Predicting Improvement After First-Grade Reading Difficulties: The Effects of Oral Language, Emergent Literacy, and Behavior Skills

Interprofessional delivery of Read It Again - KindergartenQ!: Classroom, educator, and child outcomes of an Australian pilot study

PURPOSE

Australian Early Development Census (AEDC) data for the Australian Capital Territory (ACT) indicates a concerning increase in the proportion of children who are at risk or developmentally vulnerable in the domains of communication and general knowledge, and language and cognitive skills. This study investigated the effectiveness of speech-language pathologist and educator collaboration to build educator capacity to promote oral language and emergent literacy skills in preschool children.

METHOD

A quasi-experimental, pre-test post-test design was used to evaluate the effectiveness of interprofessional delivery of Read It Again - KindergartenQ! on (a) children's oral language and emergent literacy outcomes, (b) educators' oral language and emergent literacy instructional practices, and (c) quality of the classroom environment.

RESULT

Children demonstrated improved print knowledge and narrative skills. One of the two educators demonstrated a significant increase in their use of oral language and emergent literacy promoting strategies in their day-to-day interactions with children. No significant changes were observed in the classroom environment.

CONCLUSION

Interprofessional collaboration with a coaching component is an effective method of improving children's emergent literacy skills and educator instructional practices.

A 3-year longitudinal investigation of the overlap and stability of English and French word reading difficulties in French immersion children

Extensive research has demonstrated the importance of struggling reader identification in monolingual children Compton et al. (Journal of Educational Psychology, 102, 327-340, 2010). However, very few studies have explored identification of struggling readers in bilinguals. The aim of this study was to investigate (1) the overlap of word reading difficulties in English and French, (2) the difference in overlap when word reading fluency skills are included in struggling reader classification, and (3) the stability of English and French word reading profiles. A total of 169 French immersion children were followed from grades 1 to 3. Standardized measures of English and French word reading accuracy and fluency were administered every year to classify status as a bilingual typical reader, bilingual struggling reader, English struggling reader, or French struggling reader. Chi-square analyses were conducted to assess the overlap between English and French word reading difficulties and stability of word reading profiles from grades 1 to 3. Results indicated that struggling reader classification using both word reading accuracy and fluency as opposed to accuracy alone captured bilingual reading difficulties (difficulties in both languages) more accurately. Across all grades, there was a significant relationship between being a struggling reader in English and being a struggling reader in French, with the percentage of overlap ranging from 56 to 82%. Moreover, being a bilingual struggling reader in grade 1 was significantly related to being a bilingual struggling reader in grades 2 and 3. These findings suggest that English-French bilingual children with reading impairments have significant and persistent deficits in both languages.

Bilingual Children's Vocabulary Skills at 5 Years Predict Reading Comprehension Development Within, Not Across, Languages

Extensive evidence indicates that early vocabulary skills predict later reading development among monolingually developing children. Some evidence suggests that a relationship between vocabulary and later reading also holds across languages among children whose home language differs from the school language. However, these findings have been mixed and it remains unclear if, and under what circumstances, vocabulary in one language supports reading comprehension development in another. The present study followed 84 Spanish-English bilingual children, assessing their vocabulary skills at 5 years and their reading comprehension at 6, 7, 8, and 9 years. Longitudinal multilevel models revealed significant within-language relations between early vocabulary knowledge and subsequent reading comprehension in both English and Spanish and no across-language relations. There were significant concurrent across-language relations between English and Spanish reading comprehension skills. These findings suggest that the contribution of vocabulary knowledge to reading comprehension is language specific but that there are also language general components to reading comprehension, which result in significant concurrent relations between reading comprehension skill across languages.

Psychometric Properties of a Preschool Language, Literacy, and Behavior Screener

This study investigated the psychometric properties of the Preschool Language, Literacy, and Behavior Screener (PLLB-S). We examined and tested the factor structure of the PLLB-S using exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses. We further conducted internal consistency, concurrent validity, and predictive validity analyses and evaluated teacher satisfaction using PLLB-S. Our factor analyses resulted in 22 items distributed among three subscales with high internal consistency: Oral language, emergent literacy, and behavior skills. The PLLB-S and its subscales correlated moderately to strongly with standardized measures. The emergent literacy of the PLLB-S was the only subscale that significantly predicted children’s later vocabulary knowledge. Preschool teachers reported high satisfaction with the content and purpose of the questionnaire. We concluded that this tool with sound psychometric properties can potentially help increase the feasibility and efficiency of implementing standardized assessments in MTSS frameworks in preschool classrooms.

Online Literacy Instruction for Young Korean Dual Language Learners in General Education

English language development is a critical component for young children's school readiness. In this study, we examined the effect of Read it again-Pre-K! (Justice and McGinty in Read it again!-Prek: a preschool curriculum supplement to promote language and literacy foundations, Crane Center for Early Childhood Research and Policy, Columbus, 2013), a literacy curriculum designed to prepare young children's school readiness on the English literacy skills of Korean dual language learners in general education. Using a multiple probe design, eight 4- to 5-year-old Korean dual language learners (1 female, 7 males) received 1:1 online synchronous daily instruction over 2 months during the summer before entering their kindergarten programs. Through the intervention, all eight children demonstrated increases in the use of English vocabulary, story comprehension, and oral fluency. Post-intervention data on vocabulary and reading fluency through three standardized tests, Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills, Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test, and Expressive Vocabulary Test, showed improvement over baseline for most children. Discussion and implications for future research were provided.

Second Graders' Grapho-Motor Skill Learning and Verbal Learning: The Effects of Socio-Educational Factors

Introduction: Children from low socioeconomic status (SES) families, and in particular, those with a lower level of maternal education, show lower fine-motor skills and lower vocabulary scores than their SES peers whose mothers have a higher level of education. Furthermore, low SES children frequently have difficulties in reading and spelling. These difficulties are attributed to deficits in the acquisition of skills through practice, such as those required for developing visual-motor routines, alongside deficits in the intentional acquisition of knowledge, such as those required in verbal learning. The aim of the current study was to test the effect of two background factors: low maternal education (ME) and risk of reading and spelling difficulties on practice-dependent learning of a motor task and intentional learning of a verbal task in second graders from low SES families. Methods: In 2016/17, 134 low-SES second graders with higher and lower ME (95 typical learners and 39 with reading and spelling difficulties) were assessed with (a) the Invented Letter Task (ILT; a grapho-motor skill learning task) across five time-points (initial- and end-training Day 1; initial- and end-training Day 2; and 2-weeks post-training), as well as an ILT transfer task; and (b) The Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test (RAVLT; an intentional word-learning task in which a word list is read to children for five learning trials and is recalled 20 min later). Findings: Lower ME was associated with surplus segments in the performance of the motor task and its transfer to a novel condition as well as with lower recall on the verbal task, but not with the learning of both the motor and the verbal task. Having reading and spelling difficulties affected motor-task accuracy and also the way children learned the task, as evidenced by surplus segments at the beginning of Day 2, which were reduced with further practice. Conclusion: Low ME affected overall performance level. Reading and spelling difficulties resulted in atypical learning of the motor task. Future research on practice-dependent learning in the context of children coming from low SES families should focus on subgroups within this heterogeneous population.

Readiness or Impairment: Cognitive and Linguistic Differences Between Children Who Learn to Read and Those Who Exhibit Difficulties With Reading in Kindergarten Compared to Their Achievements at the End of First Grade

Many studies have attempted to identify measures that predict reading abilities. The results of these studies may be inclined to over-identification of children considered at risk in kindergarten but who achieve parity in reading by the end of first grade. Therefore, the current study sought to analyze the specific cognitive and linguistic predictors of reading accuracy and reading speed separately. Additionally, the study examined if it is possible to use empirically validated measures to distinguish between children who are not ready to learn how to read in kindergarten but manage to acquire reading skills by the end of first grade, and those who continue to exhibit difficulties. The study followed 98 kindergarteners (43 boys and 55 girls) aged 4 years 10 months to six years from three different schools, who were taught how to read in kindergarten. Multiple measures of general cognitive skills, linguistic abilities, and reading abilities were measured at three different points in time: the beginning of kindergarten, the end of kindergarten, and the end of first grade. The study found that most of the children with good literacy and cognitive abilities learned how to read by the end of kindergarten. The analysis revealed a significant difference in cognitive abilities, such as executive functions and memory, which distinguished between the ability to acquire fluent reading and accurate reading. The study was able to successfully distinguish between “children with difficulties” and “un-ready” children. These results have various implications, especially in regard to the identification of and intervention with kindergarten children at risk for reading disabilities.

Prevalence of language and pre-literacy difficulties in an Australian cohort of 5-year-old children experiencing adversity

BACKGROUND

Early reading success is predicated on language and pre-literacy skills. Children who are behind their peers in language and pre-literacy development before formal schooling are less likely to be proficient beginner readers, and difficulties may persist throughout primary school and beyond. We know children experiencing adversity are at greater risk of early language and pre-literacy difficulties; we do not know the prevalence of these difficulties in an Australian adversity context.

AIMS

To investigate the prevalence and co-occurrence of language and pre-literacy difficulties in a cohort of Australian 5-year-old children experiencing social adversity.

METHODS & PROCEDURES

Data were drawn from a large Australian community-based trial of nurse home visiting (right@home), which aimed to support women experiencing social adversity from pregnancy until their child turned 2 years of age. Social adversity was determined by two of more risk factors: young pregnancy, not living with another adult, no support, poorer health, current smoker, long-term illness, anxious mood, not finishing high school, no household income and no previous employment. Children whose mothers were enrolled in the control group (receiving usual maternal and child healthcare) were included in the current study (n = 359). Language and pre-literacy skills were measured at age 5 using the Clinical Evaluation of Language Fundamental Preschool-Second Edition (CELF-P2) and the School Entry Alphabetic and Phonological Awareness Readiness Test (SEAPART). Language difficulties were defined as ≥ 1.25 standard deviations (SD) below the Australian normative mean on CELF-P2 Core Language scores. Pre-literacy difficulties were defined as children scoring in the Beginner (versus Developing or Competent) criterion-referenced level on the SEAPART First Sound Identification and/or Alphabet Letter Identification subtests. Co-occurrence of language and pre-literacy difficulties was also determined.

OUTCOMES & RESULTS

At the 5-year follow-up, 201/359 (56%) children were assessed (mean age = 5.1 years, SD = 0.1). Mean Core Language score for this cohort (91.8, SD = 15.9) was 0.54 SD below the normative mean (100, SD = 15). The proportion of children presenting with language difficulties was 24.9%. Regarding pre-literacy skills, 43.8% of children were 'Beginner' for identifying first sounds and 58.6% for identifying alphabet letters/sounds. There was also considerable overlap whereby 76.7% of children with language difficulties also exhibited pre-literacy difficulties.

CONCLUSIONS & IMPLICATIONS

This is the first empirical Australian-based study highlighting the high prevalence and co-occurrence of language and pre-literacy difficulties in preschool children experiencing social adversity. Clinicians should be aware of co-morbid language and pre-literacy difficulties in disadvantaged populations and consider both areas during assessment and intervention planning. What this paper adds What is already known on the subject The prevalence of language and literacy difficulties is substantially higher in cohorts experiencing social adversity when compared with more advantaged families. There is some evidence that adversity also contributes to pre-literacy difficulties, but less is known here. What this paper adds to existing knowledge This study presents new prevalence data showing high rates of language and pre-literacy difficulties for 5-year-old children experiencing adversity within an Australian context. It is the first to explore these skills in a large cohort of pre-schoolers recruited from community settings in Australia. What are the potential or actual clinical implications of this work? In this cohort experiencing adversity, most children who presented with language difficulties likewise exhibited pre-literacy difficulties. This concordance reflects how early oral language and pre-literacy skills develop together. Clinicians should assess both skills in preschool populations-especially those working with children experiencing adversity-to ensure all children have strong foundations to become proficient beginner readers.

Elaborative Reminiscing and Child Receptive Language in the Context of Maltreatment: The Moderating Role of Maternal Sensitivity

This study investigated whether the effect of maternal elaborative reminiscing on child language is moderated by maternal sensitivity and whether this association depends on children's experience of maltreatment. A total of 236 mothers and their 3- to 7-year-old children (mean age = 5 years) were observed interacting with experimenter-provided toys in the lab and at home, and maternal sensitivity was coded from these interactions. Of that, 155 of the children had a history of maltreatment with the mother being named a perpetrator, and the remaining dyads were demographically matched with no history of maltreatment. Dyads were also asked to discuss four past emotional events, and these conversations were coded for maternal elaborative reminiscing. Children and mothers participated in an assessment of receptive language. Findings revealed an unqualified positive main effect of elaborative reminiscing on children's receptive language in the nonmaltreating families. However, for maltreated children, elaborative reminiscing was only associated with higher child receptive language when mothers were also more sensitive. These findings indicate that, in the context of maltreatment, both elaborative reminiscing and more general aspects of the quality of the parent-child relationship are important for facilitating child receptive language.

Emotion Socialization and Developmental Risk: Interactive Effects of Receptive Language and Maltreatment on Reminiscing

OBJECTIVES

Emotional reminiscing, or mother-child discussion of past emotional experiences, is a critical aspect of emotion socialization that predicts a range of child outcomes and is central to parent-child interventions. Thus, understanding individual differences in emotional reminiscing will advance our ability to identify families at-risk for poor emotion dialogues and to adapt interventions for diverse populations, such as families affected by maltreatment and mothers and children with low language abilities. The present study examined associations among maternal and child receptive language with emotional reminiscing and the moderating role of maltreatment.

METHODS

Two hundred and twenty three underserved, racially diverse mothers (144 maltreating) and their preschool aged children completed measures of receptive language (PPVT-4). Emotional reminiscing was comprehensively measured using maternal report and observations of emotion dialogues, including ratings of elaborations, maternal sensitive guidance, and child cooperative exploration.

RESULTS

Child language was positively associated with all observed aspects of child reminiscing, and the association between child language and maternal reminiscing was moderated by maltreatment. For non-maltreating families, child language was positively associated with maternal factual elaborations and sensitive guidance. For the maltreating families, these associations were not significant, demonstrating that maltreatment disrupted the association between child language and reminiscing. Maternal language was significantly associated with maternal report of emotion dismissing behaviors, regardless of maltreatment status.

CONCLUSIONS

Results highlight that language is an essential individual difference factor contributing to variance in emotion dialogues, and that maltreatment influences how child language relates to reminiscing. Future directions and clinical implications for families affected by developmental risk are considered.

Receptive Vocabulary Development of Children Placed in Foster Care and Children Who Remained With Birth Parents After Involvement With Child Protective Services

Children who experience maltreatment are more likely than nonmaltreated children to demonstrate deficits in early receptive language skills that negatively impact their later academic achievement, social competence, and behavioral adjustment. It remains unclear whether placement in foster care affects children's early receptive language skills. In the current study, we examined whether children with Child Protective Services (CPS) involvement who were in foster care ( n = 176) had more advanced receptive vocabulary than children with CPS involvement who resided with their birth parents ( n = 144). Results demonstrated that children in foster care had higher receptive vocabulary scores at ages 36 and 48 months than children who stayed with their birth parents. Group differences were not significant after controlling for caregiver education level, marital status, and household income. These findings suggest that placement in foster care may be associated with meaningful improvements in children's receptive vocabulary among children with experiences of CPS involvement, and birth parents might benefit from increased supports to promote parent-child interactions that facilitate language development.

Profiles of Foundational Learning Components among First Graders

School readiness includes a constellation of skills and behaviors, such as social and emotional development, language and literacy, and self-regulation that provide a basis critical for classroom participation and learning. Whereas it has been well-established that students who enter kindergarten with weaknesses in language and literacy are more likely to struggle academically, less research has focused on the variability and educational impact of other foundational learning components, including internalizing and externalizing behaviors, particularly in first grade. This study used latent profile analysis to identify the following four subgroups (profiles) of students, using foundational learning components, in a sample of first graders (n = 324): Emergent Hyperactive, Externalizing, Generally Good Students, and Internalizing. Latent class growth analysis illustrated significant differences in the average rate of growth in literacy skills from the beginning to the end of first grade across the four profiles, after controlling for gender and socioeconomic status. Findings indicated the greatest growth in literacy skills for students in the Externalizing profile and the least amount of vocabulary growth for students in the Emergent Hyperactive profile followed by the Internalizing profile. Educational implications of how researchers and educators might consider students' individual differences across profiles of foundational learning components to inform ways to support development and learning in the classroom are discussed.

Psychometric Evaluation of Lexical Diversity Indices in Spanish Narrative Samples From Children With and Without Developmental Language Disorder

Purpose The purpose of the current study was to examine construct validity evidence for the following 4 lexical diversity measures for use in Spanish narrative samples of children with developmental language disorder and typical language development (TLD): (a) type-token ratio (TTR; Chotlos, 1944 ; Templin, 1957 ), (b) hypergeometric distribution D ( McCarthy & Jarvis, 2010 ), (c) measure of textual lexical diversity (MTLD; McCarthy, 2005 ), and (d) moving-average TTR (MATTR; Covington & McFall, 2010 ). Method A multiple-group, confirmatory factor analytic stepwise procedure was applied to examine factorial invariance in a sample of 435 monolingual Spanish-speaking children (335 with TLD and 100 with specific language impairment). Results MATTR was the strongest indicator of the lexical diversity of a sample and demonstrated measurement invariance across children with TLD and specific language impairment. MTLD scores included some noise at different levels as a function of the length of a sample, especially for short language samples, but differences in relation to MATTR were relatively small. The validity of hypergeometric distribution D and TTR score interpretations was low, as the scores covaried systematically with length, with TTR being the poorest measure of lexical diversity. Conclusion Results support the use of MATTR and MTLD as measures of lexical diversity and should assist clinicians and researchers in the selection of lexical diversity measures to minimize bias in score interpretations when conducting language sample analyses.

The applicability of D, MTLD, and MATTR in Mandarin-speaking children

PURPOSE

The purpose of this study is to evaluate the applicability of D, the Measure of Textual Lexical Diversity (MTLD), and Moving ¬Average Type ¬Token Ratio (MATTR) for measuring lexical diversity of Mandarin-speaking preschoolers. This study examined if D, MTLD, and MATTR can be used to differentiate two different age groups (children age 3 and 4 years) and two language ability groups (typically developing children and children with language delay).

METHOD

Seventy-eight Mandarin-speaking typically developing children and 56 Mandarin-speaking children with language delay participated in this study. The researchers collected, transcribed, and analyzed language samples from these children.

RESULTS

The findings showed that D and MTLD were sensitive LD measures for assessing the Mandarin-speaking preschoolers. D and MTLD differentiated the two different age groups and language ability groups. The D and MTLD scores of typically developing children were significantly higher than those of children with language delay. Also, 4-year-olds had significantly higher D and MTLD scores than 3-year-olds. MATTR differentiated the two language ability groups but not the two age groups. Possible factors influencing the sensitivity of lexical diversity measures were discussed.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings indicated that D and MTLD were sensitive for assessing Mandarin-speaking preschoolers from Taiwan. MATTR can be used to identify children with language delay in this study.

Sources of individual differences in young Chinese children's reading and mathematics skill: A longitudinal study

This study investigated the longitudinal associations between four key elements of school readiness-receptive vocabulary, socioemotional behavior, behavioral self-regulation, and approaches to learning-and individual differences in young children's reading and mathematics trajectories. Chinese children (N = 588) were tested three times between the ages of five and six on their Chinese reading and mathematics skills, and their receptive vocabulary, problem behavior, behavioral self-regulation, and approaches to learning (competence motivation, learning strategy, and attention/persistence) were assessed at five years of age. Latent growth modeling revealed that receptive vocabulary and behavioral self-regulation played unique roles in predicting the levels of Chinese reading (vocabulary: β = 0.15, p = .023; self-regulation: β = 0.16, p = .001) and mathematics skills (vocabulary: β = 0.25, p < .001; self-regulation: β = 0.36, p < .001). Problem behavior and competence motivation were associated with the levels of mathematics skills (problem behavior: β = -0.06, p = .046; competence motivation: β = 0.16, p < .001) but not those of reading skills. Moreover, competence motivation predicted the growth rate of Chinese reading skills (β = 0.18, p = .015). The findings extend the current literature by explicating the independent contributions made by early school readiness skills to individual differences in young Chinese children's acquisition of reading and mathematics skills.

Improving Conceptual Knowledge of the Italian Writing System in Kindergarten: A Cluster Randomized Trial

This study assessed the efficacy of PASSI (Promoting the Achievement of Sound-Sign Integration), an intervention to improve children's conceptual knowledge of the Italian writing system in kindergarten, which is an emergent literacy predictor of reading and spelling acquisition focused on letter-speech sound integration. PASSI implements an embedded-explicit approach in which teachers target specific subskills (reflection on the graphic, symbolic and phonological aspect of written signs) and emphasize children's contextualized interactions with oral and written language. One hundred fifty-nine Italian children participated in this study. Six teachers (and their three respective classes) were randomly assigned to the experimental group, and six teachers were assigned to the control group. All children were tested on the invented spelling of words and numbers, knowledge of the alphabet, orthographic awareness, and drawing twice, before and after the intervention. Children's visual-motor integration skills were also assessed as a control variable. The data were analyzed through the complex samples general linear model (GLM) approach. The results confirmed the efficacy of PASSI in promoting children's conceptual knowledge of the writing system and related emergent literacy skills. Theoretical and educational implications of the results are presented and discussed.

Effects of extreme prematurity and kindergarten neuropsychological skills on early academic progress

OBJECTIVE

The study was designed to investigate the effect of extreme prematurity on growth in academic achievement across the early school years and the validity of kindergarten neuropsychological skills as predictors of achievement.

METHOD

A 2001-2003 birth cohort of 145 extremely preterm/extremely low birth weight (EPT/ELBW) children from a single medical center, along with 111 normal birth weight (NBW) classmate controls, were recruited during their first year in kindergarten and followed annually across the next 2 years in school. Mixed model analysis was conducted to compare the groups on growth in achievement across years and examine kindergarten neuropsychological skills as predictors of growth.

RESULTS

The EPT/ELBW group scored significantly below NBW controls on all achievement tests across years and had higher rates of special education placement and grade repetition. Despite limited catch-up of the EPT/ELBW group to the NBW controls in spelling, group differences were generally stable. Differences in spelling and mathematics achievement remained significant when controlling for global intelligence or excluding children who had intellectual or neurosensory impairments or repeated a grade. Higher scores on kindergarten tests of multiple neuropsychological ability domains predicted higher achievement levels and steeper growth in achievement.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings document persistent academic weaknesses in EPT/ELBW children across the early school years. Results point to the need for preschool interventions to enhance academic readiness and suggest that neuropsychological skills assessed in kindergarten are useful in identifying individual differences in early learning progress. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2018 APA, all rights reserved).

Direct and Reciprocal Effects among Social Skills, Vocabulary, and Reading Comprehension in First Grade

Social skills and vocabulary are important areas of development involved in early reading achievement, yet little attention has been given to understanding the dynamic associations among them during the elementary years. This study examined the relations among three dimensions of social skills-cooperation, assertion, and self-control-vocabulary and developing reading comprehension (RC) skills in a longitudinal sample of first graders (n = 468). Using Structural Equation Modeling, reciprocal effects were observed between vocabulary and RC as well as direct effects among social skills, vocabulary, and RC after controlling for the influence of problem behaviors. This study highlights the reciprocal nature of students' vocabulary and RC skills as well as provides preliminary evidence suggesting that social skills play a role in developing vocabulary and RC skills, and further, vocabulary and RC skills play a role in social development during middle childhood. Implications for policy and practice are discussed.

Spanish Instruction in Head Start and Dual Language Learners' Academic Achievement

Data from the Head Start Impact Study (N = 1,141) and the Head Start Family and Child Experiences Survey, 2009 Cohort (N = 825) were used to investigate whether Spanish instruction in Head Start differentially increased Spanish-speaking Dual Language Learners' (DLLs) academic achievement. Although hypothesized that Spanish instruction would be beneficial for DLLs' early literacy and math skills, results from residualized growth models showed there were no such positive associations. Somewhat surprisingly, DLL children instructed in Spanish had higher English receptive vocabulary skills at the end of the Head Start year than those not instructed, with children randomly assigned to Head Start and instructed in Spanish having the highest scores. Policy implications for Head Start-eligible Spanish-speaking DLLs are discussed.

Does Gender Moderate the Relations Between Externalizing Behavior and Key Emergent Literacy Abilities? Evidence From a Longitudinal Study

OBJECTIVE

There is a significant negative relation between externalizing behavior and emergent literacy skills among preschool children.

METHOD

The purpose of this study was to examine the impact of gender on the predictive relation of externalizing behavior and emergent literacy in a group of 178 preschool children (mean age = 48.50 months, SD = 3.66; 48% boys).

RESULTS

Externalizing behaviors predicted emergent literacy over time. Distinct patterns of predictive associations dependent on gender were found. Girls with higher levels of externalizing behaviors experienced less change in their vocabulary skills compared with the vocabulary change shown by girls with lower levels of these problem behaviors.

CONCLUSION

The results suggest that early identification programs that include externalizing behavior problems and their relation with emergent literacy development should account for potential gender differences. A theoretical framework in which girls with behavior problems receive less opportunity for vocabulary acquisition is presented.

Reciprocal Effects of Self-Regulation, Semantic Knowledge, and Reading Comprehension in Early Elementary School

Many assume that cognitive and linguistic processes, such as semantic knowledge (SK) and self-regulation (SR), subserve learned skills like reading. However, complex models of interacting and bootstrapping effects of SK, SR, instruction, and reading hypothesize reciprocal effects. Testing this "lattice" model with children (n = 852) followed from first to second grade (5.9-10.4 years of age) revealed reciprocal effects for reading and SR, and reading and SK, but not SR and SK. More effective literacy instruction reduced reading stability over time. Findings elucidate the synergistic and reciprocal effects of learning to read on other important linguistic, self-regulatory, and cognitive processes; the value of using complex models of development to inform intervention design; and how learned skills may influence development during middle childhood.

Ability of Early Literacy Measures to Predict Future State Assessment Performance

The purpose of this study was to determine the extent to which early literacy measures administered in kindergarten and Oral Reading Fluency (ORF) measures administered in Grade 1 are related to and predict future state reading assessment performances up to 7 years later. Results indicated that early literacy and ORF performances were significantly and moderately related to performances in Grades 3, 5, and 7. Grade 3 achievement was best predicted by ORF, followed by Phoneme Segmentation Fluency (PSF), and then Initial Sound Fluency (ISF). After controlling for the effects of previous state assessment scores in Grade 3, additional significant variance in Grade 5 performance was accounted for by ORF. Finally, after controlling for the effects of Grades 5 and 3 state assessment performances, early literacy and ORF measures did not significantly predict Grade 7 achievement. Discussion focuses on the implications of these findings for theory and practice, as well as limitations and directions for future research.

Validating the Use of D for Measuring Lexical Diversity in Low-Income Kindergarten Children

Purpose

Children from low–socioeconomic status families often perform poorly on standardized vocabulary assessments. The primary purpose of the study was to determine whether lexical diversity as measured by D (Malvern, Richards, Chipere, & Durán, 2004) serves as a valid measure of vocabulary in at-risk, low-income, predominantly African American kindergartners.

Method

Kane's (1992) argument-based approach was used to validate D. Six assumptions were examined. Kindergartners ( N = 210) from a high-poverty, low-achievement region of the United States were recorded narrating a wordless picture book and assessed using the Expressive Vocabulary Test, Second Edition (Williams, 2007), and the Kaufman Test of Educational Achievement, Second Edition–Listening Comprehension subtest (Kaufman & Kaufman, 2004).

Results

D was distributed normally and did not vary as a function of language sample length or child ethnicity. D was significantly but weakly related to the Expressive Vocabulary Test, Second Edition, indicating some distinction between D and the Expressive Vocabulary Test, Second Edition, scores. Further, D was only marginally related to the Kaufman Test of Educational Achievement, Second Edition–Listening Comprehension subtest.

Conclusions

Although evidence was somewhat mixed, the study supported the view that D is a potentially valid measure of lexical diversity among low-income, predominantly African American kindergartners and could be a useful supplement to standardized vocabulary measures.

Classroom quality as a predictor of first graders' time in non-instructional activities and literacy achievement

This study investigated how quality of the classroom learning environment influenced first grade students' (n=533) time spent in two non-instructional classroom activities (off-task and in transition) and their subsequent literacy outcomes. Hierarchical linear modeling revealed that higher classroom quality was related to higher student performance in reading comprehension and expressive vocabulary. Further, classroom quality predicted the amount of time students spent off-task and in transitions in the classroom, with slopes of change across the year particularly impacted. Mediation effects were detected in the case of expressive vocabulary such that the influence of classroom quality on students' achievement operated through students' time spent in these non-instructional activities. Results highlight the importance of overall classroom quality to how students navigate the classroom environment during learning opportunities, with subsequent literacy achievement impacted. Implications for policy and educational practices are discussed.

Elizabeth Usher Memorial Lecture: Language is literacy is language - Positioning speech-language pathology in education policy, practice, paradigms and polemics

This paper is concerned with the fundamental and intrinsic links between early receptive and expressive oral language competence on the one hand and the transition to literacy in the early school years and achievement of academic (and life) success on the other. Consequently, it also concerns the professional knowledge base of two key disciplines whose work is central to children's early language and literacy success: teachers and speech-language pathologists (SLPs). Oral language competence underpins the transition to literacy, which in turn underpins academic achievement. Academic achievement is significant in its own right, conferring opportunities for further education and training post-secondary school, contributing to psychological health and mitigating some of the mental health risks and adversities that can be associated with adolescence and early adulthood. The central thesis is that the linguistic basis of the transition to literacy makes early reading success core business for SLPs. Further, SLPs need a firm grasp of the political and ideological factors that have exerted historical and continuing influence on reading instruction in western nations such as Australia, the US and the UK. This will facilitate the establishment of meaningful working relationships with teaching colleagues, to achieve optimal education outcomes for all children.

Dialect variation, dialect-shifting, and reading comprehension in second grade

The purpose of this study was to examine second graders' (n=680) changing spoken nonmainstream American English (NMAE) use in relation to their oral language and reading comprehension achievement. Fall NMAE production was negatively associated with fall achievement scores. NMAE production generally decreased from fall to spring. Students who qualified for the US Free and Reduced Lunch program (FARL) and who had stronger language skills were more likely to decrease their NMAE use (i.e., dialect shifting) than their peers who did not qualify for FARL or their peers with weaker language skills. Dialect shifting for a sub-sample of 102 students who used substantial amounts of NMAE at the beginning of the school year was predicted by school context, controlling for reading and language skills - in general, students who attended more affluent schools dialect shifted to a greater extent than did their peers who attended higher poverty schools. Greater dialect shifting in this group predicted gains in reading comprehension from fall to spring.

Cognitive Attributes, Attention, and Self-Efficacy of Adequate and Inadequate Responders in a Fourth Grade Reading Intervention

We examined cognitive attributes, attention, and self-efficacy of fourth grade struggling readers who were identified as adequate responders (n = 27), inadequate responders with comprehension only deficits (n = 46), and inadequate responders with comprehension and word reading deficits (n = 52) after receiving a multicomponent reading intervention. We also included typical readers (n = 40). These four groups were compared on measures of nonverbal reasoning, working memory, verbal knowledge, listening comprehension, phonological awareness, and rapid naming as well as on teacher ratings of attention problems and self-reported self-efficacy. The two inadequate responder groups demonstrated difficulties primarily with verbal knowledge and listening comprehension compared to typical readers and adequate responders. Phonological awareness and rapid naming differentiated the two inadequate responder groups. In addition, both inadequate responder groups showed more attention problems and low self-efficacy compared to typical readers.

Depressive symptoms in third-grade teachers: relations to classroom quality and student achievement

This study investigated associations among third-grade teachers' (N = 27) symptoms of depression, quality of the classroom-learning environment (CLE), and students' (N = 523, Mage  = 8.6 years) math and literacy performance. teachers' depressive symptoms in the winter negatively predicted students' spring mathematics achievement. This depended on students' fall mathematics scores; students who began the year with weaker math skills and were in classrooms where teachers reported more depressive symptoms achieved smaller gains than did peers whose teachers reported fewer symptoms. teachers' depressive symptoms were negatively associated with quality of CLE, and quality of CLE mediated the association between depressive symptoms and student achievement. The findings point to the importance of teachers' mental health, with implications for policy and practice.

Kindergarten classroom functioning of extremely preterm/extremely low birth weight children

BACKGROUND

Cognitive, behavioral, and learning problems are evident in extremely preterm/extremely low birth weight (EPT/ELBW, <28 weeks gestational age or <1000 g) children by early school age. However, we know little about how they function within the classroom once they start school.

AIMS

To determine how EPT/ELBW children function in kindergarten classrooms compared to termborn normal birth weight (NBW) classmates and identify factors related to difficulties in classroom functioning.

METHODS

A 2001-2003 birth cohort of 111 EPT/ELBW children and 110 NBW classmate controls were observed in regular kindergarten classrooms during a 1-hour instructional period using a time-sample method. The groups were compared on frequencies of individual teacher attention, competing or offtask behaviors, task management/preparation, and academic responding. Regression analysis was also conducted within the EPT/ELBW group to examine associations of these measures with neonatal and developmental risk factors, kindergarten neuropsychological and behavioral assessments, and classroom characteristics.

RESULTS

The EPT/ELBW group received more individual teacher attention and was more often off-task than the NBW controls. Poorer classroom functioning in the EPT/ELBW group was associated with higher neonatal and developmental risk, poorer executive function skills, more negative teaching ratings of behavior and learning progress, and classroom characteristics.

CONCLUSION

EPT/ELBW children require more teacher support and are less able to engage in instructional activities than their NBW classmates. Associations of classroom functioning with developmental history and cognitive and behavioral traits suggest that these factors may be useful in identifying the children most in need of special educational interventions.

The Role of Access to Head Start and Quality Ratings for Spanish-Speaking Dual Language Learners' (DLLs) Participation in Early Childhood Education

Data from the Head Start Impact Study (N = 4,442) were used to test for differences between Spanish-speaking Dual Language Learners (DLLs) and monolingual English-speaking children in: (1) Head Start attendance rates when randomly assigned admission; and (2) quality ratings of other early childhood education (ECE) programs attended when not randomly assigned admission to Head Start. Logistic regressions showed that Spanish-speaking DLL children randomly assigned a spot in Head Start were more likely than monolingual-English learners to attend. Further, Spanish-speaking DLLs not randomly assigned a spot in Head Start were more likely to attend higher-quality ECE centers than non-DLL children. Policy implications are discussed, suggesting that, if given access, Spanish-speaking DLL families will take advantage of quality ECE programs.

Identifying Learning Trajectories While Playing a Learning-to-Learn Computer Game in Different Children and Instruction Types

This research focuses on identifying learning trajectories expressed among children playing a learning-to-learn computer game and examining the relationships between the learning trajectories and individual characteristics such as developmental age, prior knowledge, and instruction type (adult- and/or computer-assisted, or no instruction). Each child in the sample (N = 184; ages 2.6–4.2 years) repeatedly played the game, resulting in 13 measurements. At each measurement, we registered 7 aspects of mouse behavior such as error frequency, mouse click frequency, and reaction times. Based on those data, we identified 6 types of learning trajectories with multilevel latent class growth analysis. The types appeared significantly related to developmental age, prior knowledge, and type of instruction. Furthermore, prior knowledge appeared the best predictor; specifically among children with moderate prior knowledge having received instruction was associated with better performances than no instruction. The results support the conclusion that children at risk have a high probability of showing benefits in their learning-to-learn skills while playing this educational computer game. However, more adapted games, with more variation and adult-assisted instruction, would also benefit children with uninhibited behavior.

Prediction of toddlers' expressive language from maternal sensitivity and toddlers' anger expressions: a developmental perspective

Despite evidence for the importance of individual differences in expressive language during toddlerhood in predicting later literacy skills, few researchers have examined individual and contextual factors related to language abilities across the toddler years. Furthermore, a gap remains in the literature about the extent to which the relations of negative emotions and parenting to language skills may differ for girls and boys. The purpose of this longitudinal study was to investigate the associations among maternal sensitivity, children's observed anger reactivity, and expressive language when children were 18 (T1; n = 247) and 30 (T2; n = 216) months. At each age, mothers reported on their toddlers' expressive language, and mothers' sensitive parenting behavior was observed during an unstructured free-play task. Toddlers' anger expressions were observed during an emotion-eliciting task. Using path modeling, results showed few relations at T1. At T2, maternal sensitivity was negatively related to anger, and in turn, anger was associated with lower language skills. However, moderation analyses showed that these findings were significant for boys but not for girls. In addition, T1 maternal sensitivity and anger positively predicted expressive language longitudinally for both sexes. Findings suggest that the relations between maternal sensitivity, anger reactivity and expressive language may vary depending on the child's developmental stage and sex.

Emergent literacy skills, behavior problems and familial antecedents of reading difficulties: a follow-up study of reading achievement from kindergarten to fifth grade

This study examined the relation between emergent literacy skills, teachers' reports of behavioral problems, and word reading achievement in a community sample of French students. Family background was investigated and included familial antecedents of reading difficulties (Fa/Rd) and parents' educational level. The analyses explored the pattern of concurrent relations between behavioral, familial and emergent literacy measures in a sample of 812 preschoolers, and their predictive power in explaining word reading achievement in a sub-sample of 150 children followed from kindergarten to fifth grade. Word reading at fifth grade was predicted by kindergarten measures of phonological awareness and letter knowledge. Teachers' reports of inattention symptoms at each grade level were associated with early reading skills and with subsequent word reading. Fa/Rd were concurrently and longitudinally associated with emergent literacy skills, teachers' reported inattention and word reading. These results indicate that children with a family history of reading difficulties are at increased risk for the co-occurrence of reading difficulties and attention problems from kindergarten onward. These findings confirm the shared influence of Fa/Rd on the comorbidity between inattention symptoms and reading difficulties in a non-diagnosed community sample of preschool children followed through late elementary school.

Newborn literacy program effective in increasing maternal engagement in literacy activities: an observational cohort study

BACKGROUND

Literacy is important for success in school and in adulthood. Book-gift programs at birth exist to help develop these foundations early on. The effectiveness of the Read to Me! Nova Scotia Family Literacy Program (a program where books and literacy materials are given to families in hospital when their baby is born) on the duration and frequency with which mothers engage in reading and other literacy based activities with their newborns was assessed.

METHODS

An observational cohort study design was used. Mothers of babies who received the Read to Me! package in Nova Scotia born between January-August 2006 made up the intervention group (N = 1051). Mothers of babies born in Prince Edward Island between December 2006 and March 2008 made up the control group (N = 279) and did not receive any literacy package when their baby was born. A phone questionnaire was conducted consisting of questions regarding frequency and duration of maternal engagement in language and literacy-based activities with their infants. These activities included reading, singing, talking, listening to CDs and the radio and watching TV. Babies were aged 0-10 months at the time of the interview.

RESULTS

Mothers who received the Read to Me! literacy package spent significantly more time reading to their babies, 17.9 ± 17.6 min/day compared to controls 12.6 ± 10.7 min/day, (p < 0.0001).

CONCLUSIONS

Read to Me! may be an inexpensive, easy to administer and effective intervention which results in increased shared reading of mothers and their newborns.

Attention deficits predict phenotypic outcomes in syndrome-specific and domain-specific ways

Attentional difficulties, both at home and in the classroom, are reported across a number of neurodevelopmental disorders. However, exactly how attention influences early socio-cognitive learning remains unclear. We addressed this question both concurrently and longitudinally in a cross-syndrome design, with respect to the communicative domain of vocabulary and to the cognitive domain of early literacy, and then extended the analysis to social behavior. Participants were young children (aged 4-9 years at Time 1) with either Williams syndrome (WS, N = 26) or Down syndrome (DS, N = 26) and typically developing controls (N = 103). Children with WS displayed significantly greater attentional deficits (as indexed by teacher report of behavior typical of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) than children with DS, but both groups had greater attentional problems than the controls. Despite their attention differences, children with DS and those with WS were equivalent in their cognitive abilities of reading single words, both at Time 1 and 12 months later, at Time 2, although they differed in their early communicative abilities in terms of vocabulary. Greater ADHD-like behaviors predicted poorer subsequent literacy for children with DS, but not for children with WS, pointing to syndrome-specific attentional constraints on specific aspects of early development. Overall, our findings highlight the need to investigate more precisely whether and, if so, how, syndrome-specific profiles of behavioral difficulties constrain learning and socio-cognitive outcomes across different domains.

Amount of Time in Print Reading in General Education Kindergarten Classrooms: What Does It Look Like for Students At-risk for Reading Difficulties?

The purpose of this study was to examine the amount of time spent actively engaged in reading sounds, words, and connected text for students at-risk for reading difficulties in the first formal grade of reading instruction, kindergarten. Observational data of 109 kindergarten students at high-risk for later reading difficulties were collected during general education reading instruction across the school year. Findings revealed students read orally for just over 1 minute during their reading instruction with approximately equal time spent reading sounds, words, or connected text. Implications of these results for early reading instruction and intervention for students at-risk for reading difficulties or disabilities are presented.

Early writing deficits in preschoolers with oral language difficulties

The purpose of this study was to investigate whether preschool children with language impairments (LI), a group with documented reading difficulties, also experience writing difficulties. In addition, a purpose was to examine if the writing outcomes differed when children had concomitant cognitive deficits in addition to oral language problems. A group of 293 preschool children were administered an assessment battery that included measures to examine oral language, nonverbal cognition, emergent reading, and writing. Children were divided into four groups based on their language and cognitive performance. The findings from this study show that as early as preschool, children with weaker oral language skills lag behind their peers with stronger oral language skills in terms of their writing-related skills. Children with oral language and cognitive deficits performed more poorly than children whose deficits were confined to oral language. A child's cognitive ability also has an impact on emergent writing skills, but it appears to be moderated by oral language skills. These results are consistent with research documenting links between preschool language and emergent reading in children with a history of LI.

Etiology of the Stability of Reading Difficulties: The Longitudinal Twin Study of Reading Disabilities

Results obtained from previous longitudinal studies of reading difficulties indicate that reading deficits are generally stable. However, little is known about the etiology of this stability. Thus, the primary objective of this first longitudinal twin study of reading difficulties is to provide an initial assessment of genetic and environmental influences on the stability of reading deficits. Data were analyzed from a sample of 56 twin pairs, 18 identical (monozygotic, MZ) and 38 fraternal (dizygotic, DZ), in which at least one member of each pair was classified as reading-disabled in the Colorado Learning Disabilities Research Center, and on whom follow-up data were available. The twins were tested at two time points (average age of 10.3 years at initial assessment and 16.1 years at follow-up). A composite measure of reading performance (PIAT Reading Recognition, Reading Comprehension and Spelling) was highly stable, with a stability correlation of .84. Data from the initial time point were first subjected to univariate DeFries-Fulker multiple regression analysis and the resulting estimate of the heritability of the group deficit (h2g) was .84 (± .26). When the initial and follow-up data were then fitted to a bivariate extension of the basic DF model, bivariate heritability was estimated at .65, indicating that common genetic influences account for approximately 75% of the stability between reading measures at the two time points.

Changing nonmainstream American English use and early reading achievement from kindergarten to first grade

PURPOSE

This study had 2 principal aims: (a) to examine whether children who spoke Nonmainstream American English (NMAE) frequently in school at the end of kindergarten increased their production of Mainstream American English (MAE) forms by the end of first grade, and (b) to examine concurrent and predictive relations between children's NMAE use and reading skills.

METHOD

A longitudinal design was implemented with 49 children who varied in their spoken NMAE production in kindergarten. Word reading, phonological awareness, and receptive vocabulary skills were measured at both time points.

RESULTS

Analyses indicated that most children significantly increased their production of MAE forms between the 2 time points; however, this change was not associated with change in letter-word reading and phonological awareness skills. Regression analyses showed that NMAE use in kindergarten contributed significantly and independently to the variance in word reading in first grade, even after accounting for phonological awareness (although word reading in kindergarten was the best predictor of word reading in first grade).

CONCLUSIONS

The findings extend previous reports of a significant relation between NMAE use and reading among young children. Theoretical, research, and educational implications of the findings are discussed.

Dialect variation and reading: is change in nonmainstream American English use related to reading achievement in first and second grades?

PURPOSE

In this study, we examined (a) whether children who spoke Nonmainstream American English (NMAE) frequently in school at the beginning of 1st grade increased their use of Mainstream American English (MAE) through the end of 2nd grade, and whether increasing MAE use was associated with (b) language and reading skills and school context and (c) greater gains in reading skills.

METHOD

A longitudinal design was implemented with 49 children who spoke NMAE moderately to strongly. Spoken production of NMAE forms, word reading, and reading comprehension were measured at the beginning, middle, and end of 1st and 2nd grades. Various oral language skills were also measured at the beginning of 1st grade.

RESULTS

Results indicate that most children increased their MAE production during 1st grade and maintained these levels in 2nd grade. Increasing MAE use was predicted by children's expressive vocabulary and nonword repetition skills at the beginning of 1st grade. Finally, the more children increased their MAE production, the greater were their reading gains from 1st grade through 2nd grade.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings extend previous reports of a significant association between NMAE use and specific reading skills among young children and have implications for theory, educational practice, and future research.

Examining the dimensionality of effortful control in preschool children and its relation to academic and socioemotional indicators

Effortful control (EC) is an important developmental construct, associated with socioemotional growth, academic performance, and psychopathology. EC is defined as the ability to execute goal-directed behavior to inhibit or delay a prepotent response in favor of a subdominant response. Extant research indicates that EC may be multidimensional. Confirmatory factor analysis with a sample of 234 preschoolers was used to determine if tasks designed to measure EC were best described by hot (affectively salient) and cool (affectively neutral) dimensions or by a single factor. Analyses revealed that EC is best described by a single factor, even when variance associated with children's language skills was removed. This EC factor was strongly related to measures of academic performance and significantly less related to measures of socioemotional development.