 01/23/2014] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
By 15 months of age infants are sensitive to violations of fairness norms as assessed via their enhanced visual attention to unfair versus fair outcomes in violation-of-expectation paradigms. The current study investigated whether 15-month-old infants select social partners on the basis of prior fair versus unfair behavior, and whether infants integrate social selections on the basis of fairness with the race of the distributors and recipients involved in the exchange. Experiment 1 demonstrated that after witnessing one adult distribute toys to two recipients fairly (2:2 distribution), and another adult distribute toys to two recipients unfairly (1:3 distribution), Caucasian infants selected fair over unfair distributors when both distributors were Caucasian; however, this preference was not present when the fair actor was Asian and the unfair actor was Caucasian. In Experiment 2, when fairness, the race of the distributor, and the race of the recipients were fully crossed, Caucasian infants’ social selections varied as a function of the race of the recipient advantaged by the unfair distributor. Specifically, infants were more likely to select the fair distributor when the unfair recipient advantaged the Asian (versus the Caucasian) recipient. These findings provide evidence that infants select social partners on the basis of prior fair behavior and that infants also take into account the race of distributors and recipients when making their social selections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Monica P Burns
- Department of Psychology, University of Washington Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Jessica A Sommerville
- Department of Psychology, University of Washington Seattle, WA, USA ; Center for Child and Family Well-being, Department of Psychology, University of Washington Seattle, WA, USA
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The intergenerational transmission of need for closure underlies the transmission of authoritarianism and anti-immigrant prejudice. PERSONALITY AND INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES 2013. [DOI: 10.1016/j.paid.2012.12.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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Langevin M, Prasad NGN. A Stuttering Education and Bullying Awareness and Prevention Resource: A Feasibility Study. Lang Speech Hear Serv Sch 2012; 43:344-58. [DOI: 10.1044/0161-1461(2012/11-0031)] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Purpose
This pretest–posttest study examined the feasibility of using a curriculum-level stuttering education and bullying awareness and prevention program to improve peer attitudes toward children who stutter and attitudes toward bullying. Knowledge about potential responses to bullying and students' liking of the program also were examined.
Method
Data were obtained from 608 children who participated in the stuttering education and bullying prevention initiative that used the Teasing and Bullying: Unacceptable Behaviour (TAB; Langevin, 2000) Program. Participants completed the Peer Attitudes Toward Children Who Stutter (PATCS; Langevin, 2009; Langevin & Hagler, 2004; Langevin, Kleitman, Packman, & Onslow, 2009) scale, the Provictim scale (Rigby & Slee, 1991, 1993), and bullying involvement and knowledge questionnaires.
Results
Statistically and practically significant improvements were found for both questionnaires. Children who did not know someone who stutters had higher change scores on the PATCS than children who knew someone who stutters. In general, children who were uninvolved in bullying had the most positive changes in attitudes and liked the TAB program the most. Victims liked the program significantly more often than children who were perpetrators of bullying or were dually involved in bullying.
Conclusion
Findings suggest that the TAB program may have the potential to effect positive changes in peer attitudes toward children who stutter and toward bullying. Further research using a randomized experimental design is warranted.
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Pahlke E, Bigler RS, Suizzo MA. Relations between colorblind socialization and children's racial bias: evidence from European American mothers and their preschool children. Child Dev 2012; 83:1164-79. [PMID: 22537347 DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-8624.2012.01770.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 108] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
To examine European American parents' racial socialization, mothers (n = 84) were videotaped while reading 2 race-themed books to their 4- to 5-year-old children and completed surveys concerning their racial attitudes and behaviors. Children completed measures of their racial attitudes and both groups (mothers and preschoolers) predicted the others' racial attitudes. Results indicated that nearly all mothers adopted "colormute" and "colorblind" approaches to socialization. Furthermore, neither children nor mothers accurately predicted the others' views. Children's racial attitudes were unrelated to their mothers' attitudes but were predicted by their mothers' cross-race friendships; those children whose mothers had a higher percentage of non-European American friends showed lower levels of racial biases than those children whose mothers had a lower percentage of non-European American friends.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erin Pahlke
- School of Social and Family Dynamics, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287-3701, USA.
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Polk S, Wissow L. So much to be learned about talking with children. PATIENT EDUCATION AND COUNSELING 2012; 87:1-2. [PMID: 22464843 DOI: 10.1016/j.pec.2012.03.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
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Bullying Experiences Among Children and Youth with Autism Spectrum Disorders. J Autism Dev Disord 2011; 42:266-77. [DOI: 10.1007/s10803-011-1241-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 316] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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Jugert P, Noack P, Rutland A. Friendship Preferences Among German and Turkish Preadolescents. Child Dev 2011; 82:812-29. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-8624.2010.01528.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Kurtz-Costes B, Defreitas SC, Halle TG, Kinlaw CR. Gender and racial favouritism in black and white preschool girls. BRITISH JOURNAL OF DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY 2011; 29:270-87. [PMID: 21592149 DOI: 10.1111/j.2044-835x.2010.02018.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
The authors examined gender and racial preferential behaviour in 108 3- and 5-year-old Black and White girls. Children set up a birthday party for dolls that differed in gender and racial physical characteristics. Whereas White girls showed favouritism towards the doll most closely resembling themselves in both gender and race, Black girls showed most favouritism towards the White girl doll. Black girls were more likely to show preference based on gender rather than race, whereas White girls were equally likely to show race- or gender-based favouritism. Among White 5-year-olds, greater prior interaction with Blacks was positively associated with race-related favouritism (i.e., secondary preference to the White boy doll rather than the Black girl doll). Interracial contact was unrelated to racial favouritism among the other three groups. Results demonstrate the salience of gender identity during the preschool years, and indicate that majority/minority status and intergroup contact shape the development of collective identity and social behaviour.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beth Kurtz-Costes
- Dpartment of Psychology, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA.
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Crystal DS, Killen M, Ruck M. It is Who You Know That Counts: Intergroup Contact and Judgments about Race-Based Exclusion. BRITISH JOURNAL OF DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY 2010; 26:51-70. [PMID: 25505355 DOI: 10.1348/026151007x198910] [Citation(s) in RCA: 112] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
Intergroup contact and evaluations about race-based exclusion were assessed for majority and minority students in fourth, seventh, and tenth grades (N = 685). Students were presented with scenarios depicting cross-race relations in contexts of dyadic friendship, parental discomfort, and peer group disapproval. Participants reporting higher levels of intergroup contact gave higher ratings of wrongfulness of exclusion and lower frequency estimations of race-based exclusion than did participants reporting lower levels of such contact. Intergroup contact also predicted students' attributions of motives in two out of three scenarios. Findings are discussed in terms of the extant literature on peer relations, moral reasoning, and intergroup contact.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Martin Ruck
- Graduate Center, City University of New York
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Vittrup B, Holden GW. Children's assessments of corporal punishment and other disciplinary practices: The role of age, race, SES, and exposure to spanking. JOURNAL OF APPLIED DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY 2010. [DOI: 10.1016/j.appdev.2009.11.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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The intergenerational transmission of racism: The role of Right-Wing Authoritarianism and Social Dominance Orientation. JOURNAL OF RESEARCH IN PERSONALITY 2009. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jrp.2009.05.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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Hughes JM, Bigler RS, Levy SR. Consequences of learning about historical racism among European American and African American children. Child Dev 2007; 78:1689-705. [PMID: 17988315 DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-8624.2007.01096.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/13/2024]
Abstract
Knowledge about racism is a critical component of educational curricula and contemporary race relations. To examine children's responses to learning about racism, European American (Study 1; N= 48) and African American (Study 2; N= 69) elementary-aged children (ages 6-11) received history lessons that included information about racism experienced by African Americans (racism condition), or otherwise identical lessons that omitted this information (control condition). Children's racial attitudes and cognitive and affective responses to the lessons were assessed. Among European American children, racism condition participants showed less biased attitudes toward African Americans than control condition participants. Among African American children, attitudes did not vary by condition. Children in the two conditions showed several different cognitive and affective responses to the lessons.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julie M Hughes
- Department of Psychology, University of Texas at Austin, 1 University Station A8000, Austin, TX 78712, USA.
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Quintana SM, Aboud FE, Chao RK, Contreras-Grau J, Cross WE, Hudley C, Hughes D, Liben LS, Nelson-Le Gall S, Vietze DL. Race, ethnicity, and culture in child development: contemporary research and future directions. Child Dev 2007; 77:1129-41. [PMID: 16999787 DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-8624.2006.00951.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 100] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The editors of this special issue reflect on the current status and future directions of research on race, ethnicity, and culture in child development. Research in the special issue disentangles race, ethnicity, culture, and immigrant status, and identifies mediators of sociocultural variables on developmental outcomes. The special issue includes important research on normal development in context for ethnic and racial minority children, addresses racial and ethnic identity development, and considers intergroup processes. The methodological innovations as well as challenges of current research are highlighted. It is recommended that future research adhere to principles of cultural validity described in the text.
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Green EGT, Staerklé C, Sears DO. Symbolic racism and Whites' attitudes towards punitive and preventive crime policies. LAW AND HUMAN BEHAVIOR 2006; 30:435-54. [PMID: 16770704 DOI: 10.1007/s10979-006-9020-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
This study analyzes the determinants of Whites' support for punitive and preventive crime policies. It focuses on the predictive power of beliefs about race as described by symbolic racism theory. A dataset with 849 White respondents from three waves of the Los Angeles County Social Survey was used. In order to assess the weight of racial factors in crime policy attitudes, the effects of a range of race-neutral attitude determinants were controlled for, namely individual and structural crime attributions, perceived seriousness of crime, crime victimization, conservatism and news exposure. Results show a strong effect of symbolic racism on both types of crime policies, and in particular on punitive policies. High levels of symbolic racism are associated with support for tough, punitive crime policies and with opposition to preventive policies. Sub-dimensions of symbolic racism qualified these relationships, by showing that internal symbolic racism (assessing perceived individual deficiencies of Blacks) was most strongly predictive of punitiveness, whereas external symbolic racism (denial of institutional discrimination) predicted opposition to structural remedies. On the whole, despite the effects of race-neutral factors, the impact of symbolic racism on policy attitudes was substantial. Thus, White public opinion on both punitive and preventive crime policies is at least partially driven by racial prejudice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eva G T Green
- Institute for Social Science Research, University of California, Los Angeles, USA.
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Abstract
A standard visual preference task was used to examine 3-month-olds' looking times at own-race versus other-race faces as a function of environmental exposure to faces from the two categories. Participants were Caucasian infants living in a Caucasian environment, African infants living in an African environment, and African infants living in a predominantly Caucasian environment. The results indicate that preference for own-race faces is present as early as 3 months of age, but that this preference results from exposure to the prototypical facial environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yair Bar-Haim
- Department of Psychology, Tel-Aviv University, Tel-Aviv, Israel.
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The relationship between parental racial attitudes and children’s implicit prejudice. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 2005. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jesp.2004.06.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 122] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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Abstract
Discrimination affects millions of children in the United States and throughout the world. Although the topic is important for both theoretical and applied reasons, little developmental work has examined children's perceptions of discrimination directed toward themselves and others. A review of past theoretical and empirical work on the perception of discrimination is provided. Next, a developmental model of the perception of discrimination is offered. The model identifies developmental and individual differences expected to influence judgments about discrimination, as well as situational variables that are likely to support attributions to discrimination.
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Wintersteen MB, Mensinger JL, Diamond GS. Do Gender and Racial Differences Between Patient and Therapist Affect Therapeutic Alliance and Treatment Retention in Adolescents? ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2005. [DOI: 10.1037/0735-7028.36.4.400] [Citation(s) in RCA: 121] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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