NICHD Early Child Care Research Network. Does class size in first grade relate to children's academic and social performance or observed classroom processes?

Relationships of paraeducators and teachers with their autistic students

Paraeducators play an important role in the classroom experiences of many autistic students. Although previous research has indicated that autistic students typically have strained relationships with their teachers, little is known about their relationships with paraeducators. We examined relationship quality reported by teachers (N = 171) and paraeducators (N = 28) with their elementary-age autistic students (IQ ≥ 50, ages 4-8 years, Grades PreK-3). Paraeducators reported strained relationships with their autistic students relative to normative means. This was especially apparent when compared with teacher report as paraeducators reported significantly lower overall relationship quality with their autistic students marked by higher conflict and dependency, yet similar reports of closeness. Indirect effect analysis indicated that higher conflict between paraeducators and their autistic students was accounted for by their fewer years of classroom experience compared to teachers. These findings should encourage school psychologists to consider the systemic factors likely contributing to paraeducators' fewer years of experiences and, as members of special education teams, use a consultative framework to provide supports needed to foster positive relationships between paraeducators and their autistic students.

School readiness losses during the COVID-19 outbreak. A comparison of two cohorts of young children

The COVID-19 context has created the most severe disruption to education systems in recent history. Its impact on child development was estimated comparing two cohorts of 4- to 6-year-old Uruguayan children: control (n = 34,355, 48.87% girls) and COVID cohort (n = 30,158, 48.95% girls) assessed between 2018 and 2020 in three waves, by a routinely administered school readiness instrument in public preschools. Ethnicity information is not available. For the COVID cohort, losses were observed in Motor and Cognitive development, Attitudes towards learning, and Internalizing behavior (range 0.13 - 0.27 SD). Losses were less pronounced among children from higher socioeconomic schools. These results extend the literature on the consequences of the pandemic on learning and early child development.

Effects of North Carolina's Pre-Kindergarten Program at the End of Kindergarten: Contributions of School-Wide Quality

The positive effects of pre-kindergarten (pre-K) programming may be enhanced in later grades for children who subsequently experience high-quality educational environments in elementary school. The current study tested this hypothesis in relation to the effects of North Carolina's NC Pre-K program on child outcomes at the end of kindergarten, including language, literacy, mathematics, and working memory. Measures of elementary school quality were examined as moderators of the NC Pre-K effects, including school-wide academic proficiency and school-wide growth in academic achievement. We found no reliable effects of NC Pre-K participation for children attending elementary schools with average levels of quality. However, the positive effects of NC Pre-K participation on language and working memory skills were evident for children attending elementary schools with higher levels of academic proficiency and academic growth, respectively. No evidence of moderation was found in relation to literacy and mathematics skills.

Small class sizes for improving student achievement in primary and secondary schools: a systematic review

This Campbell systematic review examines the impact of class size on academic achievement. The review summarises findings from 148 reports from 41 countries. Ten studies were included in the meta-analysis. Included studies concerned children in grades kindergarten to 12 (or the equivalent in European countries) in general education. The primary focus was on measures of academic achievement. All study designs that used a well-defined control group were eligible for inclusion. A total of 127 studies, consisting of 148 papers, met the inclusion criteria. These 127 studies analysed 55 different populations from 41 different countries. A large number of studies (45) analysed data from the Student Teacher Achievement Ratio (STAR) experiment which was for class size reduction in grade K-3 in the US in the eighties. However only ten studies, including four of the STAR programme, could be included in the meta-analysis. Overall, the evidence suggests at best a small effect on reading achievement. There is a negative, but statistically insignificant, effect on mathematics. For the non-STAR studies the primary study effect sizes for reading were close to zero but the weighted average was positive and statistically significant. There was some inconsistency in the direction of the primary study effect sizes for mathematics and the weighted average effect was negative and statistically non-significant. The STAR results are more positive, but do not change the overall finding. All reported results from the studies analysing STAR data indicated a positive effect of smaller class sizes for both reading and maths, but the average effects are small.

Plain language summary

Small class size has at best a small effect on academic achievement: Reducing class size is seen as a way of improving student performance. But larger class sizes help control education budgets. The evidence suggests at best a small effect on reading achievement. There is a negative, but statistically insignificant, effect on mathematics, so it cannot be ruled out that some children may be adversely affected.What is this review about?: Increasing class size is one of the key variables that policy makers can use to control spending on education.But the consensus among many in education research is that smaller classes are effective in improving student achievement which has led to a policy of class size reductions in a number of US states, the UK, and the Netherlands. This policy is disputed by those who argue that the effects of class size reduction are only modest and that there are other more cost-effective strategies for improving educational standards.Despite the important policy and practice implications of the topic, the research literature on the educational effects of class-size differences has not been clear.This review systematically reports findings from relevant studies that measure the effects of class size on academic achievement.What are the main findings of this review?: What studies are included?: Included studies concerned children in grades kindergarten to 12 (or the equivalent in European countries) in general education. The primary focus was on measures of academic achievement. All study designs that used a well-defined control group were eligible for inclusion.A total of 127 studies, consisting of 148 papers, met the inclusion criteria. These 127 studies analysed 55 different populations from 41 different countries. A large number of studies (45) analysed data from the Student Teacher Achievement Ratio (STAR) experiment which was for class size reduction in grade K-3 in the US in the eighties. However only ten studies, including four of the STAR programme, could be included in the meta-analysis.What are the main results?: Overall, the evidence suggests at best a small effect on reading achievement. There is a negative, but statistically insignificant, effect on mathematics.For the non-STAR studies the primary study effect sizes for reading were close to zero but the weighted average was positive and statistically significant. There was some inconsistency in the direction of the primary study effect sizes for mathematics and the weighted average effect was negative and statistically non-significant.The STAR results are more positive, but do not change the overall finding. All reported results from the studies analysing STAR data indicated a positive effect of smaller class sizes for both reading and maths, but the average effects are small.What do the findings of this review mean?: There is some evidence to suggest that there is an effect of reducing class size on reading achievement, although the effect is very small. There is no significant effect on mathematics achievement, though the average is negative meaning a possible adverse impact on some students cannot be ruled out.The overall reading effect corresponds to a 53 per cent chance that a randomly selected score of a student from the treated population of small classes is greater than the score of a randomly selected student from the comparison population of larger classes. This is a very small effect.Class size reduction is costly. The available evidence points to no or only very small effect sizes of small classes in comparison to larger classes. Moreover, we cannot rule out the possibility that small classes may be counterproductive for some students. It is therefore crucial to know more about the relationship between class size and achievement in order to determine where money is best allocated.How up-to-date is this review?: The review authors searched for studies published up to February 2017. This Campbell systematic review was published in 2018.

Executive Summary/Abstract

BACKGROUND: Increasing class size is one of the key variables that policy makers can use to control spending on education. Reducing class size to increase student achievement is an approach that has been tried, debated, and analysed for several decades. Despite the important policy and practice implications of the topic, the research literature on the educational effects of class-size differences has not been clear.The consensus among many in education research, that smaller classes are effective in improving student achievement has led to a policy of class size reductions in a number of U.S. states, the United Kingdom, and the Netherlands. This policy is disputed by those who argue that the effects of class size reduction are only modest and that there are other more cost-effective strategies for improving educational standards.OBJECTIVES: The purpose of this review is to systematically uncover relevant studies in the literature that measure the effects of class size on academic achievement. We will synthesize the effects in a transparent manner and, where possible, we will investigate the extent to which the effects differ among different groups of students such as high/low performers, high/low income families, or members of minority/non-minority groups, and whether timing, intensity, and duration have an impact on the magnitude of the effect.SEARCH METHODS: Relevant studies were identified through electronic searches of bibliographic databases, internet search engines and hand searching of core journals. Searches were carried out to February 2017. We searched to identify both published and unpublished literature. The searches were international in scope. Reference lists of included studies and relevant reviews were also searched.SELECTION CRITERIA: The intervention of interest was a reduction in class size. We included children in grades kindergarten to 12 (or the equivalent in European countries) in general education. The primary focus was on measures of academic achievement. All study designs that used a well-defined control group were eligible for inclusion. Studies that utilized qualitative approaches were not included.DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS: The total number of potential relevant studies constituted 8,128 hits. A total of 127 studies, consisting of 148 papers, met the inclusion criteria and were critically appraised by the review authors. The 127 studies analysed 55 different populations from 41 different countries.A large number of studies (45) analysed data from the STAR experiment (class size reduction in grade K-3) and its follow up data.Of the 82 studies not analysing data from the STAR experiment, only six could be used in the data synthesis. Fifty eight studies could not be used in the data synthesis as they were judged to have too high risk of bias either due to confounding (51), other sources of bias (4) or selective reporting of results (3). Eighteen studies did not provide enough information enabling us to calculate an effects size and standard error or did not provide results in a form enabling us to use it in the data synthesis.Meta-analysis was used to examine the effects of class size on student achievement in reading and mathematics. Random effects models were used to pool data across the studies not analysing STAR data. Pooled estimates were weighted using inverse variance methods, and 95% confidence intervals were estimated. Effect sizes were measured as standardised mean differences (SMD). It was only possible to perform a meta-analysis by the end of the treatment year (end of the school year).Four of the studies analysing STAR data provided effect estimates that could be used in the data synthesis. The four studies differed in terms of both the chosen comparison condition and decision rules in selecting a sample for analysis. Which of these four studies' effect estimates should be included in the data synthesis was not obvious as the decision rule (concerning studies using the same data set) as described in the protocol could not be used. Contrary to usual practice we therefore report the results of all four studies and do not pool the results with the studies not analysing STAR data except in the sensitivity analysis. We took into consideration the ICC in the results reported for the STAR experiment and corrected the effect sizes and standard errors using ρ = 0.22. No adjustment due to clustering was necessary for the studies not analysing STAR data.Sensitivity analysis was used to evaluate whether the pooled effect sizes were robust across components of methodological quality, in relation to inclusion of a primary study result with an unclear sign, inclusion of effect sizes from the STAR experiment and to using a one-student reduction in class size in studies using class size as a continuous variable.RESULTS: All studies, not analysing STAR data, reported outcomes by the end of the treatment (end of the school year) only. The STAR experiment was a four year longitudinal study with outcomes reported by the end of each school year. The experiment was conducted to assess the effectiveness of small classes compared with regular-sized classes and of teachers' aides in regular-sized classes on improving cognitive achievement in kindergarten and in the first, second, and third grades. The goal of the STAR experiment was to have approximately 100 small classes with 13-17 students (S), 100 regular classes with 22-25 students (R), and 100 regular with aide classes with 22-25 students (RA).Of the six studies not analysing STAR, only five were used in the meta-analysis as the direction of the effect size in one study was unclear. The studies were from USA, the Netherlands and France, one was a RCT and five were NRS. The grades investigated spanned kindergarten to 3. Grade and one study investigated grade 10. The sample sizes varied; the smallest study investigated 104 students and the largest study investigated 11,567 students. The class size reductions varied from a minimum of one student in four studies, a minimum of seven students in another study to a minimum of 8 students in the last study.All outcomes were scaled such that a positive effect size favours the students in small classes, i.e. when an effect size is positive a class size reduction improves the students' achievement.Primary study effect sizes for reading lied in the range -0.08 to 0.14. Three of the study-level effects were statistically non-significant. The weighted average was positive and statistically significant. The random effects weighted standardised mean difference was 0.11 (95% CI 0.05 to 0.16) which may be characterised as small. There is some inconsistency in the direction of the effect sizes between the primary studies. Primary study effect sizes for mathematics lies in the range -0.41 to 0.11. Two of the study-level effects were statistically non-significant. The weighted average was negative and statistically non-significant. The random effects weighted standardised mean difference was -0.03 (95% CI -0.22 to 0.16). There is some inconsistency in the direction as well as the magnitude of the effect sizes between the primary studies.All reported results from the four studies analysing STAR data indicated a positive effect favouring the treated; all of the study-level effects were statistically significant. The study-level effect sizes for reading varied between 0.17 and 0.34 and the study-level effect sizes for mathematics varied between 0.15 and 0.33.There were no appreciable changes in the results when we included the extremes of the range of effect sizes from the STAR experiment. The reading outcome lost statistical significance when the effect size from the primary study reporting a result with an unclear direction was included with a negative sign and when the results from the studies using class size as a continuous variable were included with a one student reduction in class size instead of a standard deviation reduction in class size.Otherwise, there were no appreciable changes in the results.AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS: There is some evidence to suggest that there is an effect of reducing class size on reading achievement, although the effect is very small. We found a statistically significant positive effect of reducing the class size on reading. The effect on mathematics achievement was not statistically significant, thus it is uncertain if there may be a negative effect.The overall reading effect corresponds to a 53 per cent chance that a randomly selected score of a student from the treated population of small classes is greater than the score of a randomly selected student from the comparison population of larger classes. The overall effect on mathematics achievement corresponds to a 49 per cent chance that a randomly selected score of a student from the treated population of small classes is greater than the score of a randomly selected student from the comparison population of larger classes.Class size reduction is costly and the available evidence points to no or only very small effect sizes of small classes in comparison to larger classes. Taking the individual variation in effects into consideration, we cannot rule out the possibility that small classes may be counterproductive for some students. It is therefore crucial to know more about the relationship between class size and achievement and how it influences what teachers and students do in the classroom in order to determine where money is best allocated.

Profiles of Kindergarten Classroom and Elementary School Contexts: Associations with the First-Grade Outcomes of Children Transitioning from Head Start

Poor quality classroom and school contexts may impede the academic and behavioral adjustment of low-income students when they transition into kindergarten. Several studies have examined the impact of teacher-student interactions on student progress, whereas others have explored the impact of school-level adversity (e.g., student poverty, school achievement levels). Expanding on prior findings, this study used latent profile analysis to characterize kindergarten contexts in terms of both classroom teacher-student interaction quality and school-level adversity. Following 164 children longitudinally and accounting for functioning in Head Start prior to kindergarten entry, associations between kindergarten context profiles and first grade outcomes revealed that children who experienced dual-risk contexts in kindergarten (classrooms with poor quality teacher-student interactions in schools with high levels of adversity) demonstrated the greatest aggression and social difficulties in first grade. Associations between kindergarten context profiles and first grade academic outcomes were less clear.

School effects on non-verbal intelligence and nutritional status in rural Zambia

This study uses hierarchical linear modeling (HLM) to examine the school factors (i.e., related to school organization and teacher and student body) associated with non-verbal intelligence (NI) and nutritional status (i.e., body mass index; BMI) of 4204 3^rd to 7^th graders in rural areas of Southern Province, Zambia. Results showed that 23.5% and 7.7% of the NI and BMI variance, respectively, were conditioned by differences between schools. The set of 14 school factors accounted for 58.8% and 75.9% of the between-school differences in NI and BMI, respectively. Grade-specific HLM yielded higher between-school variation of NI (41%) and BMI (14.6%) for students in grade 3 compared to grades 4 to 7. School factors showed a differential pattern of associations with NI and BMI across grades. The distance to a health post and teacher's teaching experience were the strongest predictors of NI (particularly in grades 4, 6 and 7); the presence of a preschool was linked to lower BMI in grades 4 to 6. Implications for improving access and quality of education in rural Zambia are discussed.

The Impact of Program Structure on Cortisol Patterning in Children Attending Out-of-Home Child Care

Full-day center-based child care has repeatedly been associated with rising levels of cortisol, a hormone that helps the body manage challenge, across the day at child care. This article presents findings from two studies examining the relationship between child care program structure (number of days per week, and hours per day) and cortisol production across the day. Study 1 presents findings comparing cortisol production in 3- to 5-year-old children enrolled in either full-day (N = 55) or half-day (N = 63) Head-Start-funded programs. Study 2 presents findings comparing young children enrolled in either full-day full-time (5 days per week; N = 37) or full-day part-time (2-3days/week; N = 41) primarily tuition-funded programs. Using multilevel modeling and controlling for a number of child factors, attending full-day, full-time programs (as compared to either half-day or part-time programs) was associated with increased cortisol production across the day on child care and home days. Implications for early childhood educators are discussed.

Computerized sociometric assessment for preschool children

In preschool classes, sociometric peer ratings are used to measure children’s peer relationships. The current study examined a computerized version of preschool sociometric ratings. The psychometric properties were compared of computerized sociometric ratings and traditional peer ratings for preschoolers. The distributions, inter-item correlations, and reliabilities of sociometric scores were comparable between the computerized assessment and traditional assessment. The computerized assessment provided additional data for further analysis of the peer evaluation process. Therefore, computerized peer ratings are a promising tool for sociometric measurement with preschool children.

Student-teacher relationship trajectories and mental health problems in young children

BACKGROUND

This longitudinal study classified groups of children experiencing different trajectories of student-teacher relationship quality over the transition from preschool into school, and determined the strength of the association between different student-teacher relationship trajectories and childhood mental health problems in the second year of primary school.

METHODS

A community sample of 460 Australian children were assessed in preschool (age 4), the first school year (age 5), and second school year (age 6). Teachers at all three assessments reported on student-teacher relationship quality with the Student Teacher Relationship Scale. When the children were at preschool and in their second school year, parents and teachers rated children's mental health problems using the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire.

RESULTS

Latent-class growth modelling identified two trajectories of student-teacher relationship quality: (1) a stable-high student-teacher relationship quality and (2) a moderate/declining student-teacher relationship quality trajectory. Generalised linear models found that after adjusting for family demographic characteristics, having a stable high quality student-teacher relationship trajectory was associated with fewer parent-rated and teacher-rated total mental health problems, and fewer conduct, hyperactivity, and peer problems, and greater prosocial behaviour at age 6. A stable high quality trajectory was also associated with fewer teacher-rated, but not parent-rated emotional symptoms. These effects remained after adjustment for levels of mental health problems at age 4.

CONCLUSIONS

Findings suggest that early intervention and prevention strategies that focus on building stable high quality student-teacher relationships during preschool and children's transition into formal schooling, may help reduce rates of childhood mental health problems during the early school years.

Teacher-child relationships and behavioral adjustment: transactional links for preschool boys at risk

In this short-term longitudinal study, transactional links between teacher-child relationships and behavioral adjustment were investigated in a sample of preschool boys (N=175) at risk for developing externalizing problems. Teachers (N=175) reported about the quality of the teacher-child relationship (i.e., Closeness, Conflict, and Dependency) and about children's behavioral adjustment (i.e., Externalizing Behavior, Internalizing Behavior, and Prosocial Behavior) at three occasions within one school year. Cross-lagged path-analytic models showed positive bidirectional associations between Conflict and both Externalizing and Internalizing Behavior from Time 1 to Time 2, but not from Time 2 to Time 3. In addition, there was a transactional sequence with more Conflict at Time 1 leading to less Prosocial Behavior at Time 2 which, in turn, predicted more Conflict at Time 3. Closeness was reciprocally and positively related to Prosocial Behavior over time, and was positively and unidirectionally predicted by Internalizing Behavior. Dependency showed positive reciprocal links with Internalizing Behavior over time, and negatively and unidirectionally predicted Prosocial Behavior. These findings suggest that interventions may be most effective if they adjust their focus and strategy depending on children's specific behavioral and relational needs.

Is the prediction of adolescent outcomes from early child care moderated by later maternal sensitivity? Results from the nichd study of early child care and youth development

Longitudinal data are used to examine whether effects of early child care are amplified and/or attenuated by later parenting. Analyses tested these interactions using parenting as both a categorical and continuous variable to balance power and flexibility in testing moderation. The most consistent finding was that maternal sensitivity during adolescence accentuated the association between child care quality and adolescent academic-cognitive skills at age 15 years when maternal sensitivity during adolescence was high. This interaction was obtained in analyses with maternal sensitivity as both a categorical and continuous variable. Relations between early child care hours and adolescent behavioral outcomes also were moderated by maternal sensitivity, with longer child care hours predicting more impulsivity and externalizing at age 15 when maternal sensitivity during middle childhood, scored as a categorical variable, was low to moderate and when maternal sensitivity during adolescence, scored as a continuous variable, was lower. These findings suggest that some child care effects are moderated by subsequent parenting and that this moderation may take both linear and nonlinear forms.

The physical environment and child development: an international review

A growing body of research in the United States and Western Europe documents significant effects of the physical environment (toxins, pollutants, noise, crowding, chaos, and housing, school and neighborhood quality) on children and adolescents' cognitive and socioemotional development. Much less is known about these relations in other contexts, particularly the global South. We thus briefly review the evidence for relations between child development and the physical environment in Western contexts, and discuss some of the known mechanisms behind these relations. We then provide a more extensive review of the research to date outside of Western contexts, with a specific emphasis on research in the global South. Where the research is limited, we highlight relevant data documenting the physical environment conditions experienced by children, and make recommendations for future work. In these recommendations, we highlight the limitations of employing research methodologies developed in Western contexts (Ferguson & Lee, 2013). Finally, we propose a holistic, multidisciplinary, and multilevel approach based on Bronfenbrenner's (1979) bioecological model to better understand and reduce the aversive effects of multiple environmental risk factors on the cognitive and socioemotional development of children across the globe.

Resource factors for mental health resilience in early childhood: An analysis with multiple methodologies

BACKGROUND

Given that relatively little is known about the development of resilience in early childhood, this longitudinal study aimed to identify preschool resource factors associated with young children's mental health resilience to family adversity.

METHODS

A community sample of 474 young Australian children was assessed in preschool (mean age 4.59 years, 49% male), and again two years later after their transition into formal schooling. At each assessment, standard questionnaires were used to obtain ratings from both parents and teachers about the quality of children's relationships with parents and teachers, children's self-concept and self-control, mental health (Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire), and family adversities (including stressful life events and socioeconomic disadvantage).

RESULTS

Greater exposure to cumulative family adversities was associated with both greater teacher- and parent-reported child mental health difficulties two years later. Multiple methodologies for operationalizing resilience were used to identify resources associated with resilient mental health outcomes. Higher quality child-parent and child-teacher relationships, and greater child self-concept and self-control were associated with resilient mental health outcomes. With the exception of child-teacher relationships, these resources were also prospective antecedents of subsequent resilient mental health outcomes in children with no pre-existing mental health difficulties. Child-parent relationships and child self-concept generally had promotive effects, being equally beneficial for children facing both low- and high-adversity. Child self-control demonstrated a small protective effect on teacher-reported outcomes, with greater self-control conferring greater protection to children under conditions of high-adversity.

CONCLUSIONS

Findings suggest that early intervention and prevention strategies that focus on fostering child-adult relationship quality, self-concept, and self-control in young children may help build children's mental health and their resilience to family adversities.

Genetic moderation of early child-care effects on social functioning across childhood: a developmental analysis

Data from 508 Caucasian children in the NICHD Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development shows that the DRD4 (but not 5-HTTLPR) polymorphism moderates the effect of child-care quality (but not quantity or type) on caregiver-reported externalizing problems at 54 months and in kindergarten and teacher-reported social skills at kindergarten and first grade-but not thereafter. Only children carrying the 7-repeat allele proved susceptible to quality-of-care effects. The behavior-problem interactions proved more consistent with diathesis-stress than differential-susceptibility thinking, whereas the reverse was true of the social-skills' results. Finally, the discerned Gene × Environment interactions did not account for previously reported parallel ones involving difficult temperament in infancy.

Social-emotional characteristics of gifted accelerated and non-accelerated students in the Netherlands

BACKGROUND

In the studies of acceleration conducted so far a multidimensional perspective has largely been neglected. No attempt has been made to relate social-emotional characteristics of accelerated versus non-accelerated students in perspective of environmental factors.

AIMS

In this study, social-emotional characteristics of accelerated gifted students in the Netherlands were examined in relation to personal and environmental factors.

SAMPLES

Self-concept and social contacts of accelerated (n = 148) and non-accelerated (n = 55) gifted students, aged 4 to 27 (M = 11.22, SD = 4.27) were measured.

METHOD

Self-concept and social contacts of accelerated and non-accelerated gifted students were measured using a questionnaire and a diary, and parents of these students evaluated their behavioural characteristics. Gender and birth order were studied as personal factors and grade, classroom, teachers' gender, teaching experience, and the quality of parent-school contact as environmental factors.

RESULTS

The results showed minimal differences in the social-emotional characteristics of accelerated and non-accelerated gifted students. The few differences we found favoured the accelerated students. We also found that multiple grade skipping does not have negative effects on social-emotional characteristics, and that long-term effects of acceleration tend to be positive. As regards the possible modulation of personal and environmental factors, we merely found an impact of such factors in the non-accelerated group.

CONCLUSIONS

The results of this study strongly suggest that social-emotional characteristics of accelerated gifted students and non-accelerated gifted students are largely similar. These results thus do not support worries expressed by teachers about the acceleration of gifted students. Our findings parallel the outcomes of earlier studies in the United States and Germany in that we observed that acceleration does not harm gifted students, not even in the case of multiple grade skipping. On the contrary, there is a suggestion in the data that accelerated students are more socially competent than non-accelerated students. The findings in this study can reassure those parents and teachers who worry about the social-emotional consequences of acceleration in school: If a student is gifted, acceleration seems to be a sound and, in many cases, appropriate measure in gifted education.

Family functioning and socioaffective competencies of children in the beginning of schooling

The aim of this short-term longitudinal study, based on the system theory, was to test the association between different aspects of family functioning of preschoolers and their socioaffective competencies at the end of the first grade. The total sample included 278 children (137 boys and 141 girls) and their families. The analysis of variance results regarding the aspects of family cohesion and harmony showed that preschoolers from more cohesive families display more social skills, while those from more conflicting families display more externalizing behavior problems (aggression and irritability). With respect to the family's ability to resolve problems, it was observed that, especially for middle and upper class families, this aspect is associated with better social skills and fewer internalized behavior problems. Overall, results of the present study suggest that the family functioning at early stage might influence children's abilities to regulate their emotions and to establish/maintain important relationships with peers and teachers in their early school years.

Do effects of early child care extend to age 15 years? Results from the NICHD study of early child care and youth development

Relations between nonrelative child care (birth to 4(1/2) years) and functioning at age 15 were examined (N = 1,364). Both quality and quantity of child care were linked to adolescent functioning. Effects were similar in size as those observed at younger ages. Higher quality care predicted higher cognitive-academic achievement at age 15, with escalating positive effects at higher levels of quality. The association between quality and achievement was mediated, in part, by earlier child-care effects on achievement. High-quality early child care also predicted youth reports of less externalizing behavior. More hours of nonrelative care predicted greater risk taking and impulsivity at age 15, relations that were partially mediated by earlier child-care effects on externalizing behaviors.

Parent involvement and children's academic and social development in elementary school

Data from the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD) Study of Early Childcare and Youth Development (N = 1,364) were used to investigate children's trajectories of academic and social development across 1st, 3rd, and 5th grades. Hierarchical linear modeling was used to examine within- and between-child associations among maternal and teacher reports of parent involvement and children's standardized achievement scores, social skills, and problem behaviors. Findings suggest that within-child improvements in parent involvement predict declines in problem behaviors and improvements in social skills but do not predict changes in achievement. Between-child analyses demonstrated that children with highly involved parents had enhanced social functioning and fewer behavior problems. Similar patterns of findings emerged for teacher and parent reports of parent involvement. Implications for policy and practice are discussed.

Preschool-to-Third Grade Programs and Practices: A Review of Research

The preschool-to-third grade perspective has helped the early childhood field move away from a reliance on relatively brief or one-shot programs toward more systematic and comprehensive models that span most of children's first decade. We review the knowledge base on the effectiveness of preschool to third grade intervention programs and practices for young children making the transition to school. Our coverage includes extended early childhood interventions, preschool programs, full-day kindergarten, reduced class sizes in the early grades, parent involvement, instructional practices, and school transitions (mobility). We distinguish between two major PK-3 strategies. PK-3 programs are planned interventions that begin during any of the five years of a child's life before kindergarten and which continue up to third grade. The most comprehensive programs include all these elements, and serve children from low-income families or who have special needs. Alternatively, PK-3 practices are defined as specific elements or components of extended early childhood programs that are hypothesized to be associated with children's outcomes. These elements may include preschool education, full-day kindergarten, reduced class sizes, teaching practices, and parent involvement activities. Overall, we find growing evidence for the positive effects of PK-3 programs and practices. The strongest evidence supporting enduring effects into adulthood is from center-based preschool programs followed by small classes in the early grades. Additional longitudinal studies are needed into adulthood to fully document the effects of different PK-3 programs and to verify the extent to which PK-3 practices (e.g., parent involvement, school mobility) have long-term effects into adulthood.

The Individualized Classroom Assessment Scoring System (inCLASS): Preliminary Reliability and Validity of a System for Observing Preschoolers' Competence in Classroom Interactions

This paper introduces the Individualized Classroom Assessment Scoring System (inCLASS), an observation tool that targets children's interactions in preschool classrooms with teachers, peers, and tasks. In particular, initial evidence is reported of the extent to which the inCLASS meets the following psychometric criteria: inter-rater reliability, normal distributions and adequate range, construct validity, and criterion-related validity. These initial findings suggest that the inCLASS has the potential to provide an authentic, contextualized assessment of young children's classroom behaviors. Future directions for research with the inCLASS are discussed.

On-going, Web-mediated Professional Development Focused on Teacher-Child Interactions: Early Childhood Educators' Usage Rates and Self-reported Satisfaction

As the pre-kindergarten teacher workforce continues to grow in the United States, the promise of early childhood education depends in large part on in-service professional development. Given mounting evidence that the quality of teacher-child interactions is a fundamental ingredient for young children's learning in classrooms, the challenge becomes how to develop and test models of teacher education that facilitate teachers' development of these instructional interaction skills. In this paper, we describe how an innovative program, MyTeachingPartner (MTP), addresses the challenge of providing an enduring, classroom-focused, and scalable professional development experience that focuses on facilitating high quality teacher-child interactions. Feasibility and usability results from two years of MTP implementation suggest high levels of teacher engagement, buy-in and satisfaction, as well as some challenges related to sustaining these levels over time. Implications for scalable implementation of interaction-focused professional development in early childhood are discussed.

Emotion regulation strategies and later externalizing behavior among European American and African American children

Children's early emotion regulation strategies (ERS) have been related to externalizing problems; however, most studies have included predominantly European American, middle-class children. The current study explores whether ERS use may have differential outcomes as a function of the mother's ethnic culture. The study utilizes two diverse samples of low-income male toddlers to examine observed ERS during a delay of gratification task in relation to maternal and teacher reports of children's externalizing behavior 2 to 6 years later. Although the frequencies of ERS were comparable between ethnic groups in both samples, the use of physical comfort seeking and self-soothing was positively related to African American children's later externalizing behavior but negatively related to externalizing behavior for European American children in Sample 1. Data from Sample 2 appear to support this pattern for self-soothing in maternal, but not teacher, report of externalizing behavior. Within group differences by income were examined as a possible explanatory factor accounting for the ethnic differences, but it was not supported. Alternative explanations are discussed to explain the pattern of findings.

Are There Long-Term Effects of Early Child Care?

Effects of early child care on children's functioning from 4(1/2) years through the end of 6th grade (M age=12.0 years) were examined in the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development (n=1,364). The results indicated that although parenting was a stronger and more consistent predictor of children's development than early child-care experience, higher quality care predicted higher vocabulary scores and more exposure to center care predicted more teacher-reported externalizing problems. Discussion focuses on mechanisms responsible for these effects, the potential collective consequences of small child-care effects, and the importance of the ongoing follow-up at age 15.

Use of discretionary protective equipment in high school athletes: prevalence and determinants

OBJECTIVES

We sought to describe the use of discretionary protective equipment among high school athletes and to examine social and behavioral determinants contributing to equipment usage.

METHODS

We analyzed data from a 3-year (1996-1999), stratified, 2-stage cluster sample of athletes engaged in 12 organized sports in 100 North Carolina high schools (n=19728 athlete-seasons) (an athlete-season represents an individual student who participates in a particular sport in a particular season). We used generalized logistic regression to model the association of social and behavioral determinants and demographic variables with discretionary protective equipment use.

RESULTS

About one third of high school athletes self-reported using lower extremity discretionary protective equipment. Girls, seniors, those who played limited-contact sports, and those who played multiple sports reported higher usage. Small school size, low player/coach ratio, high proportion of team usage, and history of previous lower extremity injury were important predictors of usage. Coaches' experience, qualifications, and training, however, were not predictive of usage.

CONCLUSIONS

Intervention efforts to promote use of discretionary protective equipment need to target school-level factors and should consider both team requirements and the role of peers in setting and reinforcing norms.

Can Instructional and Emotional Support in the First-Grade Classroom Make a Difference for Children at Risk of School Failure?

This study examined ways in which children's risk of school failure may be moderated by support from teachers. Participants were 910 children in a national prospective study. Children were identified as at risk at ages 5-6 years on the basis of demographic characteristics and the display of multiple functional (behavioral, attention, academic, social) problems reported by their kindergarten teachers. By the end of first grade, at-risk students placed in first-grade classrooms offering strong instructional and emotional support had achievement scores and student-teacher relationships commensurate with their low-risk peers; at-risk students placed in less supportive classrooms had lower achievement and more conflict with teachers. These findings have implications for understanding the role that classroom experience may play in pathways to positive adaptation.