Constructive thinking: A broad coping variable with specific components

Actively Open-Minded Thinking and Its Measurement

Actively open-minded thinking (AOT) is measured by items that tap the willingness to consider alternative opinions, sensitivity to evidence contradictory to current beliefs, the willingness to postpone closure, and reflective thought. AOT scales are strong predictors of performance on heuristics and biases tasks and of the avoidance of reasoning traps such as superstitious thinking and belief in conspiracy theories. Nevertheless, AOT is most commonly measured with questionnaires rather than performance indicators. Questionnaire contamination becomes even more of a danger as the AOT concept is expanded into new areas such as the study of fake news, misinformation, ideology, and civic attitudes. We review our 25-year history of studying the AOT concept and developing our own AOT scale. We present a 13-item scale that both is brief and accommodates many previous criticisms and refinements. We include a discussion of why AOT scales are such good predictors of performance on heuristics and biases tasks. We conclude that it is because such scales tap important processes of cognitive decoupling and decontextualization that modernity increasingly requires. We conclude by discussing the paradox that although AOT scales are potent predictors of performance on most rational thinking tasks, they do not predict the avoidance of myside thinking, even though it is virtually the quintessence of the AOT concept.

Development and Validation of the Coping Capacity Measurement Scale of Public Health Emergencies in China

Public health emergency coping capacity has been an important direction in crisis research in recent years. The use of the public health emergency coping capacity scale to evaluate the public's response and feelings regarding public health emergencies is one of the essential ways to improve the effectiveness of public health emergency response. Based on literature research, this paper constructed the theoretical dimension of public health emergency coping ability and completed the development of the items of the initial scale in China. After using SPSS 22.0-conducted exploratory factor analysis, confirmatory factor analysis, and reliability test, the scale dimensions and items were deleted and optimized. The final public health emergency coping capacity measurement scale in China included 12 items and four dimensions. The results showed that the developed scale has high reliability and validity, which is helpful for the relevant personnel to understand the level of public health emergency coping ability and provides an essential basis for timely and accurate emergency prevention and control interventions.

Wish-making during the COVID-19 pandemic enhances positive appraisals and job satisfaction

Guided by cognitive appraisal theory, we argue that wish-making is a conceptually distinct type of coping strategy and that wish-making during the COVID-19 pandemic has functional cognitive-affective consequences. Specifically, it facilitates positive appraisals of the pandemic, which then facilitate job satisfaction. Enhanced job satisfaction in turn reduces counterproductive work behavior during the pandemic. These arguments were tested via two empirical studies involving 546 Hong Kong employees surveyed on two consecutive working days during the pandemic. The individuals who made wishes during the pandemic reported more positive appraisals of the pandemic, which in turn promoted their job satisfaction and lowered their counterproductive work behavior. Crucially, wish-making had significant effects on positive appraisals above and beyond other coping strategies. Thus, we contribute to the employee coping literature by highlighting one relatively easy way for employees to combat the psychological effects of the pandemic (and other challenges in life) and regulate their affective well-being and behaviors at work. Namely, making wishes that envision a better future can enhance employees' job satisfaction, which in turn lowers counterproductive work behavior.

Coping with coping assessment: A critical review

The recent literature on self‐report measures of coping reactions and strategies is reviewed and critically evaluated. Most of the coping research has focused on assessing several basic coping behaviours or reactions. These include dimensions such as task‐oriented coping, emotion‐oriented coping, and avoidance‐oriented coping. In general, most of the coping scales that have been developed have a variety of psychometric inadequacies. This state of affairs has created at least two major problems in the coping literature: (1) The proliferation of problematic coping scales, sometimes measuring different constructs, makes it difficult to generalize from one population and/or one health problem to another. (2) Since psychometrically sound instruments are a precondition for studying the relationships among coping, personality, and health, scales with psychometric problems preclude obtaining valid and generalizable information about coping behaviour. Methodological problems in the area have seriously restricted the development of a systematic body of theory and empirical knowledge about coping.

Constructive thinking as a mediator of the relationship between extraversion, neuroticism, and subjective well‐being

Mechanisms by which personality affects well‐being are not well understood. Following recommendations to examine intermediate process variables that may help explain the personality–subjective well‐being (SWB) relationship, the authors tested whether constructive thinking (CT) mediated the relationships between both neuroticism and extraversion and SWB components. Measures of each construct were administered to 147 undergraduate volunteers twice over four weeks. In analyses controlling for time 1 SWB and time 2 mood, time 2 CT fully mediated the relationship between time 1 neuroticism and time 2 negative affect and emerged as a strong predictor of negative affect (inversely), positive affect, and happiness. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Coping strategies among adults with ADHD: The mediational role of attachment relationship patterns

BACKGROUND

For adults with attention/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), research is scarce on their coping with stress (despite studies demonstrating other self-regulation deficits) and their attachment patterns (despite rare research in younger persons with ADHD showing high vulnerability to insecure attachments). Attachment was linked with coping and self-regulation in general populations but not yet in ADHD. This study explored the possible mediational role of attachment patterns in explaining associations between adults' ADHD symptoms and dysregulated coping.

METHODS

Participants comprised 62 adults (32 females, 30 males) ages 21-40 years (M = 27.60, SD = 4.80) in two groups: 31 adults with formally diagnosed ADHD and 31 demographically matched adults without ADHD. Instruments included computerized neuropsychological tests (sustained/executive attention) and self-reports (ADHD, coping, attachment).

RESULTS

Disorder status was verified via ADHD-symptom self-reports and computerized testing. Preliminary analyses revealed significant intergroup differences on coping strategies and attachment. PROCESS analyses (Hayes, 2013) pinpointed attachment measures' mediating role (especially attachment anxiety) regarding ADHD's association with coping.

CONCLUSIONS

Significantly more maladaptive attachment and coping outcomes emerged for adults with ADHD than controls. Attachment insecurity's role in mediating ADHD's association with coping was partially supported. Possible unique adaptive value of attachment relationships was discussed for coping with stressors in adulthood with ADHD.

Positive associations of optimism-pessimism orientation with pro-environmental behavior and subjective well-being: a longitudinal study on quality of life and everyday behavior

PURPOSE

The aim of the present study was to investigate associations of the balance of optimism and pessimism orientations as personal traits with pro-environmental behavior and subjective well-being, i.e., life satisfaction.

METHODS

A longitudinal questionnaire survey consisting of two waves were conducted with Japanese respondents within an interval of 3 months (N = 770, mean age 49.6 ± 15.23 years). Correlation analyses and structural equation modeling were conducted to identify relationships between pro-environmental behavior and positive and negative psychological states and orientations.

RESULTS

Results of both the two surveys indicated positive correlations of optimism-pessimism orientation (O/P ratio) and subjective well-being with pro-environmental behavior. Negative associations were also confirmed between depression, stress, and sleepiness and pro-environmental behavior. Structural equation modeling using the two-wave data revealed that O/P ratio is positively associated with pro-environmental behavior as longitudinal associations.

CONCLUSIONS

These results suggest that O/P ratio can be related to current and future engagement in pro-environmental behavior and improvement in subjective well-being which could lead to an environmentally sustainable society with enhanced quality of life.

Robustness of Decision-Making Competence: Evidence from two measures and an 11-year longitudinal study

Decision-making competence is the ability to follow normative principles when making decisions. In a longitudinal analysis, we examine the robustness of decision-making competence over time, as measured by two batteries of paper-and-pencil tasks. Participants completed the youth version (Y-DMC) at age 19 and/or the adult version (A-DMC) eleven years later at age 30, as part of a larger longitudinal study. Both measures are comprised of tasks adapted from ones used in experimental studies of decision-making skills. Results supported the robustness of these measures and the usefulness of the construct. Response patterns for Y-DMC were similar to those observed with a smaller initial sample drawn from the same population. Response patterns for A-DMC were similar to those observed with an earlier community sample. Y-DMC and A-DMC were significantly correlated, for participants who completed both measures, 11 years apart, even after controlling for measures of cognitive ability. Nomological validity was observed in correlations of scores on both tests with measures of cognitive ability, cognitive style, and environmental factors with predicted relationships to decision-making competence, including household SES, neighborhood disadvantage, and paternal substance abuse. Higher Y-DMC and A-DMC scores were also associated with lower rates of potentially risky and antisocial behaviors, including adolescent delinquency, cannabis use, and early sexual behavior. Thus, the Y-DMC and A-DMC measures appear to capture a relatively stable, measurable construct that increases with supportive environmental factors and is associated with constructive behaviors.

Self-rated health is prospectively associated with uptake of screening for the early detection of colorectal cancer, not vice versa

Self-rated health (SRH) is a consistent predictor of mortality and other health outcomes. One of the mechanisms hypothesized to explain its validity as a predictor is that SRH affects the adoption of health behaviors. The present study examined the prospective association between SRH and performance of a recommended colorectal cancer (CRC) screening test. One thousand four hundred and seventy-six men and women aged 50-74 years, eligible for CRC screening, who had undergone the test a year before were interviewed 1-2 weeks (long interview, before testing) or 2 months (short interview, after testing) following the mailing of a test kit. Test performance was ascertained using an HMO's computerized data set. Respondents in the long interview group who rated their health as 'higher than others' performed the screening test 2 months following the invitation more than those who rated their health as similar to or lower than that of others (65.4, 61.6, and 49.1%, respectively, χ=8.02, P=0.018). At the same time, these respondents perceived the risk of CRC as significantly lower than that of those who rated their health as comparable with or lower than that of others. In a multivariate logistic regression of CRC screening behavior that included demographic and perceptual variables, age, intentions, and SRH were found to be significant predictors. Among respondents in the short interview, who tested before the interview, there was no significant association between SRH and behavior. SRH prospectively predicts uptake of CRC screening better than other perceptual variables, after accounting for demographic variables.

Emotional Intelligence

This article presents a framework for emotional intelligence, a set of skills hypothesized to contribute to the accurate appraisal and expression of emotion in oneself and in others, the effective regulation of emotion in self and others, and the use of feelings to motivate, plan, and achieve in one's life. We start by reviewing the debate about the adaptive versus maladaptive qualities of emotion. We then explore the literature on intelligence, and especially social intelligence, to examine the place of emotion in traditional intelligence conceptions. A framework for integrating the research on emotion-related skills is then described. Next, we review the components of emotional intelligence. To conclude the review, the role of emotional intelligence in mental health is discussed and avenues for further investigation are suggested.

Leadership and Temperament Congruence: Extending the Expectancy Model of Work Motivation

We integrate theory and research from disparate areas to develop a comprehensive expectancy model of work motivation. Within our model, we: (1) consolidate the motivation, leadership, and personality literatures; (2) effectively incorporate the self-concept and personalities of leaders and followers; (3) provide an expanded view of the dynamics surrounding the concept of effort; (4) specify dyadic temperament congruence as a critical source of goal-directed behavior, and (5) offer a more realistic depiction of the implications of satisfaction and perceived equity.

Influence of patient personality in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis

Individualized treatment of rheumatoid arthritis (RA) based on genetic/serologic factors is increasingly accepted. Moreover, patients are more actively involved in the management of their disease. However, personality has received little attention with respect to perception of the need and adherence to treatment. Our objective was to evaluate whether patient personality was associated with the acceptance or rejection of more aggressive early treatment. We performed a cross-sectional study in two hospitals with early arthritis clinics where sociodemographic, clinical, and therapeutic variables are systematically recorded. Patients completed Eysenck Personality Questionnaire, Multidimensional Health Locus of Control, Pain-Related Self-Statement Scale and Pain-Related Control Scale. Aggressive treatment was considered if patients received more than two DMARDs or biological agents during the first year of follow-up. Multivariate logistic regression analysis was performed to determine predictors of aggressive treatment. One hundred seventy-six RA patients were included (80 % women, disease begin median age 55 years). Treatment was considered aggressive in 57.9 % of the sample. Scores were high in extraversion in 50.8 % of patients, neuroticism in 29.5 % and psychoticism in 14.7 %. Neuroticism was the only factor associated with aggressive treatment, which was less probable (p = 0.04, OR = 0.40). Neuroticism also decreased the possibility of receiving a combination of biologics and DMARDs (p = 0.04, OR = 0.28). Patients with high scores on neuroticism are more worried, obsessive and hypochondriac, leading them to reject more aggressive therapy. It is important to educate about their disease so that they will accept more aggressive approaches in clear cases of poor outcome.

The Constructive Thinking Inventory and Detecting Errors in Proofreading

The Constructive Thinking Inventory and a proofreading task were completed by 193 undergraduates. Pearson and first-order partial correlations assessed relationships between scores on the inventory and number of errors detected during the proofreading task. The CTI Naive Optimism and Validity Scales were significantly associated with proofreading performance. The results support the validity of the CTI Validity Scale.

Everyday Thinking of College Students and Their Parents and Students' Simulations of Each Parent's Thinking

Each parent and 42 male and 76 female undergraduates separately completed Epstein and Meier's 1989 Constructive Thinking Inventory. Students also simulated each parent's inventory responses, generally depicting parental everyday thinking as more constructive than their own but less constructive than parents' actual responses and overestimating parental Naive Optimism and Categorical Thinking. On measures of Emotional Coping, Constructive Thinking, and Categorical Thinking, women scored below men, perhaps reflecting men's less concern about how others view them. Sons, but not daughters, significantly underestimated their mothers' Constructive Thinking. These and parallel father-related discrepancies correlated positively with student-reported conflict with either parent. Student-parent correlations were largely gender-concordant. Additional variables seem likely to influence the intergenerational transmission of everyday thinking.

Empirical Clarification of the Nature of Psychological Well-Being

An analysis of the literature revealed that conceptualizations of the nature of psychological well-being are very diverse, and that it is still unclear what the nature and/or dimensions of psychological well-being are. Scales based on several models and constructs from diverse theoretical traditions were completed by a multicultural group of 550 participants. The validity of the scales for use in this particular group was determined. The manifestations of psychological well-being in different gender, cultural and age groups were compared. Similarities and differences were found. In a factor analysis on the data of the total group, a general psychological well-being factor was identified. Psychological well-being seems to be multidimensional with regard to facets of self that are involved ( e.g., affect, cognition, behaviour), as well as with regard to the domains of life in which these facets manifest themselves ( e.g., intra- and interpersonal, social and contextual, in love and work). A sense of coherence, satisfaction with life and affect-balance are strong indicators of general psychological well-being. Findings from this perspective may point to new directions for capacity building.

The Perception of Personal Control: Sufficiently Important to Warrant Careful Scrutiny

Carver et al. propose that expecting a desired outcome is more important than the perception of personal control over that outcome in predicting distress among individuals facing threatening circumstances. They support this hypothesis through an analysis of data from two studies of women with early stage breast cancer. This article turns to the existing empirical literature, to recent theories of adjustment to serious illness, and to the methods employed in the Carver et al. studies to comment on their proposal. The authors conclude that an adequate comparison of how expectancies and control perceptions contribute to the adjustment of individuals in threatening situations will require more attention to the selection of research participants, the appropriate time frame for such studies, and measurement strategies.

The Linda Problem Revisited from the Perspective of Cognitive-Experiential Self-Theory

Results from four experiments (N = 548) support the hypothesis from cognitive-experiential self-theory (CEST) that the resistance of the notorious Linda conjunction problem to solution can be attributed primarily to its simultaneously concrete and unnatural context. The experiments demonstrated that the influence of other variables, such as problem order, event likelihood, within-versus between-protagonist context, and statistical sophistication, although important, cannot account for the robust influence of the combination of the concrete-abstract and natural-unnatural dimensions. The implications of the demonstration that virtually everyone has intuitive knowledge of the conjunction rule are discussed, in addition to cuing effects, narrative processing, and methodological issues that have produced serious distortions in the interpretation of previous research.

Distinguishing Optimism from Denial: Optimistic Beliefs Predict Attention to Health Threats

Research has yielded conflicting views of the adaptiveness of optimistic beliefs in confronting negative events and information. To test whether optimism functions like denial, the authors examined the prospective relation of optimistic beliefs to attention to threatening health information presented by computer in a college student sample (N= 57). Optimistic beliefs about one's health predicted greater attention to risk information than to neutral or benefit information and greater levels of recall overall, especially when the information was self-relevant. Results concerning attention to risk information were similar, but weaker, for dispositional optimism. Implications for theoretical treatments of optimistic beliefs are discussed.

Effects of Affective Expectations on Affective Experience: The Moderating Role of Optimism-Pessimism

The Affective Expectation Model contends that affective expectations shape affective experience. Specifically, it argues that affective experiences are generally assimilated toward expectations when the two are congruent or when a discrepancy between the two is not noticed. When a discrepancy exists and is noticed, however, affective experiences should be contrasted from the expectation. Two experiments using psychology undergraduates (N s = 122 and 105) were conducted to test whether the individual-difference variable optimism-pessimism moderates these effects. It was hypothesized that optimists, because of their tendency to overlook contradictions, are less likely to recognize when an affective expectation is disconfirmed and thus often assimilate their affective reactions toward expectations. However, it was hypothesized that pessimists, because of their greater sensitivity to contradictions, are more likely to notice when an experience is discrepant from an expectation and thus often contrast their affective reactions from expectations. The results supported these hypotheses.

Examining the Relationship Between Trauma Centrality and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Symptoms: A Moderated Mediation Approach

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

The degree to which a traumatic event is seen as central to one's sense of self (trauma centrality) has been associated with posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms. Based on cognitive models of PTSD that highlight the role that maladaptive appraisals play in generating PTSD symptoms, we hypothesized that appraising a trauma as violating one's core beliefs and goals mediates the link between trauma centrality and PTSD symptoms. Further, we reasoned that coping ability moderates the direct and indirect link as those with better coping ability will have more adaptive appraisals.

DESIGN

Hypotheses were examined in a cross-sectional sample of 367 undergraduates who have experienced a traumatic event.

METHODS

Data were collected via an online survey.

RESULTS

Overall, results of the moderated mediation analysis were consistent with the hypothesized mediating role for appraised violations and moderating role for coping ability.

CONCLUSIONS

Findings highlight the importance of considering individual differences and trauma appraisals in understanding the relationship between trauma centrality and PTSD - trauma centrality may be related to PTSD symptoms more so among people with poorer coping ability who appraise a trauma as violating their core beliefs and goals.

A Control-Based Multidimensional Approach to the Role of Optimism in the Use of Dementia Day Care Services

We examined whether grounded optimism and external locus of control are associated with admission to dementia day care centers (DCCs). A total of 130 informal caregivers were recruited from the Alzheimer's Association in Salamanca (northwest Spain). All caregivers completed an assessment protocol that included the Battery of Generalized Expectancies of Control Scales (BEEGC-20, acronym in Spanish) as well as depression and burden measures. The decision of the care setting at baseline assessment (own home vs DCC) was considered the main outcome measure in the logistic regression analyses. Grounded optimism was a preventive factor for admission (odds ratio [OR]: 0.34 and confidence interval [CI]: 0.15-0.75), whereas external locus of control (OR: 2.75, CI: 1.25-6.03) increased the probabilities of using DCCs. Depression mediated the relationship between optimism and DCCs, but this effect was not consistent for burden. Grounded optimism promotes the extension of care at home for patients with dementia.

Thermal Adaptation Methods of Urban Plaza Users in Asia's Hot-Humid Regions: A Taiwan Case Study

Thermal adaptation studies provide researchers great insight to help understand how people respond to thermal discomfort. This research aims to assess outdoor urban plaza conditions in hot and humid regions of Asia by conducting an evaluation of thermal adaptation. We also propose that questionnaire items are appropriate for determining thermal adaptation strategies adopted by urban plaza users. A literature review was conducted and first hand data collected by field observations and interviews used to collect information on thermal adaptation strategies. Item analysis—Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) and Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA)—were applied to refine the questionnaire items and determine the reliability of the questionnaire evaluation procedure. The reliability and validity of items and constructing process were also analyzed. Then, researchers facilitated an evaluation procedure for assessing the thermal adaptation strategies of urban plaza users in hot and humid regions of Asia and formulated a questionnaire survey that was distributed in Taichung’s Municipal Plaza in Taiwan. Results showed that most users responded with behavioral adaptation when experiencing thermal discomfort. However, if the thermal discomfort could not be alleviated, they then adopted psychological strategies. In conclusion, the evaluation procedure for assessing thermal adaptation strategies and the questionnaire developed in this study can be applied to future research on thermal adaptation strategies adopted by urban plaza users in hot and humid regions of Asia.

Thinking of attachments reduces noradrenergic stress response

Although there is much evidence that activating mental representations of attachments figure is beneficial for psychological health and can reduce stress response, no research has directly investigated whether attachment activation can ameliorate hormonal stress response. This study investigated whether activating an attachment figure or a non-attachment figure following administration of a socially evaluated cold pressor test to elicit stress impacted on glucocorticoid and noradrenergic response. Participants (N = 61) provided baseline salivary samples, underwent a cold pressor test, then imagined an attachment or non-attachment figure, and finally provided subsequent saliva samples. Participants who imagined a non-attachment figure had greater noradrenergic response following the stressor than those who imagined an attachment figure. These findings highlight that activating attachment representations can ameliorate the immediate noradrenergic stress response.

Investigating the Properties of the General Factor (M) in Bifactor Models Applied to Big Five or HEXACO Data in Terms of Method or Meaning

This project applied a bifactor model, which specifies a general factor that accounts for the common variance among all scale items, and group factors that reflect additional common variance among clusters of items. This general factor is designated as “M” because of a presumption in the research literature that its origins are to be found in method. The model was applied in eight samples using nine datasets and across three different personality measures, including the Big Five and the HEXACO. Inclusion of M significantly increased model fit and increased the variance explained of items. Evidence showed that M did not reflect aspects of method such as random error or an acquiescent response bias. M correlated positively with variables suggesting psychological adjustment and negatively with variables pointing toward maladjustment. M showed unique relationships with constructs suggesting psychological adjustment over and beyond the Big Five. Data supported an interpretation of M as a synthesizing function within the self and thus suggested that M was a construct revealing substantive psychological meaning rather than mere method.

Constructive thinking skills and impulsivity dimensions in conduct and substance use disorders: differences and relationships in an adolescents' sample

Impact of conduct disorder (CD) and substance use disorder (SUD) on constructive thinking skills and impulsivity was explored. 71 offending adolescents were assessed for CD and SUD. Furthermore, the constructive thinking inventory, the immediate and delayed memory tasks and the UPPS impulsive behaviour scale were administered. Results showed that youths with CD, independently from SUD, presented higher personality impulsivity (urgency) and altered constructive thinking skills (categorical thinking and personal superstitious thinking). Furthermore, trait-impulsivity explained variation in constructive thinking skills. The implications of these results were discussed.

How does thinking in Black and White terms relate to eating behavior and weight regain?

This study explores the role of dichotomous thinking on eating behavior and its association with restraint eating and weight regain in a wide range of people. In a web-based survey with 241 adults, dichotomous thinking and behavioral outcomes related to eating (restraint eating, weight regain, body mass index, dieting) were assessed. Results showed that eating-specific dichotomous thinking (dichotomous beliefs about food and eating) mediates the association between restraint eating and weight regain. We conclude that holding dichotomous beliefs about food and eating may be linked to a rigid dietary restraint, which in turn impedes people’s ability to maintain a healthy weight.

Behind the stage of deliberate self-persuasion: When changes in valence of associations to an attitude object predict attitude change

Modern theory and research on evaluative processes, combined with a comprehensive review of deliberate self-persuasion (Maio & Thomas, 2007, Pers. Soc. Psychol. Bull., 11, 46), suggest two types of strategies people can use to construct new, more desired attitudes. Epistemic strategies change the perceived valence of associations activated by the attitude object. Teleologic strategies, in contrast, keep undesired associations from being activated in the first place, thus obviating the need to change their perceived valence. Change in perceived valence of associations therefore might predict attitude change better when people pursue epistemic than teleologic strategies for deliberate self-persuasion. This hypothesis gained convergent support from three studies in which use of epistemic versus teleologic strategies was measured as an individual difference (Study 1) and manipulated (studies 2 and 3). The results of these studies supported the theoretical distinction between the two strategies and suggested further research directions.

Does the cognitive reflection test measure cognitive reflection? A mathematical modeling approach

We used a mathematical modeling approach, based on a sample of 2,019 participants, to better understand what the cognitive reflection test (CRT; Frederick In Journal of Economic Perspectives, 19, 25-42, 2005) measures. This test, which is typically completed in less than 10 min, contains three problems and aims to measure the ability or disposition to resist reporting the response that first comes to mind. However, since the test contains three mathematically based problems, it is possible that the test only measures mathematical abilities, and not cognitive reflection. We found that the models that included an inhibition parameter (i.e., the probability of inhibiting an intuitive response), as well as a mathematical parameter (i.e., the probability of using an adequate mathematical procedure), fitted the data better than a model that only included a mathematical parameter. We also found that the inhibition parameter in males is best explained by both rational thinking ability and the disposition toward actively open-minded thinking, whereas in females this parameter was better explained by rational thinking only. With these findings, this study contributes to the understanding of the processes involved in solving the CRT, and will be particularly useful for researchers who are considering using this test in their research.

Psychological resilience: the impact of affectivity and coping on state anxiety and positive emotions during and after the Washington, DC sniper killings

This research examined the impact of affectivity and coping on state anxiety and positive emotions among young adults living in the Washington, DC metro area both during and after the Washington, DC sniper killings. Participants completed questionnaires during three waves of data collection: (1) during the sniper attacks (n=92); (2) within two weeks after the snipers were captured (n=45); and (3) six months later (n=43). Affectivity (measured by neuroticism) was significantly associated with state anxiety and positive emotions during all three time periods. Coping (measured by constructive thinking) predicted state anxiety and positive emotions during the shootings, but was unrelated to either outcome immediately after the attacks, and marginally related to them six months later. Consistent with the Dynamic Model of Affect, state anxiety and positive emotions were more strongly (and negatively) correlated with each other during the killings than they were after the snipers were apprehended. Taken together, these results support transactional models of stress that emphasize the interaction between dispositional and situational influences, and they suggest that affectivity reflects a fundamental set of reactions to one's environment, while coping dispositions result in more stress-specific responses. Additional theoretical and practical implications of these findings are also discussed.

Measuring use of positive thinking skills: psychometric testing of a new scale

Positive thinking interventions improve adaptive functioning and quality of life in many populations. However, no direct measure of positive thinking skills taught during intervention exists. This psychometric study of a convenience sample of 109 autism spectrum disorder (ASD) caregivers examined a new eight-item Positive Thinking Skills Scale (PTSS), which measures the frequency of use of positive thinking skills. The PTSS was found to be internally consistent (α = .90). Construct validity was supported by significant correlations (p < .01) with positive cognitions (r = .53), resourcefulness (r = .63), depression (r = -.45), and general well-being (r = .40). The findings support use of the PTSS as a potential indicator of intervention fidelity among ASD caregivers. However, because it is not specific for ASD caregivers, the PTSS has the potential for wider usage in other populations for whom the identification of specific positive thinking skills could provide direction for future intervention.

Change mechanisms of schema-centered group psychotherapy with personality disorder patients

BACKGROUND

This study addressed the temporal properties of personality disorders and their treatment by schema-centered group psychotherapy. It investigated the change mechanisms of psychotherapy using a novel method by which psychotherapy can be modeled explicitly in the temporal domain.

METHODOLOGY AND FINDINGS

69 patients were assigned to a specific schema-centered behavioral group psychotherapy, 26 to social skills training as a control condition. The largest diagnostic subgroups were narcissistic and borderline personality disorder. Both treatments offered 30 group sessions of 100 min duration each, at a frequency of two sessions per week. Therapy process was described by components resulting from principal component analysis of patients' session-reports that were obtained after each session. These patient-assessed components were Clarification, Bond, Rejection, and Emotional Activation. The statistical approach focused on time-lagged associations of components using time-series panel analysis. This method provided a detailed quantitative representation of therapy process. It was found that Clarification played a core role in schema-centered psychotherapy, reducing rejection and regulating the emotion of patients. This was also a change mechanism linked to therapy outcome.

CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE

The introduced process-oriented methodology allowed to highlight the mechanisms by which psychotherapeutic treatment became effective. Additionally, process models depicted the actual patterns that differentiated specific diagnostic subgroups. Time-series analysis explores Granger causality, a non-experimental approximation of causality based on temporal sequences. This methodology, resting upon naturalistic data, can explicate mechanisms of action in psychotherapy research and illustrate the temporal patterns underlying personality disorders.