Personality and leadership: a qualitative and quantitative review

Supervisor's neuroticism and problematic Internet use among graduate students: the mediating role of supervisor-student relationship quality and the moderating role of fear of the supervisor's negative evaluation

BACKGROUND

Graduate students exhibit vulnerability to problematic Internet use, which can result in adverse physical, psychological, and social consequences. However, limited studies have addressed this issue among graduate students, and even fewer have explored the unique factors contributing to their problematic Internet use. Therefore, to address this gap, the current study aims to probe the relationship between supervisor's neuroticism and problematic Internet use among graduate students, the mediating effect of the supervisor-student relationship quality, as well as the moderating effect of fear of the supervisor's negative evaluation.

METHODS

A cross-sectional study was conducted in 2018 at three universities in Beijing, China. Anonymous data from 448 graduate students were collected regarding problematic Internet use, supervisor's neuroticism, supervisor-student relationship quality, and the fear of the supervisor's negative evaluation. A moderated mediation analysis was performed using Hayes' PROCESS macro (Model 14).

RESULTS

Supervisor's neuroticism was positively linked to graduate students' problematic Internet use, supervisor-student relationship quality mediated the linkage, and fear of the supervisor's negative evaluation played a moderating role in the second stage. Specifically, for students lower in fear of the supervisor's negative evaluation, supervisor-student relationship quality negatively predicted students' problematic Internet use. While for the graduate students higher in fear of the supervisor's negative evaluation, supervisor-student relationship quality could not significantly predict students' problematic Internet use. The mediating effect was only significant for graduate students lower in fear of the supervisor's negative evaluation.

CONCLUSIONS

This study established a theoretical model linking supervisor's neuroticism to graduate students' problematic Internet use, highlighting the potential roles of supervisor-student relationship quality and fear of the supervisor's negative evaluation. Reducing the neuroticism level of the supervisor, enhancing the quality of the supervisor-student relationship, and mitigating students' fear of the supervisor's negative evaluation will contribute to the reduction of problematic Internet use among graduate students.

Feasibility of virtual reality and machine learning to assess personality traits in an organizational environment

Introduction

Personality plays a crucial role in shaping an individual's interactions with the world. The Big Five personality traits are widely used frameworks that help describe people's psychological behaviours. These traits predict how individuals behave within an organizational setting.

Methods

In this article, we introduce a virtual reality (VR) strategy for relatively scoring an individual's personality to evaluate the feasibility of predicting personality traits from implicit measures captured from users interacting in VR simulations of different organizational situations. Specifically, eye-tracking and decision-making patterns were used to classify individuals according to their level in each of the Big Five dimensions using statistical machine learning (ML) methods. The virtual environment was designed using an evidence-centered design approach.

Results

The dimensions were assessed using NEO-FFI inventory. A random forest ML model provided 83% accuracy in predicting agreeableness. A k-nearest neighbour ML model provided 75%, 75%, and 77% accuracy in predicting openness, neuroticism, and conscientiousness, respectively. A support vector machine model provided 85% accuracy for predicting extraversion. These analyses indicated that the dimensions could be differentiated by eye-gaze patterns and behaviours during immersive VR.

Discussion

Eye-tracking measures contributed more significantly to this differentiation than the behavioural metrics. Currently, we have obtained promising results with our group of participants, but to ensure the robustness and generalizability of our findings, it is imperative to replicate the study with a considerably larger sample. This study demonstrates the potential of VR and ML to recognize personality traits.

Individual characteristics in arts management careers: investigating the highly sensitive person scale on motivation to lead

Research on personality in leadership indicates that self-selection to leadership careers and artistic careers correlates with diverging personality profiles. People in leadership careers traditionally display lower neuroticism and higher conscientiousness than artistic individuals. In between, there are individuals entering arts management careers. To study these individuals directly, we collected Norwegian data from 91 musical theater students and 102 arts management students and compared with 109 business management students. As expected, conscientiousness and neuroticism predicted artistic careers against business management careers, aligned with the "arts for arts' sake" myth of artists. Interestingly, arts management careers were not different from artistic careers. They weren't more motivated to take on leadership roles than performing artists either. However, the Highly Sensitive Person Scale indicated that narrower traits of sensitivity predicted higher levels of motivation to lead in many artists. Some arts and arts management students seem to bring unique talents into forms of leadership particularly useful for artistic organizations. Our findings are discussed in terms of how leadership characteristics operate in the field of art, and the effect of domain-specific characteristics in this setting.

Popularity at first sight: Dominant behaviours mediate the link between extraversion and popularity in face-to-face and virtual group interactions

Although there is robust evidence that being more extraverted is related to higher popularity, only few studies have examined which actual behaviours (e.g., verbal content, body language) might explain this association. The current study examined whether observer-rated dominant behaviours (nonverbal, paraverbal, verbal, and general cues) mediate the relationship between self-rated extraversion and its facets (assertiveness, sociability, and activity) and other-rated popularity in zero-acquaintance settings. In two studies, we analysed data from face-to-face (Study 1, N = 124) and virtual (Study 2, N = 291) group interactions where participants were videotaped while performing a task and subsequently rated each other on popularity. Across studies, extraversion and the facets assertiveness and sociability were consistently associated with higher popularity, while the role of dominant behaviours differed. In Study 1, only two nonverbal behaviours, dominant gestures and upright posture, mediated the association between extraversion and popularity. In Study 2, all four types of behavioural cues mediated the association between extraversion (facets) and popularity. We discuss how these findings provide insights into the mechanisms of attaining popularity at zero acquaintance in diverse social settings.

Unveiling the Nexus: Influence of learning motivation on organizational performance and innovative climate of Chinese firms

This study delves into the interplay between learning motivation, organizational performance, and the innovative climate within Chinese firms. It is a subject of frequent discussion in literature but there is little concrete evidence supporting this viewpoint within the context of small and medium size enterprises in China. Drawing upon a comprehensive review of existing literature and empirical data gathered, this research aims to uncover the connections between employee learning motivation and its impact on the organizational dynamics in the context of Chinese firms. A cross sectional survey is used to collect the data of 115 Chinese firms and structural equation modelling (SEM) is used for empirical analysis. The results show that success of firms in terms of innovation is significantly influenced by organizational learning motivation. Moreover, innovative environment of the firms increases the overall performance of the organizations. It is also found that factors affecting the innovations have a significant impact on organizational performance. The findings of the study suggest that firms should develop organizational learning motivation to boost their innovation capability and overall performance. This study offers insights and recommendations for organizations and policymakers seeking to harness the potential of learning motivation to drive sustainable growth, competitiveness, and innovation in Chinese firms.

Leadership Blossoms in Parental Warmth: Positive Parenting Practices Shape Adolescent Leader Emergence via Intrapersonal and Interpersonal Mechanisms

Developing leadership skills during adolescence is crucial for future career success. Previous studies have primarily focused on the impact of school settings, academic courses, and simulated team tasks on leader emergence, neglecting the significant role of parental influence in this process. Employing a mixed-methods approach, this research investigated the positive relationship between parental warmth and adolescent leader emergence and the underlying mechanisms of this relationship. The quantitative study (Study 1) collected multi-source data from 1255 adolescents (Mage = 14.2, SDage = 0.56, 48.2% male) and their parents, teachers and peers. Findings from Study 1 revealed a positive correlation between parental warmth and adolescent leader emergence. Structural equation modeling showed two mediating pathways: an intrapersonal pathway involving self-esteem and leader self-efficacy, and an interpersonal pathway involving empathy and prosocial behavior. Encouragement of independence, as an additional adolescents-focused parenting practice, strengthened the observed positive relationship. The qualitative study (Study 2) conducted in-depth interviews with adolescents to identify the parental practices that facilitate or hinder adolescent leader emergence for the triangulation of the central research question. Study 2 collected data from 32 adolescents (Mage = 15.16, SDage = 1.37, 50% male). Findings from Study 2 corroborated the significance of parental warmth and the encouragement of independence for adolescent leader emergence, elucidating specific parenting behaviors conducive to these positive parenting practices, such as providing companionship and communication, as well as encouraging adolescents to participate in household tasks. This mix-methods research prepositioned the stages of leadership development, advocating for the importance of the warmth and autonomy from parents as formative factors for cultivating the next generation of leaders.

Moving beyond Likert and Traditional Forced-Choice Scales: A Comprehensive Investigation of the Graded Forced-Choice Format

The graded forced-choice (FC) format has recently emerged as an alternative that may preserve the advantages and overcome the issues of the dichotomous FC measures. The current study presented the first large-scale evaluation of the performance of three types of FC measures (FC2, FC4 and FC5 with 2, 4 and 5 response options, respectively) and compared their performance to their Likert (LK) counterparts (LK2, LK4, and LK5) on (1) psychometric properties, (2) respondent reactions, and (3) susceptibility to response styles. Results showed that, compared to LK measures with the same number of response options, the three FC scales provided better support for the hypothesized factor structure, were perceived as more faking-resistant and cognitive demanding, and were less susceptible to response styles. FC4/5 and LK4/5 demonstrated similarly good reliability, while LK2 provided more reliable scores than FC2. When compared across the three FC measures, FC4 and FC5 displayed comparable psychometric performance and respondent reactions. FC4 exhibited a moderate presence of extreme response style, while FC5 had a weak presence of both extreme and middle response styles. Based on these findings, the study recommends the use of graded FC over dichotomous FC and LK, particularly FC5 when extreme response style is a concern.

Disentangling the within- and between-person effects of personality on income for men and women

Understanding the relationship between personality and income is a topic of interest across multiple disciplines. Correlations between people's personalities and their incomes may arise because differences in stable personalities relate to income differences (between-person effects) or because changes in personality or income are later reflected in the other variable (within-person effects). The current research uses random-intercept cross-lagged panel models to disentangle the two sorts of effects to better understand the relationship between the six factors of personality and income. Using data from 6824 working-age adults in New Zealand across 4 years, we found between-person effects showing higher incomes were obtained by both men and women who were more extraverted, agreeable and open, and less neurotic. Within-person effects showed that earning a higher income was associated with higher neuroticism and lower extraversion over time, while higher extraversion was associated with a lower income over time.

Differential Behavioral Pathways Linking Personality to Leadership Emergence and Effectiveness in Groups

This study integrates leadership process models with process models of personality and behavioral personality science to examine the behavioral-perceptual pathways that explain interpersonal personality traits' divergent relation to group leadership evaluations. We applied data from an online group interaction study (N = 364) alternately assigning participants as leaders conducting brief tasks. We used four variable types to build the pathways in multiple mediator models: (a) Self-reported personality traits, (b) video recordings of expressed interpersonal behaviors coded by 6 trained raters, (c) interpersonal impressions, and (d) mutual evaluations of leadership emergence/effectiveness. We find interpersonal big five traits to differently relate to the two leadership outcomes via the behavioral-perceptual pathways: Extraversion was more important to leadership emergence due to impressions of assertiveness evoked by task-focused behavior being strongly valued. Agreeableness/emotional stability were more important to leadership effectiveness due to impressions of trustworthiness/calmness evoked by member-focused/calm behavior being stronger valued.

Examining the Connectorship Scale: Factor Structure and Correlations With Self-Efficacy and Extraversion

The Connectorship Scale was designed to assess how leaders connect with their followers and is described to measure eight dimensions: social interactivity, dependability, positive communication, presenting oneself, storytelling ability, belief in networking, tangible introduction, and belief in the importance of online networking. This study explores the scale properties and confirmatory factor analyses (CFA) of the Connectorship Scale and examines how the scale scores correlate with self-efficacy and extraversion based on responses from 454 (52% women) adult business students. The internal consistency estimates suggested that one of the subscales, positive communication, was unreliable; we therefore excluded that subscale from further analyses. A CFA of the seven-factor model suggested good fit once two pairs of error terms were allowed to correlate. Self-efficacy and all facets of extraversion positively correlated with six of the seven connectorship subscales, the exception being the tangible introduction scale. The results raise concern about the positive communication subscale from the Connectorship Scale but do support the use of the other seven subscales for research about engaged and effective leadership.

A study on why foreign-born East Asians but not US-born East Asians are underrepresented in leadership attainment in the U.S

A recent study investigated the impact of culture of Asian groups on leadership attainment in the U.S. It revealed that East Asians (EAs) are less likely than South Asians (SAs) and white people (WP) to attain leadership positions, and SAs may even surpass WP in leadership attainment. The study explained that the underrepresentation of EAs in leadership positions in the U.S. (the so called bamboo ceiling) is partly because EAs communicate less assertively. Specifically, EA cultures value collectivism (e.g., humility and harmony), which are at odds with western cultures that value individualism (e.g., extraversion and assertiveness), whereas SA cultures are congruent with western cultures. However, the study did not distinguish the different impact of home culture (i.e., EA cultures) and host culture (i.e., western cultures) on US-born EAs versus foreign-born EAs. We argue that for US-born EAs (i.e., second generation EAs), host culture plays a more important role than home culture in their growth and they may not be underrepresented in leadership attainment compared to WP. The bamboo ceiling effect is mostly demonstrated among foreign-born EAs (i.e., first generation EAs) who are shaped mainly under the home culture. We support the argument by conducting analysis on one of the datasets in the original study and a new dataset from Fortune's 40-under-40 list. Our study suggests that when studying the underrepresentation of leadership attainment for EAs, US-born EAs and foreign-born EAs should not be aggregated in one category. Considering the ethnic EA group, the bamboo ceiling phenomenon may exist mainly among foreign-born EAs because US-born EAs, with a median age of 21.3, are much younger than the general American population, who may not be experienced enough to be considered for leadership positions in established large companies.

The Relationship Between Market Culture, Clan Culture, Benevolent Leadership, Work Engagement, and Job Performance: Leader's Dark Triad as a Moderator

Benevolent leadership is one of the leadership styles which provides a positive influence on employees. However, the current leadership literature has yet to investigate how benevolent leadership leads to job performance, the processes involved, the relationship between organizational culture and benevolent leadership, and the role of dark side of leaders in affecting this relationship. Using the leader-culture fit framework within an Eastern context, the current study first investigates the relationship between benevolent leadership and job performance through work engagement. The study then compares two contrasting organizational culture (i.e., market culture and clan culture) on benevolent leadership. Finally, the study investigates how leaders' dark triad affects the relationship between organizational culture and benevolent leadership. 374 full-time white-collar employees (Males = 54.01%; Mean age: 32.7 years) from various private organizations within the service industry participated in this study. The results showed that work engagement mediated benevolent leadership and job performance. Market culture showed a negative relationship with benevolent leadership while clan culture showed a positive relationship with benevolent leadership. Benevolent leadership mediated clan culture (but not market culture) and work engagement. Under a high market culture with a high dark triad leader, benevolent leadership is at its lowest level. Under a high clan culture with a low dark triad leader, benevolent leadership is at its highest level. The findings suggest the importance of benevolent leadership within a clan culture (rather than market culture), in aligning with the leader-culture fit framework in increasing employees' work engagement and job performance.

Incumbency and self-uncertainty: when prototypical leaders lose their advantage

Research on how uncertainty affects the preference for prototypical over non-prototypical leaders has produced mixed results. To understand these discrepancies, two studies explored leader status (prospective versus incumbent) as a potential moderator. Participants reported levels of self-uncertainty (Study 1) or were primed with high versus low self-uncertainty (Study 2) before evaluating a prototypical or non-prototypical leadership candidate who was incumbent or prospective. For incumbent candidates, prototypicality predicted more favorable evaluations under low self-uncertainty, but this relationship was weakened under high self-uncertainty. For prospective candidates, prototypicality predicted more favorable evaluations under high self-uncertainty, but this relationship was weakened under low self-uncertainty.

Investigating group formation: An experiment on the distribution of extraversion in educational settings

Group formation plays a crucial role in enhancing collaborative learning experiences. This study investigates the impact of extraversion as a criterion for group formation on collaborative learning outcomes. A total of 180 students participated in the experiment and were assigned to groups that were homogeneously or heterogeneously distributed in terms of extraversion. The groups met weekly and worked on group assignments throughout the semesters. The first hypothesis posed the outcomes to be explainable at the group-level. Surprisingly, the results show that groups with a homogeneous distribution of extraversion reported higher levels of group work satisfaction than those with a heterogeneous distribution, in contrast to the second hypothesis and the group hierarchy theory. These findings emphasize the potential of considering personality traits when forming groups and extend the existing literature on group formation. The study takes a critical stance by addressing normative definitions of leadership. Future research is suggested to further enhance collaborative learning experiences using similar interdisciplinary and experimental methods.

Views on an officer career - the relationship between personality, leadership expectations and perceived qualities

BACKGROUND

The Swedish Armed Forces (SAF) have had difficulties in recruiting a sufficient amount of cadets to the officer program during the period with an all-volunteer force.

PARTICIPANTS AND PROCEDURE

Data were collected from different officer programs. 318 respondents fostered in the all-volunteer force (AVF) system completed the questionnaire and a cross-sectional design was used where cadets received a questionnaire at the beginning, in the middle and at the end of their training.

RESULTS

The results show that the informants perceived a clear distinction between leadership challenges in the short and long term. The cadets rate their practical knowledge/experience and gaining trust as most challenging in the short term, and personnel supply and reorganization in the long term. Younger cadets rate leadership challenges higher than older cadets do, which is in line with maturing as a human being and gaining more experience. Results based on personality were consistent with previous studies. Two of the future challenges for cadets, short-term leadership and knowledge challenges, showed associations with extraversion and neuroticism.

CONCLUSIONS

The results illustrate important topics to be stressed during the three year long officer program, in order to prepare cadets both with knowledge and skills but also with confidence and trust. This is of particular importance as the need to increase the number of cadets graduating from the academic officer program is growing. It implies that more and more cadets will be recruited directly from the basic military training, i.e., being young with relatively low military and leadership experience.

Do Chameleons Lead Better? A Meta-Analysis of the Self-Monitoring and Leadership Relationship

The relationship between self-monitoring and leadership has been debated. We attempt to resolve this debate through a meta-analysis (N = 9,029 across 55 samples). Since this is the first meta-analysis that focuses on this relationship, we were able to study both focal constructs at a granular level. As hypothesized, self-monitoring is positively associated with leadership emergence and leadership effectiveness. Whereas self-monitoring is positively related to managerial leadership, its relationship with transactional leadership is non-significant. Contrary to our prediction that self-monitoring is negatively related to authentic leadership and to transformational leadership, we found positive relationships. Importantly, the relationship between self-monitoring and leadership variables is typically non-significant when the latter is measured by subordinate ratings. This casts doubt on the general finding that self-monitoring is positively related to leadership. Also, the relationships significantly differ when self-monitoring was measured by different scales. Implications for theory and practice are discussed.

Navigating a Pandemic: Leadership Dynamics and Challenges within Infection Prevention and Control Units in Israel

This study investigates the impact of the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic on leadership within infection prevention and control (IPC) units across public hospitals in Israel. Through qualitative interviews with ten IPC managers from nine hospitals, equivalent to 30% of the country's acute care facilities, the research uncovers significant changes in managerial approaches due to the health crisis. The results reveal four main themes: (1) Enhanced managerial autonomy and leadership skills, with a noted rise in self-efficacy against the pandemic's backdrop; (2) Shifted perceptions of IPC units by upper management, recognizing their strategic value while identifying the need for a more profound understanding of IPC operations; (3) The increased emphasis on adaptability and rapid decision-making for effective crisis management; (4) The dual effect on job satisfaction and well-being, where greater commitment coincides with risks of burnout. The study underscores the essential nature of effective IPC leadership during emergencies, highlighting the need for clear communication, prompt action, and empathetic leadership. The conclusions point to the necessity for continuous research into IPC leadership, promoting strategic advancements in management to bolster IPC units against future health threats.

Differences in the Preferred Trustworthiness Between High-level and Low-Level Leaders

Drawing upon implicit leadership theories (ILTs), this research argues that the trustworthiness factors of leaders perceived by subordinates may vary with hierarchical levels of leaders. Based on this argument, a scenario simulation study (220 participants), an experimental study (562 participants), and an empirical survey (193 samples) were conducted. The findings show that subordinates are more concerned with the emotional stability, extraversion, agreeableness, and benevolence-related trustworthiness factors of low-level leaders and with the ability-related trustworthiness of high-level leaders; and leaders' integrity is the most crucial factor in trustworthiness for upward trust, while there were no obvious significant differences among different leader levels. This study contributes to the literature on trust in leadership and various ILTs and has human resource management implications.

Contagious charisma: the flow of charisma from leader to followers and the role of followers' self-monitoring

Charisma, the captivating attribute that endows an individual with the power to inspire and influence others, is frequently associated with possessing an attractive personality, effective communication skills, and the capacity to draw people in and lead them. The concept of the trickle-down effect in leadership theory suggests that the characteristics of a leader's style including perceptions, emotions, attitudes, and behaviors, have the potential to be "contagious" and spread to their followers. Nevertheless, it is unclear whether and when a leader's charisma may be transferred to followers, as charisma is predominantly a trait associated with the leader. Integrating insights from the social learning, emotional contagion, and self-concept theories, we propose that charisma can cascade downward from the leader to followers and that this effect is contingent on the individual follower's level of self-monitoring. Measuring a sample of 127 followers and 15 leaders in a large organization at two time points, we found that throughout time the leader's charisma indeed cascaded down to followers, i.e., followers of a charismatic leader were perceived as more charismatic throughout time. However, this effect was prominent only for low-monitoring followers. Novel insights into the flow-down effect of charisma, avenues for future research, and practical implications are discussed.

Impact of personality on cadet academic and military performance within mediating role of self-efficacy

Background

The current operational military environment is changing, complex, unpredictable, and ambiguous. Due to such situations, soldiers are constantly forced to think about their values, norms, and roles that should be part of their profession. Consequently, they must first be educated and trained on how to behave in a particular operational military environment. Pursuing an officer's education at military academies is very difficult not only physically but also psychologically. Cadets are required to be prepared to lead in extreme environments upon graduation. Despite the fact that military tasks are technically complex, the individual operational activities of soldiers are gaining more and more strategic meaning. Therefore, the importance of selecting the process and military education programs of soldiers is increasingly stressed. Cognitive abilities and skills individually predict performance in academic and professional settings, but it is less clear how personality can influence performance. Therefore, this study focused on the explanation of the individual factors that affect the achievements of the cadets. Specifically, the objective of this study was to examine direct and mediated relationships between personality traits and the military and academic performance of cadets.

Methods

This study followed a quantitative method analysis. The research models were assessed using the structural equation modeling technique. Bootstrap was applied to evaluate a 95% level confidence interval on estimates with 5,000 bootstrap samples, and to evaluate direct and indirect effects. The analysis was based on a sample of 120 cadets from the Lithuanian Military Academy. The effects on military and academic performance were evaluated using the Self-Efficacy scale, the Big Five personality trait scale, academic performance was evaluated through academic grades and military performance was evaluated using instructor ratings.

Results

To support our hypotheses, it was found that self-efficacy has a mediating effect on the performance of cadets. Additionally, the traits of conscientiousness, openness to experience and extraversion were related to both military and academic performance. Furthermore, self-efficacy appeared as a partial mediator of the relationship between personality traits and cadet performance.

Conclusion

The findings of this study help clarify the relationship between the personality traits of the cadets and the military and academic performance. In addition, these results may be useful for the further development of military education and training, for the development of testing, and selection of military personnel.

Emotional intelligence, leadership, and work teams: A hybrid literature review

Emotional intelligence (EI) has been widely researched in different fields of knowledge. This paper reviews the literature on emotional intelligence, leadership, and teams in 104 peer-reviewed articles and reviews provided by the Web of Science and Scopus databases from 1998 to 2022. It is a hybrid or mixed review as it uses both quantitative and qualitative analysis techniques. The aims of this study are a performance analysis of the selected documents (years of publication, country, sectors, techniques used, most cited authors, authors with more publications, journals, journal quartiles, and scope of publication), as well as a co-word analysis using Atlas. ti v8. The results of the quantitative analysis indicate that the majority are empirical works. The qualitative analysis is a co-word analysis providing the following results: (i) classification of authors by major themes-categories (EI, leadership, team), (ii) classification of themes within each major theme: three subcategories in EI, 17 subcategories in leadership, and 19 subcategories in team and, lastly, (iii) classification according to the chronological development of main objectives from the most cited authors' articles we analyzed. Leadership (transformational, emergence, virtual, effective, health, effectiveness) is the major theme we studied. Our in-depth review of the articles has shown that emotionally intelligent leaders improve both behaviors and business results and have an impact on work team performance. It also highlighted a positive relationship between emotional competence and team members' attitudes about work. The new trends focus on the impacts of COVID19, the global crisis due to the Ukraine War, working in VUCA and BANI environments, comparative studies between generations, the application of artificial intelligence and the influence of mindfulness on organizations.

What does it mean to follow? A critique of the followership literature and a conceptual model of the emergence of downward following

What does it mean to follow? In this paper, we systematically review the followership literature for the period 2017-2021. Our review shows that the followership literature suffers from three major issues that limit its validity. The followership field is dominated by a role-based approach equating direct reports with followers; empirical studies fail to study actual following behaviors, and there are no studies of downward following, which we define as any behavior or effort aimed at achieving a shared goal, carried out by an individual in a position of formal power who is influenced by one or more individuals in a position of inferior authority. Our manuscript builds on the process approach to study what it means to follow. We argue that the followership field needs to study actual followership behaviors at the micro "interaction episodes" and rely on quantitative behavioral coding. We then propose a conceptual, multi-level model that details antecedents and boundary conditions of the emergence of downward following. We conclude by discussing the organizational implications of our approach and model.

Introverted and yet effective? A faceted approach to the relationship between leadership and extraversion

Introduction

Extraversion and its facets of assertiveness and sociability were identified as stable predictors for leader emergence and effectiveness. However, recent research suggested that extraversion may lie in the eyes of the beholder; it might not be the leader's possession but their followers' attribution of the trait that shapes these criteria of leader success.

Methods

In our study, we reverse-engineered this relationship and assessed the effects of effective leadership behaviors on personality perceptions. More specifically, we created scenarios of a leader responding to coordination challenges with passive-avoidant, transactional, or transformational leadership behaviors. We presented 204 participants with these scenarios and assessed how extraverted, assertive, and sociable they perceived the leader to be.

Results

Interestingly, and not fully meeting our expectations, ascriptions of extraversion and its facets of assertiveness and sociability did not directly relate to the effectiveness of the behaviors, as the moderately effective transactional leadership style garnered the highest ascriptions of extraversion and its facets. Further, ascriptions of extraversion to the transformational behavior of intellectual stimulation were remarkably low, matched only by the laissez-faire dimension of the passive-avoidant leadership style.

Discussion

We integrate and contrast these unexpected but explainable findings with current research, discuss potential associations between introversion and empowering leadership practices and provide suggestions for future discourse, illustrating the potential of investigating the presence of an introverted leadership advantage in the workplace of tomorrow.

Understanding the Leaders of Tomorrow: The Need to Study Leadership in Adolescence

Leadership traits and behaviors are observed early in human development, and although an improved understanding of youth leadership would usefully inform many real-world contexts (e.g., education, parenting, policy), most empirical work on leadership has been limited to adult populations. The purpose of the current article is to add a developmental perspective to leadership research that has so far been absent. Here, we (a) highlight adolescence as a critical developmental period for leadership emergence and development, (b) argue that leadership among youths is poorly understood and critically understudied, (c) provide exemplars of synergy between research on leadership and adolescent development that are ripe for focused inquiry, and (d) underscore some of the positive consequences of accelerating empirical research on leadership in adolescence, including implications for a deeper understanding of leadership in adult working populations.

Longitudinal bidirectional associations between personality and becoming a leader

OBJECTIVE

Leaders differ in their personalities from non-leaders. However, when do these differences emerge? Are leaders "born to be leaders" or does their personality change in preparation for a leadership role and due to increasing leadership experience?

METHOD

Using data from the German Socio-Economic Panel Study, we examined personality differences between leaders (N = 2683 leaders, women: n = 967; 36.04%) and non-leaders (N = 33,663) as well as personality changes before and after becoming a leader.

RESULTS

Already in the years before starting a leadership position, leaders-to-be were more extraverted, open, emotionally stable, conscientious, and willing to take risks, felt to have greater control, and trusted others more than non-leaders. Moreover, personality changed in emergent leaders: While approaching a leadership position, leaders-to-be (especially men) became gradually more extraverted, open, and willing to take risks and felt to have more control over their life. After becoming a leader, they became less extraverted, less willing to take risks, and less conscientious but gained self-esteem.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings suggest that people are not simply "born to be leaders" but that their personalities change considerably in preparation for a leadership role and due to leadership experience. Some changes are transient, but others last for a long time.

The development of a behavioural competency framework for school principals

Orientation: More than two and a half decades into South Africa’s democracy, the majority of the country’s learners receive low-quality school education, adversely affecting upward social mobility. Ensuring quality education for all South Africans requires a combined approach of equitable resource allocation and effective school leadership that transforms resources into educational outcomes.Research purpose: The objective of the study was to develop a behavioural competency framework for school principals.Motivation for the study: While past studies highlight school leadership and management to be pivotal in the establishment and maintenance of well-performing schools, less is known about the behavioural competencies required by school principals.Research approach and method: Guided by a synthesis of literature on school management, critical incident interviews were conducted with a sample of 10 school principals with good track records. The salience of the literature-derived competencies was established, and the content supplemented by contextualising the competencies with specific behavioural denotations from the interviews.Main findings: Eleven key competencies emerged from the data: creating a school vision and setting strategic direction, setting goals and expectations, developing school staff, influencing and communicating, resourcing strategically, leading with compassion, maintaining a student-centred learning environment, making decisions, managing self, managing teaching and learning, and leading across school boundaries.Managerial implications: The competencies identified provide a blueprint to guide human resource management interventions aimed at establishing effective school leadership.Contribution: The study provides a rich source of information about critical school principal behaviours, explored from an integrated perspective that acknowledges the school context.

Leadership Styles and Innovation Management: What Is the Role of Human Capital?

Leadership styles and human capital are important drivers of innovation processes. The way the leader interacts with the organization members can pre-empt or leverage innovation processes as leaders influence, empower and motivate other individuals in the achievement of their goals. Human capital is an important driver of innovation and competitiveness, as it will shape the uniqueness of the company as well as the process to obtain skills, capabilities, knowledge and expertise. As such, the main objectives of the paper are to analyze the impact of leadership styles on the innovation process and also to address the moderation effect of the human capital on the previous relation. Four leadership styles—autocratic, transactional, democratic, and transformational—were considered to measure their impacts on the innovation process, considering the alternative types of innovations. The 2018 Community Innovation Survey (CIS) database was used, encompassing Portuguese data, covering the 2016–2018 period, with a sample of 13702 firms. In regard to the empirical part, first, an exploratory analysis was run to better understand the connection between the leadership styles and the innovative strategies followed by an econometric estimation encompassing 28 logit models to disentangle the specific impacts of each leader on each innovation type. Evidence proves that autocratic and transactional leadership styles have a negative impact on innovation and transformational and democratic leadership impact innovation positively. Furthermore, human capital was found to moderate the relationship between leadership styles and the innovation process; i.e., under the same leadership style, the presence of additional skills leverages innovative propensity. The paper brings relevant insights for both managers and policymakers, highlighting that innovation will be accelerated if firms implement more participatory (democratic and transformational) leadership styles and also if they invest in competences to promote knowledge internalization and share. All in all, participatory leadership combined with the internal skills is proved to be an efficient combination for innovation to take place; as such, policy instruments must promote the coexistence of these two factors.

The personality profile of IPS employment specialists, and how it relates to job satisfaction: A longitudinal cohort study

The role of the Individual Placement and Support (IPS) employment specialist is a new type of occupation within mental healthcare. High turnover among employment specialists necessitates improvement in their recruitment and retention. One element that impacts retention is job satisfaction. We assessed the personality of 38 employment specialists (Big 5 Inventory-2) and measured job satisfaction over three time periods. Compared to norm data, employment specialists were significantly higher on Extraversion (ΔT = 8.0, CI: 5.59-10.42), Agreeableness (ΔT = 7.8, CI: 5.56-10.12), Conscientiousness (ΔT = 3.3, CI: 0.8-5.84), Open-mindedness (ΔT = 3.5, CI: 0.97-6.07), while lower on Negative emotionality (ΔT = -3.5, CI: -6.5 to -0.42). Extraversion had a substantial longitudinal positive effect on job satisfaction (β at T1 = 0.39; CI: 0.10-0.73) (β at T2 = 0.40; CI: 0.03-0.80), while Negative emotionality - a substantial negative effect (β at T1 = -0.60; CI: -0.90 to -0.30) (β at T2 = -0.50; CI: -0.90 to -0.12). Male gender was significantly associated with higher job satisfaction at the time point 1 (β = -0.46; CI: -0.80 to -0.14). Age, length of employment in the role, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness and Open-mindedness were not found to have substantial significant effects on job satisfaction of employment specialists. Recruiting employment specialists who score high on Extraversion and low on Negative emotionality may be a good fit for the role and job satisfaction.

The role of HEXACO in the development of authentic leadership and its consequences on task performance

Purpose

The objectives of the current study were to identify the antecedents and outcomes of authentic leadership. For antecedents, the research considered the HEXACO (Honesty-Humility, Emotionality, eXtraversion, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, Openness to Experience) personality model and thereby identified the impact of authentic leadership on employee performance with the mediating role of psychological safety and employee engagement by using the trait theory.

Design/methodology/approach

The current study adopted a positivism research philosophy followed by a deductive approach. Overall, 347 samples were collected from the public sector organizations using quantitative research techniques, and data were gathered through a self-administrated questionnaire. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses were used through structural equation modeling (SEM)-Mplus to generate the results and test the formulated hypotheses.

Findings

The results revealed that honesty-humility significantly impacts authentic leadership (β = 0.094 and p < 0.05). Similarly, other dimensions of HEXACO also play a significant role in forming authentic leadership. After analyzing the HEXACO as the antecedent of authentic leadership, sequential mediation of psychological safety and employee engagement was checked and identified that authentic leadership in the presence of mediators was insignificant. Hence the full mediation has been recorded.

Originality/value

Since its inception, a plethora of research has been available on the authentic leadership theory. However, the empirical evidence revealed that most research is related to outcomes of authentic leadership. As far as antecedents of authentic leadership are concerned, the literature is still silent, specifically on the development of authentic leaders. The current study is significantly contributing to the theory of authentic leadership, and in this context, the study is unique since it is taking the HEXACO personality model as an antecedent of authentic leadership to investigate its role in the development of authentic leaders. Moreover, the study is also identified as the impact of authentic leadership on task performance, not in isolation, but by taking psychological safety and employee engagement as a mediating mechanism.

Leaders' ambition and followers' cheating behavior: The role of performance pressure and leader identification

Purpose

We seek to understand why and how leaders' actions that are positive from organizational perspectives, drive to engage employees in cheating behaviors.

Design/methodology/approach

The proposed mediated moderation model was tested in two separate studies, study 1 and study 2, with data collected from police officers and employees of Islamic banking respectively, and then analyzed with Mplus for random coefficient models for direct effects, indirect effects, and for mediated moderation.

Findings

It was found that leaders' ambitions may enhance performance pressure on the subordinates, which in turn promotes their cheating behavior. Overall, we found that the traditional view of ambition theory only emphasizes good mechanisms such as motivation. However, to integrate with a social identity perspective, ambition would also cause pressure and pressure rather than motivation. Additionally, leaders' ambitions are more strongly and positively related to the performance pressure and cheating behaviors of employees when subordinates also have high leader identification. The findings of this research suggested that leaders' positive workplace behavior could also spawn subordinates' unethical behaviors.

Practical implications

Through this research, we can help policymakers understand that leaders' positive desire in general and ambition, in particular, may not be necessarily associated with subordinates' positive behaviors. Our results revealed that internalized with performance pressure, the leaders' ambition is associated with subordinates' cheating behavior. The findings of this research will help policymakers understand what might be promoting unethical behavior of employees. The cheating behavior of employees is not a singular level phenomenon of subordinates, it could also be triggered by contextual factors. Therefore, in developing policies for reducing the chance of cheating at work, the policymakers should also focus on the contextual factors that might be promoting cheating.

Originality/value

Ambitious leaders tend to demonstrate high performance, also, performance pressure literature focuses efforts of the employees toward high performance. The dark side of these lines of researches is still underexplored. We shifted the conventional focus of understanding to the positive side of ambition and performance pressure by explaining the potential cost in the form of employees' enhanced cheating behavior. The interplay between the relationship between leaders' ambition and subordinates' perception of leader identification also enhanced our understating about the boundary condition of the relationship between leaders' ambition, performance pressure, and cheating behavior of subordinates.

Human capital sustainability leadership: From personality traits to positive relational management

Introduction

Constructing positive and supportive relationships is fundamental for healthy workers and healthy organizations and to cope with the current challenging work scenario. Organizations need to acknowledge the relevance of the relationships for workers and organizational well-being and adopt managing practices that enhance healthy relationships for sustainability and sustainable development.

Methods

The current research sought to investigate the associations between positive relational management (PRM) and human capital sustainability leadership (HCSL), taking into account personality traits. The big five questionnaire (BFQ), the PRM Scale (PRMS), and the HCSL Scale (HCSLS) were administered to 191 Italian workers.

Results

Findings displayed that PRM was able to add incremental variance over personality traits referring to HCSL.

Discussion

In terms of strength-based prevention perspectives for healthy organizations, PRM may be a favorable construct linked to HCSL.

Supervised Construct Scoring to Reduce Personality Assessment Length: A Field Study and Introduction to the Short 10

Personality assessments help identify qualified job applicants when making hiring decisions and are used broadly in the organizational sciences. However, many existing personality measures are quite lengthy, and companies and researchers frequently seek ways to shorten personality scales. The current research investigated the effectiveness of a new scale-shortening method called supervised construct scoring (SCS), testing the efficacy of this method across two applied samples. Using a combination of machine learning with content validity considerations, we show that multidimensional personality scales can be significantly shortened while maintaining reliability and validity, and especially when compared to traditional shortening methods. In Study 1, we shortened a 100-item personality assessment of DeYoung et al.'s 10 facets, producing a scale 26% the original length. SCS scores exhibited strong evidence of reliability, convergence with full scale scores, and criterion-related validity. This measure, labeled the Short 10, is made freely available. In Study 2, we applied SCS to shorten an operational police personality assessment. By using SCS, we reduced test length to 25% of the original length while maintaining similar levels of reliability and criterion-related validity when predicting job performance ratings.

Leadership, Innovative Behavior and the Case of Innovative Climate-When the Mediator Becomes the Mediated

This study investigates how leadership, more precisely leader-member exchange (LMX), affects innovative behavior through an innovative climate as well as, indirectly, through organizational commitment and internal trust. A total of 1114 samples were collected from employees working in firms in Slovenia and Serbia. The quantitative data and the proposed model were analyzed with the partial least squares-SEM technique. The results indicate that an innovative climate is a mediator in the relationship between leadership and innovative behavior, and this relationship is also further mediated by internal trust and organizational commitment. These results reveal serial mediation or the complex role of an innovative climate in the process of influencing innovative work behavior. Implications for theory and recommendations for practice are discussed.

COVID-19 and offshore oil and gas workers: The role of personality

This qualitative study aimed to identify mental health hazards in the offshore oil and gas industry, as well as the role of the personality types of the Five Factor Model (FFM) in coping with these stressors. A focus group with 8 participants and a pilot study with 5 participants were conducted. Results showed that several stressors are currently present for Australian offshore oil and gas employees, in particular COVID-19 and the resulting negative effects on rosters, working hours, job security and time spent away from home. Other stressors revealed by participants were lack of space, working in a high-risk environment, stigma, helicopter travel and pressure to keep up with production. Poor safety behaviours were associated with neuroticism, extraversion and openness, while risk avoidance appear to be associated with agreeableness and conscientiousness. Tolerance to shift work was positively related to extraversion, yet negatively associated to neuroticism. Furthermore, neuroticism showed a negative association with help-seeking and productivity, as well as higher levels of concern relating to COVID-19 and job uncertainty. As personality traits are enduring throughout life, it is vital that employees are managed effectively through workplace interventions so that they are able to cope effectively, particularly during stressful events.

Personality traits, rank attainment, and siring success throughout the lives of male chimpanzees of Gombe National Park

Personality traits in many taxa correlate with fitness. Several models have been developed to try to explain how variation in these traits is maintained. One model proposes that variation persists because it is linked to trade-offs between current and future adaptive benefits. Tests of this model's predictions, however, are scant in long-lived species. To test this model, we studied male chimpanzees living in Gombe National Park, Tanzania. We operationalized six personality traits using ratings on 19 items. We used 37 years of behavioral and genetic data to assemble (1) daily rank scores generated from submissive vocalizations and (2) records of male siring success. We tested whether the association between two personality traits, Dominance and Conscientiousness, and either rank or reproductive success, varied over the life course. Higher Dominance and lower Conscientiousness were associated with higher rank, but the size and direction of these relationships did not vary over the life course. In addition, independent of rank at the time of siring, higher Dominance and lower Conscientiousness were related to higher siring success. Again, the size and direction of these relationships did not vary over the life course. The trade-off model, therefore, may not hold in long-lived and/or slowly reproducing species. These findings also demonstrate that ratings are a valid way to measure animal personality; they are related to rank and reproductive success. These traits could therefore be used to test alternative models, including one that posits that personality variation is maintained by environmental heterogeneity, in studies of multiple chimpanzee communities.

A study of the factors which influence digital transformation in Kibs companies

Eighteen interviews were used in this research to inductively conceptualize the factors that influence digital transformation (DT) in Kibs companies that provide multidisciplinary Knowledge Intensive Business Services. Two main groups were identified: factors of DT and use in the new digital environment. Using the findings obtained, a comparison was made with the existing literature and the most relevant aspects of DT as a disruptive phenomenon which can generate intra-organizational competitive advantage are exposed.

Objective

To identify the factors of innovation-oriented organizational management, generated by the collaboration of the professional grouping of Kibs companies through the systematization of knowledge, which serve to conceptually delimit the DT phenomenon. Ultimately, it is expected to establish recommendations for this type of companies based on providing services with high knowledge value that strive to digitally transform their businesses.

Originality

the paper contributes to advancing the conceptual understanding of DT through the study of Kibs companies, which remain understudied. Likewise, there is no known study that analyzes the factors that give rise to DT in a professional grouping of small Kibs companies. It is clear that this union of small companies generates a strong internal capacity for knowledge absorption, through daily interactions with clients and public administrations, which favors the process of implementing certain technological and strategic components that are beneficial for the development of professional activity and increases the propensity to innovate.

Methodology

qualitative content was analysed using a grounded theory methodology including interviews with experts and the managers of the Kibs companies in the professional sector to obtain a solid basis that can be used to identify the most relevant factors of DT.

Findings/results

as DT is a multidimensional phenomenon of individual companies, this study presents a conceptual framework for the term with the strategic requirements of the market, organizations, public institutions and technological infrastructures of the professional sector. By considering the disruptive factors of digital development in this macroenvironment, conclusions can be made about the basic principles and effects of DT.

Leader extraversion and team performance: A moderated mediation model

Extraversion is the best and most consistent predictor of important leadership outcomes. However, there has been little exploration and examination of the mechanisms underlying the effects of extraverted leadership on performance. Drawing on distal-proximal motivational theory and situational strength theory, the present study proposes and examines a moderated mediation model that explains how leader extraversion affects team performance and how situational characteristics strengthen or constrain this relationship. Respondents were recruited through management team training courses run by the eight Chinese companies. We conducted two rounds of electronic questionnaire collection. The first round of data was collected during the training session. Four weeks later, we collected the data through the training courses' WeChat groups. Data collected from 226 Chinese team leaders was analyzed using SPSS 26 and Mplus 7. We find that leader extraversion predicts team performance through a motivational mechanism operationalized as leader work engagement. We further find that goal clarity and process clarity play an important role in strengthening the positive effect of leader extraversion on leader work engagement as well as the motivational mechanism, providing an empirical explanation of how leader extraversion affects team performance through a motivational mechanism operationalized as leader work engagement. We also explore how two potential situational characteristics, operationalized as goal clarity and process clarity of leaders, affect the relationship between leader extraversion and leader work engagement as well as the motivational mechanism. Addionally, the findings suggest important practical implications for the organizations seeking to identify effective team leaders.

Emotional Intelligence and Transformational Leadership: Meta-Analysis and Explanatory Model of Female Leadership Advantage

Emotional intelligence is a second-stratum factor of general intelligence (MacCann et al. 2014) that: (a) has been popularly touted as an essential individual difference for effective leadership (Goleman 1998), but also (b) exhibits large gender group differences favoring women (Joseph and Newman 2010). Combining these insights, we propose that emotional intelligence is a key mechanism in the so-called female leadership advantage (Eagly and Carli 2003-which emphasizes the finding that women are rated slightly higher in transformational leadership compared to men). The current study seeks to explain this gender leadership gap by specifying three personality-based theoretical mechanisms that enhance transformational leadership: (a) emotional intelligence (favoring women), (b) communion (stereotypical femininity; favoring women; Hsu et al. 2021), as well as an offsetting effect of (c) agency (stereotypical masculinity; favoring men). Meta-analytic data (including original meta-analyses among the leader's ability-based emotional intelligence, transformational leadership, communion, and agency) are used to test our theorized model. Results confirm the full mediation model of female leadership advantage. Because the three unique mechanisms operate in different directions, their individual indirect effects are notable, but their cumulative indirect effect is small and near-zero. In conclusion, we emphasize incorporating emotional intelligence with other personality-based explanations of gender effects in leadership perceptions.

An Alternative Procedure for Subgroup Analyses in the Think Manager–Think Male Paradigm

Abstract. Studies in the think manager–think male paradigm ( Schein, 1973 ) routinely observe gender–leader similarity variation across participant subgroups (e.g., men and women). The traditional use of intraclass correlation coefficients (ICCs) to measure similarity hinders researchers’ ability to fully understand the nature of these relationships. This article advocates for a regression framework ( Edwards, 1995 ), which avoids problems associated with ICCs. A think manager–think male study based on rating content from Fischbach et al. (2015) was conducted to demonstrate the advantages of this procedure. The results were then compared against the traditional ICC analysis. Overall, it is argued that a regression framework is more useful in testing hypotheses about the relationship between participant characteristics and gender–leader similarity than ICCs.

The impact of the big five personality variables on self-employment survival

Based on large, representative Australian household panel, this study investigates to what extent the Big Five personality variables influence self-employment survival and differentiates between successful or unsuccessful exit. In addition, the influence of two moderating variables, tertiary education and the motivation to become self-employed, are considered. Contrary to expectations, we found no impact of the Big Fives variable on self-employment survival in general. In the case of unsuccessful exit, we found that entrepreneurs with a higher level of Conscientiousness tend to stay self-employed although they may not be satisfied with their job. Similarly, entrepreneurs with a tertiary education prolong unsuccessfully self-employment stints, particularly if they exhibit higher level of Emotional Stability. Necessity-driven entrepreneurs exit unsuccessful stints earlier, especially if they exhibit a lower level of conscientiousness.

Enablers and barriers to non-dispensing pharmacist integration into the primary health care teams of Aboriginal community-controlled health services

BACKGROUND

The primary health care management of chronic disease affecting Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples requires healthcare quality and equity demands to be met, and systems that foster better team-based care. Non-dispensing pharmacists (NDPs) integrated within primary healthcare settings can enhance the quality of patient care, although factors that enable or challenge integration within these settings need to be better understood.

OBJECTIVES

To investigate enabling factors and barriers influencing integration of NDPs within Aboriginal community-controlled health services delivering primary health care. This was achieved through qualitative evaluation of the Integrating Pharmacists within Aboriginal Community Controlled Health Services (IPAC) Trial exploring the perceptions of NDPs, community pharmacists, healthcare staff, managers, and Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander patients of these services.

METHODS

NDPs were employed across twenty urban, rural, and remote services in three Australian states and provided pre-defined medication-related roles to adult Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander patients. Perceptions were elicited from online surveys, interviews, and focus groups. Transcripts were thematically analyzed using the constant comparison method to identify, compare, and refine emerging themes.

RESULTS

One hundred and four participants informed the findings, including 24 NDPs, 13 general practitioners, 12 service managers, 10 community pharmacists, 17 health service staff, and 17 patients. Enablers of integration included: personal (previous experience with Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples, cultural awareness, skills, individual attributes); health service-related (induction programs, Aboriginal Health Worker support, team-building initiatives); and community-related factors (engaged community elders, leaders, cultural mentors, community pharmacy champions). Barriers to NDP integration included a lack of systems supports for patients and staff to adapt to NDP roles, health service factors, travel requirements, a lack of community linkages, and time and budget constraints.

CONCLUSIONS

NDP integration within primary health care services has potential to enhance medication-related services to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples if enabling factors are supported and health systems and adequate resources facilitate the integration of pharmacists within these settings.