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Di Stefano N, Spence C. Should absolute pitch be considered as a unique kind of absolute sensory judgment in humans? A systematic and theoretical review of the literature. Cognition 2024; 249:105805. [PMID: 38761646 DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2024.105805] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2023] [Revised: 04/12/2024] [Accepted: 04/23/2024] [Indexed: 05/20/2024]
Abstract
Absolute pitch is the name given to the rare ability to identify a musical note in an automatic and effortless manner without the need for a reference tone. Those individuals with absolute pitch can, for example, name the note they hear, identify all of the tones of a given chord, and/or name the pitches of everyday sounds, such as car horns or sirens. Hence, absolute pitch can be seen as providing a rare example of absolute sensory judgment in audition. Surprisingly, however, the intriguing question of whether such an ability presents unique features in the domain of sensory perception, or whether instead similar perceptual skills also exist in other sensory domains, has not been explicitly addressed previously. In this paper, this question is addressed by systematically reviewing research on absolute pitch using the PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) method. Thereafter, we compare absolute pitch with two rare types of sensory experience, namely synaesthesia and eidetic memory, to understand if and how these phenomena exhibit similar features to absolute pitch. Furthermore, a common absolute perceptual ability that has been often compared to absolute pitch, namely colour perception, is also discussed. Arguments are provided supporting the notion that none of the examined abilities can be considered like absolute pitch. Therefore, we conclude by suggesting that absolute pitch does indeed appear to constitute a unique kind of absolute sensory judgment in humans, and we discuss some open issues and novel directions for future research in absolute pitch.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicola Di Stefano
- Institute of Cognitive Sciences and Technologies, National Research Council of Italy (CNR), Via Gian Domenico Romagnosi, 18, 00196 Rome, Italy.
| | - Charles Spence
- Crossmodal Research Laboratory, Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
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2
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Endress AD. Hebbian learning can explain rhythmic neural entrainment to statistical regularities. Dev Sci 2024:e13487. [PMID: 38372153 DOI: 10.1111/desc.13487] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2023] [Revised: 12/26/2023] [Accepted: 01/29/2024] [Indexed: 02/20/2024]
Abstract
In many domains, learners extract recurring units from continuous sequences. For example, in unknown languages, fluent speech is perceived as a continuous signal. Learners need to extract the underlying words from this continuous signal and then memorize them. One prominent candidate mechanism is statistical learning, whereby learners track how predictive syllables (or other items) are of one another. Syllables within the same word predict each other better than syllables straddling word boundaries. But does statistical learning lead to memories of the underlying words-or just to pairwise associations among syllables? Electrophysiological results provide the strongest evidence for the memory view. Electrophysiological responses can be time-locked to statistical word boundaries (e.g., N400s) and show rhythmic activity with a periodicity of word durations. Here, I reproduce such results with a simple Hebbian network. When exposed to statistically structured syllable sequences (and when the underlying words are not excessively long), the network activation is rhythmic with the periodicity of a word duration and activation maxima on word-final syllables. This is because word-final syllables receive more excitation from earlier syllables with which they are associated than less predictable syllables that occur earlier in words. The network is also sensitive to information whose electrophysiological correlates were used to support the encoding of ordinal positions within words. Hebbian learning can thus explain rhythmic neural activity in statistical learning tasks without any memory representations of words. Learners might thus need to rely on cues beyond statistical associations to learn the words of their native language. RESEARCH HIGHLIGHTS: Statistical learning may be utilized to identify recurring units in continuous sequences (e.g., words in fluent speech) but may not generate explicit memory for words. Exposure to statistically structured sequences leads to rhythmic activity with a period of the duration of the underlying units (e.g., words). I show that a memory-less Hebbian network model can reproduce this rhythmic neural activity as well as putative encodings of ordinal positions observed in earlier research. Direct tests are needed to establish whether statistical learning leads to declarative memories for words.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ansgar D Endress
- Department of Psychology, City, University of London, London, UK
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3
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Hisaizumi M, Tantam D. Enhanced sensitivity to pitch perception and its possible relation to language acquisition in autism. AUTISM & DEVELOPMENTAL LANGUAGE IMPAIRMENTS 2024; 9:23969415241248618. [PMID: 38817731 PMCID: PMC11138189 DOI: 10.1177/23969415241248618] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/01/2024]
Abstract
Background and aims Fascinations for or aversions to particular sounds are a familiar feature of autism, as is an ability to reproduce another person's utterances, precisely copying the other person's prosody as well as their words. Such observations seem to indicate not only that autistic people can pay close attention to what they hear, but also that they have the ability to perceive the finer details of auditory stimuli. This is consistent with the previously reported consensus that absolute pitch is more common in autistic individuals than in neurotypicals. We take this to suggest that autistic people have perception that allows them to pay attention to fine details. It is important to establish whether or not this is so as autism is often presented as a deficit rather than a difference. We therefore undertook a narrative literature review of studies of auditory perception, in autistic and nonautistic individuals, focussing on any differences in processing linguistic and nonlinguistic sounds. Main contributions We find persuasive evidence that nonlinguistic auditory perception in autistic children differs from that of nonautistic children. This is supported by the additional finding of a higher prevalence of absolute pitch and enhanced pitch discriminating abilities in autistic children compared to neurotypical children. Such abilities appear to stem from atypical perception, which is biased toward local-level information necessary for processing pitch and other prosodic features. Enhanced pitch discriminating abilities tend to be found in autistic individuals with a history of language delay, suggesting possible reciprocity. Research on various aspects of language development in autism also supports the hypothesis that atypical pitch perception may be accountable for observed differences in language development in autism. Conclusions The results of our review of previously published studies are consistent with the hypothesis that auditory perception, and particularly pitch perception, in autism are different from the norm but not always impaired. Detail-oriented pitch perception may be an advantage given the right environment. We speculate that unusually heightened sensitivity to pitch differences may be at the cost of the normal development of the perception of the sounds that contribute most to early language development. Implications The acquisition of speech and language may be a process that normally involves an enhanced perception of speech sounds at the expense of the processing of nonlinguistic sounds, but autistic children may not give speech sounds this same priority.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Digby Tantam
- Middlesex University, Existential Academy, London, UK
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4
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Endress AD, Johnson SP. Hebbian, correlational learning provides a memory-less mechanism for Statistical Learning irrespective of implementational choices: Reply to Tovar and Westermann (2022). Cognition 2023; 230:105290. [PMID: 36240613 DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2022.105290] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2022] [Revised: 08/30/2022] [Accepted: 09/17/2022] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
Statistical learning relies on detecting the frequency of co-occurrences of items and has been proposed to be crucial for a variety of learning problems, notably to learn and memorize words from fluent speech. Endress and Johnson (2021) (hereafter EJ) recently showed that such results can be explained based on simple memory-less correlational learning mechanisms such as Hebbian Learning. Tovar and Westermann (2022) (hereafter TW) reproduced these results with a different Hebbian model. We show that the main differences between the models are whether temporal decay acts on both the connection weights and the activations (in TW) or only on the activations (in EJ), and whether interference affects weights (in TW) or activations (in EJ). Given that weights and activations are linked through the Hebbian learning rule, the networks behave similarly. However, in contrast to TW, we do not believe that neurophysiological data are relevant to adjudicate between abstract psychological models with little biological detail. Taken together, both models show that different memory-less correlational learning mechanisms provide a parsimonious account of Statistical Learning results. They are consistent with evidence that Statistical Learning might not allow learners to learn and retain words, and Statistical Learning might support predictive processing instead.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Scott P Johnson
- Department of Psychology, University of California, Los Angeles, United States of America
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5
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Bairnsfather JE, Osborne MS, Martin C, Mosing MA, Wilson SJ. Use of explicit priming to phenotype absolute pitch ability. PLoS One 2022; 17:e0273828. [PMID: 36103463 PMCID: PMC9473427 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0273828] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2021] [Accepted: 08/16/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Musicians with absolute pitch (AP) can name the pitch of a musical note in isolation. Expression of this unusual ability is thought to be influenced by heritability, early music training and current practice. However, our understanding of factors shaping its expression is hampered by testing and scoring methods that treat AP as dichotomous. These fail to capture the observed variability in pitch-naming accuracy among reported AP possessors. The aim of this study was to trial a novel explicit priming paradigm to explore phenotypic variability of AP. Thirty-five musically experienced individuals (Mage = 29 years, range 18–68; 14 males) with varying AP ability completed a standard AP task and the explicit priming AP task. Results showed: 1) phenotypic variability of AP ability, including high-accuracy AP, heterogeneous intermediate performers, and chance-level performers; 2) intermediate performance profiles that were either reliant on or independent of relative pitch strategies, as identified by the priming task; and 3) the emergence of a bimodal distribution of AP performance when adopting scoring criteria that assign credit to semitone errors. These findings show the importance of methods in studying behavioural traits, and are a key step towards identifying AP phenotypes. Replication of our results in larger samples will further establish the usefulness of this priming paradigm in AP research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jane E. Bairnsfather
- Melbourne School of Psychological Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
- * E-mail:
| | - Margaret S. Osborne
- Melbourne School of Psychological Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
- Melbourne Conservatorium of Music, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Catherine Martin
- Melbourne School of Psychological Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Miriam A. Mosing
- Melbourne School of Psychological Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
- Department of Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
- Behaviour Genetics Unit, Max Planck Institute for Empirical Aesthetics, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Sarah J. Wilson
- Melbourne School of Psychological Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
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Wang L, Pfordresher PQ, Jiang C, Liu F. Individuals with autism spectrum disorder are impaired in absolute but not relative pitch and duration matching in speech and song imitation. Autism Res 2021; 14:2355-2372. [PMID: 34214243 DOI: 10.1002/aur.2569] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2020] [Revised: 05/03/2021] [Accepted: 06/22/2021] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) often exhibit atypical imitation. However, few studies have identified clear quantitative characteristics of vocal imitation in ASD. This study investigated imitation of speech and song in English-speaking individuals with and without ASD and its modulation by age. Participants consisted of 25 autistic children and 19 autistic adults, who were compared to 25 children and 19 adults with typical development matched on age, gender, musical training, and cognitive abilities. The task required participants to imitate speech and song stimuli with varying pitch and duration patterns. Acoustic analyses of the imitation performance suggested that individuals with ASD were worse than controls on absolute pitch and duration matching for both speech and song imitation, although they performed as well as controls on relative pitch and duration matching. Furthermore, the two groups produced similar numbers of pitch contour, pitch interval-, and time errors. Across both groups, sung pitch was imitated more accurately than spoken pitch, whereas spoken duration was imitated more accurately than sung duration. Children imitated spoken pitch more accurately than adults when it came to speech stimuli, whereas age showed no significant relationship to song imitation. These results reveal a vocal imitation deficit across speech and music domains in ASD that is specific to absolute pitch and duration matching. This finding provides evidence for shared mechanisms between speech and song imitation, which involves independent implementation of relative versus absolute features. LAY SUMMARY: Individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) often exhibit atypical imitation of actions and gestures. Characteristics of vocal imitation in ASD remain unclear. By comparing speech and song imitation, this study shows that individuals with ASD have a vocal imitative deficit that is specific to absolute pitch and duration matching, while performing as well as controls on relative pitch and duration matching, across speech and music domains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li Wang
- School of Psychology and Clinical Language Sciences, University of Reading, Reading, UK
| | - Peter Q Pfordresher
- Department of Psychology, University at Buffalo, State University of New York, Buffalo, New York, USA
| | - Cunmei Jiang
- Music College, Shanghai Normal University, Shanghai, China
| | - Fang Liu
- School of Psychology and Clinical Language Sciences, University of Reading, Reading, UK
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7
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Coy N, Bader M, Schröger E, Grimm S. Change detection of auditory tonal patterns defined by absolute versus relative pitch information. A combined behavioural and EEG study. PLoS One 2021; 16:e0247495. [PMID: 33630974 PMCID: PMC7906474 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0247495] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2020] [Accepted: 02/08/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The human auditory system often relies on relative pitch information to extract and identify auditory objects; such as when the same melody is played in different keys. The current study investigated the mental chronometry underlying the active discrimination of unfamiliar melodic six-tone patterns by measuring behavioural performance and event-related potentials (ERPs). In a roving standard paradigm, such patterns were either repeated identically within a stimulus train, carrying absolute frequency information about the pattern, or shifted in pitch (transposed) between repetitions, so only relative pitch information was available to extract the pattern identity. Results showed that participants were able to use relative pitch to detect when a new melodic pattern occurred. Though in the absence of absolute pitch sensitivity significantly decreased and behavioural reaction time to pattern changes increased. Mismatch-Negativity (MMN), an ERP indicator of auditory deviance detection, was elicited at approximately 206 ms after stimulus onset at frontocentral electrodes, even when only relative pitch was available to inform pattern discrimination. A P3a was elicited in both conditions, comparable in amplitude and latency. Increased latencies but no differences in amplitudes of N2b, and P3b suggest that processing at higher levels is affected when, in the absence of absolute pitch cues, relative pitch has to be extracted to inform pattern discrimination. Interestingly, the response delay of approximately 70 ms on the behavioural level, already fully manifests at the level of N2b. This is in accordance with recent findings on implicit auditory learning processes and suggests that in the absence of absolute pitch cues a slowing of target selection rather than a slowing of the auditory pattern change detection process causes the deterioration in behavioural performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nina Coy
- Institute of Psychology–Wilhelm Wundt, Leipzig University, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Maria Bader
- Institute of Psychology–Wilhelm Wundt, Leipzig University, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Erich Schröger
- Institute of Psychology–Wilhelm Wundt, Leipzig University, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Sabine Grimm
- Institute of Psychology–Wilhelm Wundt, Leipzig University, Leipzig, Germany
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8
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Endress AD, Johnson SP. When forgetting fosters learning: A neural network model for statistical learning. Cognition 2021; 213:104621. [PMID: 33608130 DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2021.104621] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2020] [Revised: 12/19/2020] [Accepted: 01/28/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Learning often requires splitting continuous signals into recurring units, such as the discrete words constituting fluent speech; these units then need to be encoded in memory. A prominent candidate mechanism involves statistical learning of co-occurrence statistics like transitional probabilities (TPs), reflecting the idea that items from the same unit (e.g., syllables within a word) predict each other better than items from different units. TP computations are surprisingly flexible and sophisticated. Humans are sensitive to forward and backward TPs, compute TPs between adjacent items and longer-distance items, and even recognize TPs in novel units. We explain these hallmarks of statistical learning with a simple model with tunable, Hebbian excitatory connections and inhibitory interactions controlling the overall activation. With weak forgetting, activations are long-lasting, yielding associations among all items; with strong forgetting, no associations ensue as activations do not outlast stimuli; with intermediate forgetting, the network reproduces the hallmarks above. Forgetting thus is a key determinant of these sophisticated learning abilities. Further, in line with earlier dissociations between statistical learning and memory encoding, our model reproduces the hallmarks of statistical learning in the absence of a memory store in which items could be placed.
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9
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Pesek M, Medvešek Š, Podlesek A, Tkalčič M, Marolt M. A Comparison of Human and Computational Melody Prediction Through Familiarity and Expertise. Front Psychol 2020; 11:557398. [PMID: 33362622 PMCID: PMC7756065 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.557398] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2020] [Accepted: 11/13/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Melody prediction is an important aspect of music listening. The success of prediction, i.e., whether the next note played in a song is the same as the one predicted by the listener, depends on various factors. In the paper, we present two studies, where we assess how music familiarity and music expertise influence melody prediction in human listeners, and, expressed in appropriate data/algorithmic ways, computational models. To gather data on human listeners, we designed a melody prediction user study, where familiarity was controlled by two different music collections, while expertise was assessed by adapting the Music Sophistication Index instrument to Slovenian language. In the second study, we evaluated the melody prediction accuracy of computational melody prediction models. We evaluated two models, the SymCHM and the Implication-Realization model, which differ substantially in how they approach melody prediction. Our results show that both music familiarity and expertise affect the prediction accuracy of human listeners, as well as of computational models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matevž Pesek
- Faculty of Computer and Information Science, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Špela Medvešek
- Faculty of Computer and Information Science, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Anja Podlesek
- Faculty of Arts, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Marko Tkalčič
- Faculty of Mathematics, Natural Sciences and Information Technologies, University of Primorska, Koper, Slovenia
| | - Matija Marolt
- Faculty of Computer and Information Science, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
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10
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Rogenmoser L, Li HC, Jäncke L, Schlaug G. Auditory aversion in absolute pitch possessors. Cortex 2020; 135:285-297. [PMID: 33421728 DOI: 10.1016/j.cortex.2020.11.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2020] [Revised: 08/07/2020] [Accepted: 11/09/2020] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Absolute pitch (AP) refers to the ability of identifying the pitch of a given tone without reliance on any reference pitch. The downside of possessing AP may be the experience of disturbance when exposed to out-of-tune tones. Here, we investigated this so-far unexplored phenomenon in AP, which we refer to as auditory aversion. Electroencephalography (EEG) was recorded in a sample of AP possessors and matched control musicians without AP while letting them perform a task underlying a so-called affective priming paradigm: Participants judged valenced pictures preceded by musical primes as quickly and accurately as possible. The primes were bimodal, presented as tones in combination with visual notations that either matched or mismatched the actually presented tone. Both samples performed better in judging unpleasant pictures over pleasant ones. In comparison with the control musicians, the AP possessors revealed a more profound discrepancy between the two valence conditions, and their EEG revealed later peaks at around 200 ms (P200) after prime onset. Their performance dropped when responding to pleasant pictures preceded by incongruent primes, especially when mistuned by one semitone. This interference was also reflected in an EEG deflection at around 400 ms (N400) after picture onset, preceding the behavior responses. These findings suggest that AP possessors process mistuned musical stimuli and pleasant pictures as affectively unrelated with each other, supporting an aversion towards out-of-tune tones in AP possessors. The longer prime-related P200 latencies exhibited by AP possessors suggest a delay in integrating musical stimuli, underlying an altered affinity towards pitch-label associations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lars Rogenmoser
- Department of Neurology, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA; Department of Medicine, University of Fribourg, Fribourg, Switzerland.
| | - H Charles Li
- Department of Neurology, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Lutz Jäncke
- Department of Psychology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland; University Research Priority Program (URPP), Dynamics of Healthy Aging, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Gottfried Schlaug
- Department of Neurology, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
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11
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Guillemin C, Tillmann B. Implicit learning of two artificial grammars. Cogn Process 2020; 22:141-150. [PMID: 33021732 DOI: 10.1007/s10339-020-00996-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2020] [Accepted: 09/26/2020] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
This study investigated the implicit learning of two artificial systems. Two finite-state grammars were implemented with the same tone set (leading to short melodies) and played by the same timbre in exposure and test phases. The grammars were presented in separate exposure phases, and potentially acquired knowledge was tested with two experimental tasks: a grammar categorization task (Experiment 1) and a grammatical error detection task (Experiment 2). Results showed that participants were able to categorize new items as belonging to one or the other grammar (Experiment 1) and detect grammatical errors in new sequences of each grammar (Experiment 2). Our findings suggest the capacity of intra-modal learning of regularities in the auditory modality and based on stimuli that share the same perceptual properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Guillemin
- Lyon Neuroscience Research Center, Auditory Cognition and Psychoacoustics Team, Bron, France
- CNRS, UMR5292, INSERM, U1028, Bron, France
- University Lyon 1, Villeurbanne, 69000, France
| | - B Tillmann
- Lyon Neuroscience Research Center, Auditory Cognition and Psychoacoustics Team, Bron, France.
- CNRS, UMR5292, INSERM, U1028, Bron, France.
- University Lyon 1, Villeurbanne, 69000, France.
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12
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Endress AD, Slone LK, Johnson SP. Statistical learning and memory. Cognition 2020; 204:104346. [PMID: 32615468 DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2020.104346] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2019] [Revised: 05/12/2020] [Accepted: 05/30/2020] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Learners often need to identify and remember recurring units in continuous sequences, but the underlying mechanisms are debated. A particularly prominent candidate mechanism relies on distributional statistics such as Transitional Probabilities (TPs). However, it is unclear what the outputs of statistical segmentation mechanisms are, and if learners store these outputs as discrete chunks in memory. We critically review the evidence for the possibility that statistically coherent items are stored in memory and outline difficulties in interpreting past research. We use Slone and Johnson's (2018) experiments as a case study to show that it is difficult to delineate the different mechanisms learners might use to solve a learning problem. Slone and Johnson (2018) reported that 8-month-old infants learned coherent chunks of shapes in visual sequences. Here, we describe an alternate interpretation of their findings based on a multiple-cue integration perspective. First, when multiple cues to statistical structure were available, infants' looking behavior seemed to track with the strength of the strongest one - backward TPs, suggesting that infants process multiple cues simultaneously and select the strongest one. Second, like adults, infants are exquisitely sensitive to chunks, but may require multiple cues to extract them. In Slone and Johnson's (2018) experiments, these cues were provided by immediate chunk repetitions during familiarization. Accordingly, infants showed strongest evidence of chunking following familiarization sequences in which immediate repetitions were more frequent. These interpretations provide a strong argument for infants' processing of multiple cues and the potential importance of multiple cues for chunk recognition in infancy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ansgar D Endress
- Department of Psychology, City, University of London, United Kingdom.
| | - Lauren K Slone
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Indiana University, Bloomington, United States; Department of Psychology, Hope College, Holland, United States
| | - Scott P Johnson
- Department of Psychology, University of California, Los Angeles, United States
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13
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Adler SA, Comishen KJ, Wong-Kee-You AMB, Chubb C. Sensitivity to major versus minor musical modes is bimodally distributed in young infants. THE JOURNAL OF THE ACOUSTICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA 2020; 147:3758. [PMID: 32611142 PMCID: PMC7274811 DOI: 10.1121/10.0001349] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2019] [Revised: 04/21/2020] [Accepted: 05/18/2020] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
The difference between major and minor scales plays a central role in Western music. However, recent research using random tone sequences ("tone-scrambles") has revealed a dramatically bimodal distribution in sensitivity to this difference: 30% of listeners are near perfect in classifying major versus minor tone-scrambles; the other 70% perform near chance. Here, whether or not infants show this same pattern is investigated. The anticipatory eye-movements of thirty 6-month-old infants were monitored during trials in which the infants heard a tone-scramble whose quality (major versus minor) signalled the location (right versus left) where a subsequent visual stimulus (the target) would appear. For 33% of infants, these anticipatory eye-movements predicted target location with near perfect accuracy; for the other 67%, the anticipatory eye-movements were unrelated to the target location. In conclusion, six-month-old infants show the same distribution as adults in sensitivity to the difference between major versus minor tone-scrambles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Scott A Adler
- Department of Psychology, York University, 4700 Keele Street, Toronto, Ontario M3J 1P3, Canada
| | - Kyle J Comishen
- Department of Psychology, York University, 4700 Keele Street, Toronto, Ontario M3J 1P3, Canada
| | - Audrey M B Wong-Kee-You
- Department of Psychology, York University, 4700 Keele Street, Toronto, Ontario M3J 1P3, Canada
| | - Charles Chubb
- Department of Cognitive Science, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, California 92697-5100, USA
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14
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Abstract
Absolute pitch (AP) refers to the rare ability to name the pitch of a tone without external reference. It is widely believed to be only for the selected few with rare genetic makeup and early musical training during the critical period, and therefore acquiring AP in adulthood is impossible. Previous studies have not offered a strong test of the effect of training because of issues like small sample size and insufficient training. In three experiments, adults learned to name pitches in a computerized, gamified and personalized training protocol for 12 to 40 hours, with the number of pitches gradually increased from three to twelve. Across the three experiments, the training covered different octaves, timbre, and training environment (inside or outside laboratory). AP learning showed classic characteristics of perceptual learning, including generalization of learning dependent on the training stimuli, and sustained improvement for at least one to three months. 14% of the participants (6 out of 43) were able to name twelve pitches at 90% or above accuracy, comparable to that of 'AP possessors' as defined in the literature. Overall, AP continues to be learnable in adulthood, which challenges the view that AP development requires both rare genetic predisposition and learning within the critical period. The finding calls for reconsideration of the role of learning in the occurrence of AP, and pushes the field to pinpoint and explain the differences, if any, between the aspects of AP more trainable in adulthood and the aspects of AP that are potentially exclusive for the few exceptional AP possessors observed in the real world.
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15
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Wiggins GA, Sanjekdar A. Learning and Consolidation as Re-representation: Revising the Meaning of Memory. Front Psychol 2019; 10:802. [PMID: 31114518 PMCID: PMC6503081 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00802] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2018] [Accepted: 03/25/2019] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
In this Hypothesis and Theory paper, we consider the problem of learning deeply structured knowledge representations in the absence of predefined ontologies, and in the context of long-term learning. In particular, we consider this process as a sequence of re-representation steps, of various kinds. The Information Dynamics of Thinking theory (IDyOT) admits such learning, and provides a hypothetical mechanism for the human-like construction of hierarchical memory, with the provision of symbols constructed by the system that embodies the theory. The combination of long-term learning and meaning construction in terms of symbols grounded in perceptual experience entails that the system, like a human, be capable of memory consolidation, to manage the complex and inconsistent structures that can result from learning of information that becomes more complete over time. Such consolidation changes memory structures, and thus changes their meaning. Therefore, memory consolidation entails re-representation, while re-representation entails changes of meaning. Ultimately, the theory proposes that the processes of learning and consolidation should be considered as repeated re-representation of what is learned.
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Affiliation(s)
- Geraint A Wiggins
- Computational Creativity Lab, AI Lab, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium.,School of Electronic Engineering and Computer Science, Queen Mary University of London, London, United Kingdom
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Wenhart T, Altenmüller E. A Tendency Towards Details? Inconsistent Results on Auditory and Visual Local-To-Global Processing in Absolute Pitch Musicians. Front Psychol 2019; 10:31. [PMID: 30723441 PMCID: PMC6349732 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2018] [Accepted: 01/08/2019] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Absolute pitch, the ability to name or produce a musical tone without a reference, is a rare ability which is often related to early musical training and genetic components. However, it remains a matter of debate why absolute pitch is relatively common in autism spectrum disorders and why absolute pitch possessors exhibit higher autistic traits. By definition absolute pitch is an ability that does not require the relation of tones but is based on a lower-level perceptual entity than relative pitch (involving relations between tones, intervals, and melodies). This study investigated whether a detail-oriented cognitive style, a concept borrowed from the autism literature (weak central coherence theory), might provide a framework to explain this joint occurrence. Two local-to-global experiments in vision (hierarchically constructed letters) and audition (hierarchically constructed melodies) as well as a pitch adjustment test measuring absolute pitch proficiency were conducted in 31 absolute pitch and 33 relative pitch professional musicians. Analyses revealed inconsistent group differences among reaction time, total of correct trials and speed-accuracy-composite-scores of experimental conditions (local vs. global, and congruent vs. incongruent stimuli). Furthermore, amounts of interference of global form on judgments of local elements and vice versa were calculated. Interestingly, reduced global-to-local interference in audition was associated with greater absolute pitch ability and in vision with higher autistic traits. Results are partially in line with the idea of a detail-oriented cognitive style in absolute pitch musicians. The inconsistency of the results might be due to limitations of global-to-local paradigms in measuring cognitive style and due to heterogeneity of absolute pitch possessors. In summary, this study provides further evidence for a multifaceted pattern of various and potentially interacting factors on the acquisition of absolute pitch.
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Affiliation(s)
- Teresa Wenhart
- Institute of Music Physiology and Musicians’ Medicine, Hanover University of Music, Drama and Media, Hanover, Germany
- Center for Systems Neuroscience, Hanover, Germany
| | - Eckart Altenmüller
- Institute of Music Physiology and Musicians’ Medicine, Hanover University of Music, Drama and Media, Hanover, Germany
- Center for Systems Neuroscience, Hanover, Germany
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Rose J, Flaherty M, Browning J, Leibold LJ, Buss E. Pure-Tone Frequency Discrimination in Preschoolers, Young School-Age Children, and Adults. JOURNAL OF SPEECH, LANGUAGE, AND HEARING RESEARCH : JSLHR 2018; 61:2440-2445. [PMID: 30167659 PMCID: PMC6195045 DOI: 10.1044/2018_jslhr-h-17-0445] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2017] [Revised: 04/22/2018] [Accepted: 05/16/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE Published data indicate nearly adultlike frequency discrimination in infants but large child-adult differences for school-age children. This study evaluated the role that differences in measurement procedures and stimuli may have played in the apparent nonmonotonicity. Frequency discrimination was assessed in preschoolers, young school-age children, and adults using stimuli and procedures that have previously been used to test infants. METHOD Listeners were preschoolers (3-4 years), young school-age children (5-6 years), and adults (19-38 years). Performance was assessed using a single-interval, observer-based method and a continuous train of stimuli, similar to that previously used to evaluate infants. Testing was completed using 500- and 5000-Hz standard tones, fixed within a set of trials. Thresholds for frequency discrimination were obtained using an adaptive, two-down one-up procedure. Adults and most school-age children responded by raising their hands. An observer-based, conditioned-play response was used to test preschoolers and those school-age children for whom the hand-raise procedure was not effective for conditioning. RESULTS Results suggest an effect of age and frequency on thresholds but no interaction between these 2 factors. A lower proportion of preschoolers completed training compared with young school-age children. For those children who completed training, however, thresholds did not improve significantly with age; both groups of children performed more poorly than adults. Performance was better for the 500-Hz standard frequency compared with the 5000-Hz standard frequency. CONCLUSIONS Thresholds for school-age children were broadly similar to those previously observed using a forced-choice procedure. Although there was a trend for improved performance with increasing age, no significant age effect was observed between preschoolers and school-age children. The practice of excluding participants based on failure to meet conditioning criteria in an observer-based task could contribute to the relatively good performance observed for preschoolers in this study and the adultlike performance previously observed in infants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jane Rose
- Human Auditory Development Laboratory, Boys Town National Research Hospital, Omaha, NE
- Department of Hearing & Speech Sciences, University of Maryland, College Park
| | - Mary Flaherty
- Human Auditory Development Laboratory, Boys Town National Research Hospital, Omaha, NE
| | - Jenna Browning
- Human Auditory Development Laboratory, Boys Town National Research Hospital, Omaha, NE
| | - Lori J. Leibold
- Human Auditory Development Laboratory, Boys Town National Research Hospital, Omaha, NE
| | - Emily Buss
- Department of Otolaryngology/Head and Neck Surgery, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill
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18
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No otoacoustic evidence for a peripheral basis of absolute pitch. Hear Res 2018; 370:201-208. [PMID: 30190151 DOI: 10.1016/j.heares.2018.08.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2018] [Revised: 07/31/2018] [Accepted: 08/06/2018] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Absolute pitch (AP) is the ability to identify the perceived pitch of a sound without an external reference. Relatively rare, with an incidence of approximately 1/10,000, the mechanisms underlying AP are not well understood. This study examined otoacoustic emissions (OAEs) to determine if there is evidence of a peripheral (i.e., cochlear) basis for AP. Two OAE types were examined: spontaneous emissions (SOAEs) and stimulus-frequency emissions (SFOAEs). Our motivations to explore a peripheral foundation for AP were several-fold. First is the observation that pitch judgment accuracy has been reported to decrease with age due to age-dependent physiological changes cochlear biomechanics. Second is the notion that SOAEs, which are indirectly related to perception, could act as a fixed frequency reference. Third, SFOAE delays, which have been demonstrated to serve as a proxy measure for cochlear frequency selectivity, could indicate tuning differences between groups. These led us to the hypotheses that AP subjects would (relative to controls) exhibit a. greater SOAE activity and b. sharper cochlear tuning. To test these notions, measurements were made in normal-hearing control (N = 33) and AP-possessor (N = 20) populations. In short, no substantial difference in SOAE activity was found between groups, indicating no evidence for one or more strong SOAEs that could act as a fixed cue. SFOAE phase-gradient delays, measured at several different probe levels (20-50 dB SPL), also showed no significant differences between groups. This observation argues against sharper cochlear frequency selectivity in AP subjects. Taken together, these data support the prevailing view that AP mechanisms predominantly arise at a processing level in the central nervous system (CNS) at the brainstem or higher, not within the cochlea.
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19
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Creativity, information, and consciousness: The information dynamics of thinking. Phys Life Rev 2018; 34-35:1-39. [PMID: 29803403 DOI: 10.1016/j.plrev.2018.05.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2018] [Revised: 03/05/2018] [Accepted: 05/04/2018] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
This paper presents a theory of the basic operation of mind, Information Dynamics of Thinking, which is intended for computational implementation and thence empirical testing. It is based on the information theory of Shannon, and treats the mind/brain as an information processing organ that aims to be information-efficient, in that it predicts its world, so as to use information efficiently, and regularly re-represents it, so as to store information efficiently. The theory is presented in context of a background review of various research areas that impinge upon its development. Consequences of the theory and testable hypotheses arising from it are discussed.
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Abstract
After only two exposures to previously unfamiliar melodies, adults remember the tunes for over a week and the key for over a day. Here, we examined the development of long-term memory for melody and key. Listeners in three age groups (7- to 8-year-olds, 9- to 11-year-olds, and adults) heard two presentations of each of 12 unfamiliar melodies. After a 10-min delay, they heard the same 12 old melodies intermixed with 12 new melodies. Half of the old melodies were transposed up or down by six semitones from initial exposure. Listeners rated how well they recognized the melodies from the exposure phase. Recognition was better for old than for new melodies, for adults compared to children, and for older compared to younger children. Recognition ratings were also higher for old melodies presented in the same key at test as exposure, and the detrimental effect of the transposition affected all age groups similarly. Although memory for melody improves with age and exposure to music, implicit memory for key appears to be adult-like by 7 years of age.
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21
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Saffran JR. Learning Is Not a Four - Letter Word. MINNESOTA SYMPOSIA ON CHILD PSYCHOLOGY 2017. [DOI: 10.1002/9781119466864.ch5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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22
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Abstract
Perception involves making sense of a dynamic, multimodal environment. In the absence of mechanisms capable of exploiting the statistical patterns in the natural world, infants would face an insurmountable computational problem. Infant statistical learning mechanisms facilitate the detection of structure. These abilities allow the infant to compute across elements in their environmental input, extracting patterns for further processing and subsequent learning. In this selective review, we summarize findings that show that statistical learning is both a broad and flexible mechanism (supporting learning from different modalities across many different content areas) and input specific (shifting computations depending on the type of input and goal of learning). We suggest that statistical learning not only provides a framework for studying language development and object knowledge in constrained laboratory settings, but also allows researchers to tackle real-world problems, such as multilingualism, the role of ever-changing learning environments, and differential developmental trajectories.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jenny R Saffran
- Department of Psychology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin 53706;
| | - Natasha Z Kirkham
- Department of Psychological Sciences, Birkbeck, University of London, London WC1E 7HX, United Kingdom;
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23
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Bader M, Schröger E, Grimm S. How regularity representations of short sound patterns that are based on relative or absolute pitch information establish over time: An EEG study. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0176981. [PMID: 28472146 PMCID: PMC5417614 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0176981] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2016] [Accepted: 04/20/2017] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The recognition of sound patterns in speech or music (e.g., a melody that is played in different keys) requires knowledge about pitch relations between successive sounds. We investigated the formation of regularity representations for sound patterns in an event-related potential (ERP) study. A pattern, which consisted of six concatenated 50 ms tone segments differing in fundamental frequency, was presented 1, 2, 3, 6, or 12 times and then replaced by another pattern by randomly changing the pitch of the tonal segments (roving standard paradigm). In an absolute repetition condition, patterns were repeated identically, whereas in a transposed condition, only the pitch relations of the tonal segments of the patterns were repeated, while the entire patterns were shifted up or down in pitch. During ERP measurement participants were not informed about the pattern repetition rule, but were instructed to discriminate rarely occurring targets of lower or higher sound intensity. EPRs for pattern changes (mismatch negativity, MMN; and P3a) and for pattern repetitions (repetition positivity, RP) revealed that the auditory system is able to rapidly extract regularities from unfamiliar complex sound patterns even when absolute pitch varies. Yet, enhanced RP and P3a amplitudes, and improved behavioral performance measured in a post-hoc test, in the absolute as compared with the transposed condition suggest that it is more difficult to encode patterns without absolute pitch information. This is explained by dissociable processing of standards and deviants as well as a back propagation mechanism to early sensory processing stages, which is effective after less repetitions of a standard stimulus for absolute pitch.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Bader
- Institute of Psychology, Leipzig University, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Erich Schröger
- Institute of Psychology, Leipzig University, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Sabine Grimm
- Institute of Psychology, Leipzig University, Leipzig, Germany
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24
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Zhang C, Peng G, Shao J, Wang WSY. Neural bases of congenital amusia in tonal language speakers. Neuropsychologia 2017; 97:18-28. [PMID: 28153640 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2017.01.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2016] [Revised: 01/20/2017] [Accepted: 01/30/2017] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Congenital amusia is a lifelong neurodevelopmental disorder of fine-grained pitch processing. In this fMRI study, we examined the neural bases of congenial amusia in speakers of a tonal language - Cantonese. Previous studies on non-tonal language speakers suggest that the neural deficits of congenital amusia lie in the music-selective neural circuitry in the right inferior frontal gyrus (IFG). However, it is unclear whether this finding can generalize to congenital amusics in tonal languages. Tonal language experience has been reported to shape the neural processing of pitch, which raises the question of how tonal language experience affects the neural bases of congenital amusia. To investigate this question, we examined the neural circuitries sub-serving the processing of relative pitch interval in pitch-matched Cantonese level tone and musical stimuli in 11 Cantonese-speaking amusics and 11 musically intact controls. Cantonese-speaking amusics exhibited abnormal brain activities in a widely distributed neural network during the processing of lexical tone and musical stimuli. Whereas the controls exhibited significant activation in the right superior temporal gyrus (STG) in the lexical tone condition and in the cerebellum regardless of the lexical tone and music conditions, no activation was found in the amusics in those regions, which likely reflects a dysfunctional neural mechanism of relative pitch processing in the amusics. Furthermore, the amusics showed abnormally strong activation of the right middle frontal gyrus and precuneus when the pitch stimuli were repeated, which presumably reflect deficits of attending to repeated pitch stimuli or encoding them into working memory. No significant group difference was found in the right IFG in either the whole-brain analysis or region-of-interest analysis. These findings imply that the neural deficits in tonal language speakers might differ from those in non-tonal language speakers, and overlap partly with the neural circuitries of lexical tone processing (e.g. right STG).
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Affiliation(s)
- Caicai Zhang
- Department of Chinese and Bilingual Studies, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong SAR, China; Shenzhen Institutes of Advanced Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenzhen 518055, China.
| | - Gang Peng
- Department of Chinese and Bilingual Studies, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong SAR, China; Shenzhen Institutes of Advanced Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenzhen 518055, China.
| | - Jing Shao
- Department of Chinese and Bilingual Studies, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - William S-Y Wang
- Department of Chinese and Bilingual Studies, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong SAR, China; Shenzhen Institutes of Advanced Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenzhen 518055, China
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25
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Agres K, Abdallah S, Pearce M. Information-Theoretic Properties of Auditory Sequences Dynamically Influence Expectation and Memory. Cogn Sci 2017; 42:43-76. [DOI: 10.1111/cogs.12477] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2015] [Revised: 11/17/2016] [Accepted: 11/28/2016] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Kat Agres
- School of Electronic Engineering and Computer Science; Queen Mary University of London
| | - Samer Abdallah
- Department of Computer Science; University College London
| | - Marcus Pearce
- School of Electronic Engineering and Computer Science; Queen Mary University of London
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26
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Lau BK, Lalonde K, Oster MM, Werner LA. Infant pitch perception: Missing fundamental melody discrimination. THE JOURNAL OF THE ACOUSTICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA 2017; 141:65. [PMID: 28147620 PMCID: PMC6581289 DOI: 10.1121/1.4973412] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2016] [Revised: 11/11/2016] [Accepted: 12/08/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Although recent results show that 3-month-olds can discriminate complex tones by their missing fundamental, it is arguable whether they are discriminating on the basis of a perceived pitch. A defining characteristic of pitch is that it carries melodic information. This study investigated whether 3-month-olds, 7-month-olds, and adults can detect a change in a melody composed of missing fundamental complexes. Participants heard a seven-note melody and learned to respond to a change that violated the melodic contour. To ensure that participants were responding on the basis of pitch, the notes in the melody had missing fundamentals and varied in spectral content on each presentation. In experiment I, all melodies had the same absolute pitch, while in experiment II, the melodies were randomly transposed into one of three different keys on each presentation. Almost all participants learned to ignore the spectral changes and respond to the changed note of the melody in both experiments, strengthening the argument that complex tones elicit a sense of musical pitch in infants. These results provide evidence that complex pitch perception is functional by 3 months of age.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bonnie K Lau
- Department of Speech and Hearing Sciences, University of Washington, 1417 Northeast 42nd Street, Seattle, Washington 98105, USA
| | - Kaylah Lalonde
- Department of Speech and Hearing Sciences, University of Washington, 1417 Northeast 42nd Street, Seattle, Washington 98105, USA
| | - Monika-Maria Oster
- Department of Speech and Hearing Sciences, University of Washington, 1417 Northeast 42nd Street, Seattle, Washington 98105, USA
| | - Lynne A Werner
- Department of Speech and Hearing Sciences, University of Washington, 1417 Northeast 42nd Street, Seattle, Washington 98105, USA
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27
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Endress AD, Langus A. Transitional probabilities count more than frequency, but might not be used for memorization. Cogn Psychol 2016; 92:37-64. [PMID: 27907807 DOI: 10.1016/j.cogpsych.2016.11.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2016] [Revised: 11/08/2016] [Accepted: 11/09/2016] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Learners often need to extract recurring items from continuous sequences, in both vision and audition. The best-known example is probably found in word-learning, where listeners have to determine where words start and end in fluent speech. This could be achieved through universal and experience-independent statistical mechanisms, for example by relying on Transitional Probabilities (TPs). Further, these mechanisms might allow learners to store items in memory. However, previous investigations have yielded conflicting evidence as to whether a sensitivity to TPs is diagnostic of the memorization of recurring items. Here, we address this issue in the visual modality. Participants were familiarized with a continuous sequence of visual items (i.e., arbitrary or everyday symbols), and then had to choose between (i) high-TP items that appeared in the sequence, (ii) high-TP items that did not appear in the sequence, and (iii) low-TP items that appeared in the sequence. Items matched in TPs but differing in (chunk) frequency were much harder to discriminate than items differing in TPs (with no significant sensitivity to chunk frequency), and learners preferred unattested high-TP items over attested low-TP items. Contrary to previous claims, these results cannot be explained on the basis of the similarity of the test items. Learners thus weigh within-item TPs higher than the frequency of the chunks, even when the TP differences are relatively subtle. We argue that these results are problematic for distributional clustering mechanisms that analyze continuous sequences, and provide supporting computational results. We suggest that the role of TPs might not be to memorize items per se, but rather to prepare learners to memorize recurring items once they are presented in subsequent learning situations with richer cues.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Alan Langus
- Cognitive Neuroscience Sector, International School for Advanced Studies, Trieste, Italy
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28
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Abstract
Absolute pitch—the ability to name or produce a note of particular pitch in the absence of a reference note—is generally considered to be extremely rare. However, it has been found that native speakers of two different tone languages—Mandarin and Vietnamese—display a remarkably precise form of absolute pitch in enunciating words. Given these findings, it is proposed that absolute pitch may have evolved as a feature of speech, analogous to other features such as vowel quality. It is also conjectured that tone–language speakers generally acquire this feature during the 1st year of life, in the critical period when infants acquire other features of their native language. For speakers of nontone languages, the acquisition of absolute pitch by rare individuals may be associated with a critical period of unusually long duration, so that it extends to the age at which the child can begin taking music lessons. According to this line of reasoning, the potential for acquiring absolute pitch is universal at birth, and can be realized by giving the infant the opportunity to associate pitches with verbal labels during the 1st year or so of life.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diana Deutsch
- Department of Psychology, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California
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29
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Rickard NS, Toukhsati SR, Field SE. The Effect of Music on Cognitive Performance: Insight From Neurobiological and Animal Studies. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2016; 4:235-61. [PMID: 16585799 DOI: 10.1177/1534582305285869] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
The past 50 years have seen numerous claims that music exposure enhances human cognitive performance. Critical evaluation of studies across a variety of contexts, however, reveals important methodological weaknesses. The current article argues that an interdisciplinary approach is required to advance this research. A case is made for the use of appropriate animal models to avoid many confounds associated with human music research. Although such research has validity limitations for humans, reductionist methodology enables a more controlled exploration of music's elementary effects. This article also explores candidate mechanisms for this putative effect. A review of neurobiological evidence from human and comparative animal studies confirms that musical stimuli modify autonomic and neurochemical arousal indices, and may also modify synaptic plasticity. It is proposed that understanding how music affects animals provides a valuable conjunct to human research and may be vital in uncovering how music might be used to enhance cognitive performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nikki S Rickard
- School of Psychology, Psychiatry and Psychological Medicine, Monash University, Australia
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30
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Endress AD, Bonatti LL. Words, rules, and mechanisms of language acquisition. WILEY INTERDISCIPLINARY REVIEWS. COGNITIVE SCIENCE 2015; 7:19-35. [PMID: 26683248 DOI: 10.1002/wcs.1376] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2015] [Revised: 09/21/2015] [Accepted: 11/17/2015] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
We review recent artificial language learning studies, especially those following Endress and Bonatti (Endress AD, Bonatti LL. Rapid learning of syllable classes from a perceptually continuous speech stream. Cognition 2007, 105:247-299), suggesting that humans can deploy a variety of learning mechanisms to acquire artificial languages. Several experiments provide evidence for multiple learning mechanisms that can be deployed in fluent speech: one mechanism encodes the positions of syllables within words and can be used to extract generalization, while the other registers co-occurrence statistics of syllables and can be used to break a continuum into its components. We review dissociations between these mechanisms and their potential role in language acquisition. We then turn to recent criticisms of the multiple mechanisms hypothesis and show that they are inconsistent with the available data. Our results suggest that artificial and natural language learning is best understood by dissecting the underlying specialized learning abilities, and that these data provide a rare opportunity to link important language phenomena to basic psychological mechanisms. For further resources related to this article, please visit the WIREs website.
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31
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Boets B, Verhoeven J, Wouters J, Steyaert J. Fragile spectral and temporal auditory processing in adolescents with autism spectrum disorder and early language delay. J Autism Dev Disord 2015; 45:1845-57. [PMID: 25503681 DOI: 10.1007/s10803-014-2341-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
We investigated low-level auditory spectral and temporal processing in adolescents with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and early language delay compared to matched typically developing controls. Auditory measures were designed to target right versus left auditory cortex processing (i.e. frequency discrimination and slow amplitude modulation (AM) detection versus gap-in-noise detection and faster AM detection), and to pinpoint the task and stimulus characteristics underlying putative superior spectral processing in ASD. We observed impaired frequency discrimination in the ASD group and suggestive evidence of poorer temporal resolution as indexed by gap-in-noise detection thresholds. These findings question the evidence of enhanced spectral sensitivity in ASD and do not support the hypothesis of superior right and inferior left hemispheric auditory processing in ASD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bart Boets
- Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Department of Neurosciences, University of Leuven (KU Leuven), Herestraat 49, Box 7003, 3000, Leuven, Belgium,
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32
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Auditory working memory predicts individual differences in absolute pitch learning. Cognition 2015; 140:95-110. [PMID: 25909580 DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2015.03.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2014] [Revised: 12/03/2014] [Accepted: 03/27/2015] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Absolute pitch (AP) is typically defined as the ability to label an isolated tone as a musical note in the absence of a reference tone. At first glance the acquisition of AP note categories seems like a perceptual learning task, since individuals must assign a category label to a stimulus based on a single perceptual dimension (pitch) while ignoring other perceptual dimensions (e.g., loudness, octave, instrument). AP, however, is rarely discussed in terms of domain-general perceptual learning mechanisms. This is because AP is typically assumed to depend on a critical period of development, in which early exposure to pitches and musical labels is thought to be necessary for the development of AP precluding the possibility of adult acquisition of AP. Despite this view of AP, several previous studies have found evidence that absolute pitch category learning is, to an extent, trainable in a post-critical period adult population, even if the performance typically achieved by this population is below the performance of a "true" AP possessor. The current studies attempt to understand the individual differences in learning to categorize notes using absolute pitch cues by testing a specific prediction regarding cognitive capacity related to categorization - to what extent does an individual's general auditory working memory capacity (WMC) predict the success of absolute pitch category acquisition. Since WMC has been shown to predict performance on a wide variety of other perceptual and category learning tasks, we predict that individuals with higher WMC should be better at learning absolute pitch note categories than individuals with lower WMC. Across two studies, we demonstrate that auditory WMC predicts the efficacy of learning absolute pitch note categories. These results suggest that a higher general auditory WMC might underlie the formation of absolute pitch categories for post-critical period adults. Implications for understanding the mechanisms that underlie the phenomenon of AP are also discussed.
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Creel SC. Ups and Downs in Auditory Development: Preschoolers' Sensitivity to Pitch Contour and Timbre. Cogn Sci 2015; 40:373-403. [PMID: 25846115 DOI: 10.1111/cogs.12237] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2014] [Revised: 09/24/2014] [Accepted: 12/23/2014] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Much research has explored developing sound representations in language, but less work addresses developing representations of other sound patterns. This study examined preschool children's musical representations using two different tasks: discrimination and sound-picture association. Melodic contour--a musically relevant property--and instrumental timbre, which is (arguably) less musically relevant, were tested. In Experiment 1, children failed to associate cartoon characters to melodies with maximally different pitch contours, with no advantage for melody preexposure. Experiment 2 also used different-contour melodies and found good discrimination, whereas association was at chance. Experiment 3 replicated Experiment 2, but with a large timbre change instead of a contour change. Here, discrimination and association were both excellent. Preschool-aged children may have stronger or more durable representations of timbre than contour, particularly in more difficult tasks. Reasons for weaker association of contour than timbre information are discussed, along with implications for auditory development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah C Creel
- Department of Cognitive Science, University of California San Diego
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Rogenmoser L, Elmer S, Jäncke L. Absolute Pitch: Evidence for Early Cognitive Facilitation during Passive Listening as Revealed by Reduced P3a Amplitudes. J Cogn Neurosci 2015; 27:623-37. [DOI: 10.1162/jocn_a_00708] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Absolute pitch (AP) is the rare ability to identify or produce different pitches without using reference tones. At least two sequential processing stages are assumed to contribute to this phenomenon. The first recruits a pitch memory mechanism at an early stage of auditory processing, whereas the second is driven by a later cognitive mechanism (pitch labeling). Several investigations have used active tasks, but it is unclear how these two mechanisms contribute to AP during passive listening. The present work investigated the temporal dynamics of tone processing in AP and non-AP (NAP) participants by using EEG. We applied a passive oddball paradigm with between- and within-tone category manipulations and analyzed the MMN reflecting the early stage of auditory processing and the P3a response reflecting the later cognitive mechanism during the second processing stage. Results did not reveal between-group differences in MMN waveforms. By contrast, the P3a response was specifically associated with AP and sensitive to the processing of different pitch types. Specifically, AP participants exhibited smaller P3a amplitudes, especially in between-tone category conditions, and P3a responses correlated significantly with the age of commencement of musical training, suggesting an influence of early musical exposure on AP. Our results reinforce the current opinion that the representation of pitches at the processing level of the auditory-related cortex is comparable among AP and NAP participants, whereas the later processing stage is critical for AP. Results are interpreted as reflecting cognitive facilitation in AP participants, possibly driven by the availability of multiple codes for tones.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Lutz Jäncke
- 1University of Zurich
- 2King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
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Skoe E, Kraus N. Auditory reserve and the legacy of auditory experience. Brain Sci 2014; 4:575-93. [PMID: 25405381 PMCID: PMC4279143 DOI: 10.3390/brainsci4040575] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2014] [Revised: 10/20/2014] [Accepted: 10/28/2014] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Musical training during childhood has been linked to more robust encoding of sound later in life. We take this as evidence for an auditory reserve: a mechanism by which individuals capitalize on earlier life experiences to promote auditory processing. We assert that early auditory experiences guide how the reserve develops and is maintained over the lifetime. Experiences that occur after childhood, or which are limited in nature, are theorized to affect the reserve, although their influence on sensory processing may be less long-lasting and may potentially fade over time if not repeated. This auditory reserve may help to explain individual differences in how individuals cope with auditory impoverishment or loss of sensorineural function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erika Skoe
- Department of Speech, Language, and Hearing Sciences, Department of Psychology Affiliate, Cognitive Science Program Affiliate, University of Connecticut, 850 Bolton Street, Storrs, CT 06105, USA.
| | - Nina Kraus
- Auditory Neuroscience Laboratory, Department of Communication Sciences, Institute for Neuroscience, Department of Neurobiology and Physiology, Department of Otolaryngology, Northwestern University, 2240 Campus Drive, Evanston, IL 60208, USA.
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Hansen NC, Pearce MT. Predictive uncertainty in auditory sequence processing. Front Psychol 2014; 5:1052. [PMID: 25295018 PMCID: PMC4171990 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2014] [Accepted: 09/02/2014] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Previous studies of auditory expectation have focused on the expectedness perceived by listeners retrospectively in response to events. In contrast, this research examines predictive uncertainty—a property of listeners' prospective state of expectation prior to the onset of an event. We examine the information-theoretic concept of Shannon entropy as a model of predictive uncertainty in music cognition. This is motivated by the Statistical Learning Hypothesis, which proposes that schematic expectations reflect probabilistic relationships between sensory events learned implicitly through exposure. Using probability estimates from an unsupervised, variable-order Markov model, 12 melodic contexts high in entropy and 12 melodic contexts low in entropy were selected from two musical repertoires differing in structural complexity (simple and complex). Musicians and non-musicians listened to the stimuli and provided explicit judgments of perceived uncertainty (explicit uncertainty). We also examined an indirect measure of uncertainty computed as the entropy of expectedness distributions obtained using a classical probe-tone paradigm where listeners rated the perceived expectedness of the final note in a melodic sequence (inferred uncertainty). Finally, we simulate listeners' perception of expectedness and uncertainty using computational models of auditory expectation. A detailed model comparison indicates which model parameters maximize fit to the data and how they compare to existing models in the literature. The results show that listeners experience greater uncertainty in high-entropy musical contexts than low-entropy contexts. This effect is particularly apparent for inferred uncertainty and is stronger in musicians than non-musicians. Consistent with the Statistical Learning Hypothesis, the results suggest that increased domain-relevant training is associated with an increasingly accurate cognitive model of probabilistic structure in music.
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Affiliation(s)
- Niels Chr Hansen
- Music in the Brain, Center of Functionally Integrative Neuroscience, Department of Clinical Medicine, Aarhus University Hospital Aarhus, Denmark ; Royal Academy of Music Aarhus/Aalborg Aarhus, Denmark ; Department of Aesthetics and Communication, Aarhus University Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Marcus T Pearce
- Cognitive Science Research Group, School of Electronic Engineering and Computer Science, Queen Mary University of London London, UK
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McLachlan NM, Marco DJT, Wilson SJ. Pitch and plasticity: insights from the pitch matching of chords by musicians with absolute and relative pitch. Brain Sci 2013; 3:1615-34. [PMID: 24961624 PMCID: PMC4061894 DOI: 10.3390/brainsci3041615] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2013] [Revised: 11/05/2013] [Accepted: 11/25/2013] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Absolute pitch (AP) is a form of sound recognition in which musical note names are associated with discrete musical pitch categories. The accuracy of pitch matching by non-AP musicians for chords has recently been shown to depend on stimulus familiarity, pointing to a role of spectral recognition mechanisms in the early stages of pitch processing. Here we show that pitch matching accuracy by AP musicians was also dependent on their familiarity with the chord stimulus. This suggests that the pitch matching abilities of both AP and non-AP musicians for concurrently presented pitches are dependent on initial recognition of the chord. The dual mechanism model of pitch perception previously proposed by the authors suggests that spectral processing associated with sound recognition primes waveform processing to extract stimulus periodicity and refine pitch perception. The findings presented in this paper are consistent with the dual mechanism model of pitch, and in the case of AP musicians, the formation of nominal pitch categories based on both spectral and periodicity information.
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Affiliation(s)
- Neil M McLachlan
- Melbourne School of Psychological Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Victoria 3010, Australia.
| | - David J T Marco
- Melbourne School of Psychological Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Victoria 3010, Australia.
| | - Sarah J Wilson
- Melbourne School of Psychological Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Victoria 3010, Australia.
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Crespi B. Developmental heterochrony and the evolution of autistic perception, cognition and behavior. BMC Med 2013; 11:119. [PMID: 23639054 PMCID: PMC3649927 DOI: 10.1186/1741-7015-11-119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2013] [Accepted: 04/22/2013] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Autism is usually conceptualized as a disorder or disease that involves fundamentally abnormal neurodevelopment. In the present work, the hypothesis that a suite of core autism-related traits may commonly represent simple delays or non-completion of typical childhood developmental trajectories is evaluated. DISCUSSION A comprehensive review of the literature indicates that, with regard to the four phenotypes of (1) restricted interests and repetitive behavior, (2) short-range and long-range structural and functional brain connectivity, (3) global and local visual perception and processing, and (4) the presence of absolute pitch, the differences between autistic individuals and typically developing individuals closely parallel the differences between younger and older children. SUMMARY The results of this study are concordant with a model of 'developmental heterochrony', and suggest that evolutionary extension of child development along the human lineage has potentiated and structured genetic risk for autism and the expression of autistic perception, cognition and behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bernard Crespi
- Department of Biological Sciences, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, British Columbia, Canada.
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Mottron L, Bouvet L, Bonnel A, Samson F, Burack JA, Dawson M, Heaton P. Veridical mapping in the development of exceptional autistic abilities. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2013; 37:209-28. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2012.11.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2012] [Revised: 11/22/2012] [Accepted: 11/23/2012] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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Stanutz S, Wapnick J, Burack JA. Pitch discrimination and melodic memory in children with autism spectrum disorders. AUTISM : THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND PRACTICE 2012; 18:137-47. [PMID: 23150888 DOI: 10.1177/1362361312462905] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Pitch perception is enhanced among persons with autism. We extended this finding to memory for pitch and melody among school-aged children. OBJECTIVE The purpose of this study was to investigate pitch memory in musically untrained children with autism spectrum disorders, aged 7-13 years, and to compare it to that of age- and IQ-matched typically developing children. METHODS The children were required to discriminate isolated tones in two differing contexts as well to remember melodies after a period of 1 week. The tasks were designed to employ both short- and long-term memory for music. For the pitch discrimination task, the children first had to indicate whether two isolated tones were the same or different when the second was the same or had been altered to be 25, 35, or 45 cents sharp or flat. Second, the children discriminated the tones within the context of melody. They were asked whether two melodies were the same or different when the leading tone of the second melody was the same or had been altered to be 25, 35, or 45 cents sharp or flat. Long-term memory for melody was also investigated, as the children attempted to recall four different two-bar melodies after 1 week. RESULTS The children with autism spectrum disorders demonstrated elevated pitch discrimination ability in the single-tone and melodic context as well as superior long-term memory for melody. Pitch memory correlated positively with scores on measures of nonverbal fluid reasoning ability. CONCLUSION Superior short- and long-term pitch memory was found among children with autism spectrum disorders. The results indicate an aspect to cognitive functioning that may predict both enhanced nonverbal reasoning ability and atypical language development.
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The statistical signature of morphosyntax: A study of Hungarian and Italian infant-directed speech. Cognition 2012; 125:263-87. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2012.06.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2011] [Revised: 06/08/2012] [Accepted: 06/11/2012] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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44
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Pearce MT, Wiggins GA. Auditory Expectation: The Information Dynamics of Music Perception and Cognition. Top Cogn Sci 2012; 4:625-52. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1756-8765.2012.01214.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 127] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
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Herholz SC, Boh B, Pantev C. Musical training modulates encoding of higher-order regularities in the auditory cortex. Eur J Neurosci 2012; 34:524-9. [PMID: 21801242 DOI: 10.1111/j.1460-9568.2011.07775.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
We investigated the effect of long-term musical training on the time course of development of neuronal representations within the auditory cortex by means of magnetoencephalography. In musicians but not in nonmusicians, pre-attentive encoding of a complex regularity within a tone sequence was evident by a constant increase of the pattern mismatch negativity within < 10 min. The group difference was more pronounced in the left hemisphere, indicating stronger plastic changes in its structures supporting temporal analysis and sound pattern encoding. The results suggest an effect of long-term musical training on short-term auditory learning processes. This has implications not only for cognitive neuroscience in showing how short-term and long-term neuronal plasticity can interact within the auditory cortex, but also for educational and clinical applications of implicit auditory learning where beneficial effects of (musical) experience might be exploited.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sibylle C Herholz
- Montreal Neurological Institute, McGill University, and International Laboratory for Brain, Music and Sound Research, BRAMS, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
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47
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Bregman MR, Patel AD, Gentner TQ. Stimulus-dependent flexibility in non-human auditory pitch processing. Cognition 2012; 122:51-60. [PMID: 21911217 PMCID: PMC3215778 DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2011.08.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2011] [Revised: 06/09/2011] [Accepted: 08/08/2011] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Songbirds and humans share many parallels in vocal learning and auditory sequence processing. However, the two groups differ notably in their abilities to recognize acoustic sequences shifted in absolute pitch (pitch height). Whereas humans maintain accurate recognition of words or melodies over large pitch height changes, songbirds are comparatively much poorer at recognizing pitch-shifted tone sequences. This apparent disparity may reflect fundamental differences in the neural mechanisms underlying the representation of sound in songbirds. Alternatively, because non-human studies have used sine-tone stimuli almost exclusively, tolerance to pitch height changes in the context of natural signals may be underestimated. Here, we show that European starlings, a species of songbird, can maintain accurate recognition of the songs of other starlings when the pitch of those songs is shifted by as much as ±40%. We observed accurate recognition even for songs pitch-shifted well outside the range of frequencies used during training, and even though much smaller pitch shifts in conspecific songs are easily detected. With similar training using human piano melodies, recognition of the pitch-shifted melodies is very limited. These results demonstrate that non-human pitch processing is more flexible than previously thought and that the flexibility in pitch processing strategy is stimulus dependent.
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Affiliation(s)
- Micah R Bregman
- Department of Cognitive Science, UC San Diego, La Jolla, CA, United States
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Dooley K, Deutsch D. Absolute pitch correlates with high performance on interval naming tasks. THE JOURNAL OF THE ACOUSTICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA 2011; 130:4097-4104. [PMID: 22225064 DOI: 10.1121/1.3652861] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
Absolute pitch, the rare ability to identify or produce a musical tone without a reference tone, has been shown to be advantageous in some musical tasks; however, its relevance in musical contexts primarily involving relative pitch has been questioned. To explore this issue, 36 trained musicians-18 absolute pitch possessors and 18 non-possessors with equivalent age of onset and duration of musical training-were tested on interval naming tasks requiring only relative pitch. The intervals to be named were either ascending or descending with separation ranging from 1 to 12 semitones and equally involved all 12 pitch classes. Three different conditions were employed; these used brief sine waves, piano tones, and piano tones preceded by a V7-I chord cadence so as to establish a tonal context. The possession of absolute pitch was strongly correlated with enhanced performance on all these tests of relative pitch. Furthermore, no evidence was found that this absolute pitch avantage depended on key, interval size, or musical context.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin Dooley
- Department of Psychology, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, USA
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50
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Endress AD, Wood JN. From movements to actions: Two mechanisms for learning action sequences. Cogn Psychol 2011; 63:141-71. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cogpsych.2011.07.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/24/2009] [Accepted: 07/07/2011] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
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