When fit indices and residuals are incompatible

Gay Community Stress in Sexual Minority Men and Women: A Validation Study in the Netherlands

Intraminority gay community stress theory posits that social stressors within sexual minority communities of men may be risk factors for mental health problems in gay and bisexual men. The recently developed 20-item Gay Community Stress Scale (GCSS) is a valid and reliable measure of gay community stress, but was not yet validated in the Netherlands. This study developed a Dutch-translated version of the GCSS and validated this scale in sexual minority men and sexual minority women, as it was hypothesized that sexual minority women may also experience intraminority stress. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses were subsequently performed in independent samples of men and women, and produced a 16-item GCSS for men and a 12-item GCSS for women. The four-factor structure of the original GCSS was replicated in men and women, and encouraging support for discriminant and concurrent validity of the GCSS was found in both men and women. The total scale and subscales were internally consistent in men (α and ω ≥ .87) and in women (α and ω ≥ .78). The Dutch-translated GCSS seems to offer a valid and reliable way to assess intraminority stress in Dutch-speaking sexual minority men and sexual minority women, although further validation is warranted.

Psychometric Properties of a Risk Tool Across Indigenous Māori and European Samples in Aotearoa New Zealand: Measurement Invariance, Discrimination, and Calibration for Predicting Criminal Recidivism

Due to recent legal cases highlighting a lack of cross-ethnicity validity research using correctional risk assessment tools, we evaluated psychometric properties of Dynamic Risk Assessment for Offender Re-entry (DRAOR) scores across Māori (n = 1,812) and New Zealand (NZ) European samples (n = 1,211) in Aotearoa NZ. Using routine administrative data, our analyses suggested scoring properties were invariant across ethnicity for 15 of 19 items. Discrimination properties were also equivalent, but we observed a higher recidivism base rate among Māori participants, consistent with official statistics. Consequently, calibration analyses using a fixed follow-up (N = 372) demonstrated higher predicted recidivism rates for Māori participants at each DRAOR score. This suggests that Māori participants with similar levels of DRAOR-assessed need factors as NZ European participants experienced relatively greater continued justice contact. DRAOR users should prioritize delivering quality case management to clients, recognizing that both case-specific and systemic factors may underlie differential base rates.

Psychometric properties of sum scores and factor scores differ even when their correlation is 0.98: A response to Widaman and Revelle

Commentary in Widaman and Revelle (2022) argued that sum scoring is justified as long as unidimensionality holds because sum score reliability is defined. My response begins with a review of the literature supporting the perspective we adopted in the original article. I then conduct simulation studies to assess the psychometric properties of sum scores created using Widaman and Revelle's justification relative to scores created by the weighted factor score approach in the original article. In my simulations, I generate data where sum and factor scores are correlated at 0.96 or 0.98 because high factor-sum score correlations are often used to support the contention that sum and factor scores have interchangeable psychometric properties. I explore (a) correlations between estimated scores and true scores, (b) classification accuracy of sum and factor scores, and (c) reliability of sum and factor scores. Results show that factor scores have (a) higher correlations with true scores (Δ = 0.02-0.04), (b) higher sensitivity (Δ = 4-8 percentage points), and (c) higher reliability (Δ = 0.04-0.07). Factor score performance metrics also have less sampling variability in most conditions. Psychometric properties of sum scores-even when highly correlated with factor scores-remain less desirable than those of factor scores. Additional considerations like models with multiple factors and measurement invariance are also discussed. Essentially, even if accepting Widaman and Revelle's justification for sum scoring, it is uncertain whether researchers generally would want to sum score after fitting a factor analysis unless sum and factor scores correlate at (and not merely close to) 1.00.

dynamic : An R Package for Deriving Dynamic Fit Index Cutoffs for Factor Analysis

To evaluate the fit of a confirmatory factor analysis model, researchers often rely on fit indices such as SRMR, RMSEA, and CFI. These indices are frequently compared to benchmark values of .08, .06, and .96, respectively, established by Hu and Bentler (Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling, 6(1), 1-55). However, these indices are affected by model characteristics and their sensitivity to misfit can change across models. Decisions about model fit can therefore be improved by tailoring cutoffs to each model. The methodological literature has proposed methods for deriving customized cutoffs, although it can require knowledge of linear algebra and Monte Carlo simulation. Given that many empirical researchers do not have training in these technical areas, empirical studies largely continue to rely on fixed benchmarks even though they are known to generalize poorly and can be poor arbiters of fit. To address this, this paper introduces the R package, dynamic, to make computation of dynamic fit index cutoffs (which are tailored to the user's model) more accessible to empirical researchers. dynamic heavily automatizes this process and only requires a lavaan object to automatically conduct several custom Monte Carlo simulations and output fit index cutoffs designed to be sensitive to misfit with the user's model characteristics.

Generalizability of Dynamic Fit Index, Equivalence Testing, and Hu & Bentler Cutoffs for Evaluating Fit in Factor Analysis

Factor analysis is often used to model scales created to measure latent constructs, and internal structure validity evidence is commonly assessed with indices like RMSEA, and CFI. These indices are essentially effect size measures and definitive benchmarks regarding which values connote reasonable fit have been elusive. Simulations from the 1990s suggesting possible benchmark values are among the most highly cited methodological papers across any discipline. However, simulations have suggested that fixed benchmarks do not generalize well - fit indices are systematically impacted by characteristics like the number of items and the magnitude of the loadings, so fixed benchmarks can confound misfit with model characteristics. Alternative frameworks for creating customized, model-specific benchmarks have recently been proposed to circumvent these issues but they have not been systematically evaluated. Motivated by two empirical applications where different methods yield inconsistent conclusions, two simulation studies are performed to assess the ability of three different approaches to correctly classify models that are correct or misspecified across different conditions. Results show that dynamic fit indices and equivalence testing both improved upon the traditional Hu & Bentler benchmarks and dynamic fit indices appeared to be least confounded with model characteristics in the conditions studied.

Development and Validation of Two Abbreviated Intraminority Gay Community Stress Scales

Social stressors stemming from within the gay community might render gay and bisexual men vulnerable to mental health problems. The 20-item intraminority Gay Community Stress Scale (GCSS) is a reliable measure of gay community stress, but the scale's length limits its widespread use in sexual minority mental health research. Using three independent samples of gay and bisexual men, the present research developed two abbreviated versions of the GCSS using nonparametric item response modeling and validated them. Results indicated that eight items provided maximal information about the gay community stress construct; these items were selected to form the eight-item GCSS. The eight-item GCSS reproduced the factor structure of the parent scale, and gay community stress scores obtained from it correlated with other identity-specific social stress constructs and mental health symptoms. Associations between gay community stress and mental health symptoms remained significant even after controlling for related identity-specific stressors, general life stress, and relevant demographics. A four-item version was also developed and assessed, showing good structural, convergent, criterion, and incremental validity and adequate reliability. The eight- and four-item versions of the GCSS offer efficient measures of gay community stress, an increasingly recognized source of stress for gay and bisexual men.

Factors influencing the intention to use assistive technologies by older adults

Society is ageing at an unprecedented pace worldwide creating implications for the health and social care. Gerontechnology has been recognized as a solution that increases and supports the independency and well-being of older adults at home. This article aims to identify the most critical success factors effecting the adoption of an assistive gerontechnology by older adults in Poland. The object of the authors' interest was Rudy robot, an AI-enabled mobile solution helping users remain physically healthy, mentally sharp, and socially connected. The data was collected among Polish citizens using the CATI technique between November and December 2020. The number of returned questionnaires amounted to 824. The authors used Generalized Least Squares (GLS) of Structural Equation Modelling (GLS-SEM) to verify the hypotheses. The obtained results confirmed statistically significant relationships between the variables of perceived usefulness of Rudy robot and attitude reflecting the willingness to use this technology, as well as between perceived ease of use and perceived usefulness of robot. However, relationship between perceived ease of use and inclination to use this technology in the future was not statistically significant. The conducted research confirmed that the functionality of the analysed Rudy robot for older-adult care positively influences their intension to use it in the future for their own needs or family members. The obtained results confirmed usefulness of robots as assistive technology helping older adults.

A Measurement Model for Stakeholders’ Participation in Urban Housing Development for Lusaka: A Neo-Liberal Perspective

Development of urban housing requires participation of various stakeholders, from the state, private sector, and community to the civil society organizations. Cognizant of that fact, this research sought to establish the measurement model for stakeholders’ participation in an urban housing development from the neo-liberal perspective. The study employed a quantitative approach, in which a structured questionnaire containing 25 indicator variables identified from literature was administered to a total of 214 respondents drawn from key institutions involved in housing development and planning in Lusaka, Zambia. Data collected were analyzed through exploratory factor analysis (EFA) as well as confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), with goodness-of-fit based on a two-index strategy used in determining model acceptability. Results revealed that stakeholders’ participation is defined by seven variables, namely: private sector participation in the provision of affordable housing finance; private sector participation through construction of rent-to-buy housing; private sector participation through partnering in the provision of basic services; community participation in the develop of housing programs; the state facilitating access to affordable housing finance; the state stimulating private sector involvement in affordable housing provision; non-governmental organizations participation by coordinating the communities. The study outlines roles of various actors in housing development from a developing country’s perspective.

Dynamic fit index cutoffs for one-factor models

Assessing whether a multiple-item scale can be represented with a one-factor model is a frequent interest in behavioral research. Often, this is done in a factor analysis framework with approximate fit indices like RMSEA, CFI, or SRMR. These fit indices are continuous measures, so values indicating acceptable fit are up to interpretation. Cutoffs suggested by Hu and Bentler (1999) are a common guideline used in empirical research. However, these cutoffs were derived with intent to detect omitted cross-loadings or omitted factor covariances in multifactor models. These types of misspecifications cannot exist in one-factor models, so the appropriateness of using these guidelines in one-factor models is uncertain. This paper uses a simulation study to address whether traditional fit index cutoffs are sensitive to the types of misspecifications common in one-factor models. The results showed that traditional cutoffs have very poor sensitivity to misspecification in one-factor models and that the traditional cutoffs generalize poorly to one-factor contexts. As an alternative, we investigate the accuracy and stability of the recently introduced dynamic fit cutoff approach for creating fit index cutoffs for one-factor models. Simulation results indicated excellent performance of dynamic fit index cutoffs to classify correct or misspecified one-factor models and that dynamic fit index cutoffs are a promising approach for more accurate assessment of model fit in one-factor contexts.

The Spanish Version of the Child Medical Fear Questionnaire: Cross-Cultural Adaptation and Validation

Having valid and reliable tools that help health professionals to assess fear in children undergoing medical procedures is essential to offer humanised and quality of care in the paediatric population. The aim of this study was to develop the cross-cultural adaptation and the evaluation of the psychometric properties of the Spanish version of the "Child Medical Fear Scale" in its shortened version (CMFS-R). The design consisted of two phases: first, of cross-cultural adaptation and second, of the psychometric validation of the CMFS-R with a sample of 262 children from Spain, applying a cross-sectional design. Confirmatory factor analysis was conducted to assess construct validity and the Cronbach's alpha and the adjusted item-total score correlation coefficients were performed to study reliability. The results confirmed internal consistency and construct validity of the Spanish version of the CMFS-R, indicating that the scale has an acceptable level of validity and reliability. Therefore, this study brings a new version of the scale to assess fear related to medical procedures for use in the Spanish paediatric population.

COVID-19 Vaccination Behavior of People Living with HIV: The Mediating Role of Perceived Risk and Vaccination Intention

The COVID-19 vaccination behavior of people living with HIV (PLWH) was examined via a cross-sectional web-based survey of PLWH aged 18 years and older. The survey was conducted from l May to 20 June 2021. The survey included social demographic information; vaccination behavior (B); and questions related to perceived usefulness (PU), perceived risk (PR), subjective norms (SNs), perceived behavior control (PBC), and behavior intention (BI). The associations between the questionnaire variables and COVID-19 vaccination behavior were assessed by calculating the descriptive data, correlation analysis, and structural equation modeling. In total, 43.71% of the 350 eligible respondents had received a COVID-19 vaccine. The differences in COVID-19 vaccination behavior according to age, gender, religious belief, marital status, income, education level, and occupation were not obvious (p > 0.05). PU had a significantly negative effect on PR (p < 0.05). PR had a significantly negative effect on BI (p < 0.05). SNs had a significantly positive effect on BI (p < 0.05). BI had a significantly positive effect on B (p < 0.05). PR fully mediated the effects of PU on BI, BI fully mediated the effects of PR on B, and BI fully mediated the effects of SNs on B (p < 0.05). Health policymakers and medical workers should provide more information about the risks of vaccine application to improve the vaccination behavior of PLWH.

Examining risk and protective factors for psychological health during the COVID-19 pandemic

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has profoundly impacted people's lives, with significant mental health consequences emerging. In addition to sociodemographic and COVID-19 specific factors, psychological risk and protective mechanisms likely influence individual differences in mental health during the COVID-19 pandemic. We examined associations between a broad set of risk and protective factors with depression, anxiety, alcohol problems, and eating pathology, and investigated interactions between objective stress due to COVID-19 and risk/protective variables in predicting psychopathology.

METHODS

Participants were 877 adults (73.7% female) recruited via internet sources from around the globe, but primarily residing in North America (87.4%).

RESULTS

Structural equation modelling revealed that certain risk and protective factors (e.g., loneliness, mindfulness) were broadly related to psychopathology, whereas others showed unique relations with specific symptoms (e.g., greater repetitive thinking and anxiety; low meaning and purpose and depression). COVID-19 objective stress interacted with risk factors, but not protective factors, to predict greater anxiety symptoms, but not other forms of psychopathology.

CONCLUSIONS

Findings contribute to our understanding of psychological mechanisms underlying individual differences in psychopathology in the context of a global stressor. Strategies that reduce loneliness and increase mindfulness will likely impact the greatest number of mental health symptoms.

Perceived Social Support for a Sustainable Adolescence: A Theoretical Model of Its Sources and Types

Despite the growing interest in perceived social support as a means of achieving sustainable psychological development and well-being in the various contexts of the adolescent, its definition and composition remain unclear. The aim of this study is to test both the hierarchical order and the types and sources of a theoretical model of the social support perceived by adolescents. The model is based on the theories of Tardy and Lin, as well as on the findings of recent studies on the construct. Three theoretical models are compared using the structural equations method. The participants were 1081 randomly selected secondary school students (aged 12–18 years) from the north of Spain, who completed the APIK Perceived Social Support Questionnaire. The model positing that perceived social support comprises a hierarchical first level formed by sources of support (family, friends and teachers) and a lower second level derived from the first one, formed by types of support (emotional, material and informational), proved to be the first-choice solution. The results establish a solid theoretical base for both future studies on perceived social support during adolescence and possible educational interventions designed to improve social support for teenagers.

The Circumplex of Personality Metatraits and the HEXACO model: Toward refinement and integration

OBJECTIVE

There is a considerable body of evidence from the last 20 years, indicating the need for the reconceptualization of the highest level of the personality structure that the Big Five/Five-Factor Model (FFM) was assumed to occupy. The main goal of the presented study was to test the relationships between two models that have been developed in this respect: The Circumplex of Personality Metatraits (CPM), based on the higher-order factors of the Big Five, and the HEXACO model including a sixth basic personality dimension (Honesty-Humility).

METHOD

The sample consisted of 500 respondents (56.8% females; M_age = 31.9, SD_age  = 14.0), all of whom completed the CPM, HEXACO, and FFM measures.

RESULTS

The results corroborated the expectation that the HEXACO model can be coherently located within the CPM model, despite the latter is rooted in the FFM research tradition. However, this substantial integration has been made possible by a relatively slight but crucial modification of the CPM, already suggested by previous research.

CONCLUSION

After the modification, which concerned the location of the Neuroticism/Emotional stability trait, the CPM enables a comprehensive integration of major models of personality structure encompassing the Two-Factor Model, the FFM, and the HEXACO.

The Effects of Scientific Self-efficacy and Cognitive Anxiety on Science Engagement with the "Question-Observation-Doing-Explanation" Model during School Disruption in COVID-19 Pandemic

Game-based learning supported by mobile intelligence technology has promoted the renewal of teaching and learning models. Herein, a model of Question-Observation-Doing-Explanation (QODE) based on smart phones was constructed and applied to science learning during school disruption in COVID-19 pandemic. In this study, from the theoretical perspective of cognitive-affective theory of learning with media, Bandura's motivation theory and community of inquiry model, self-report measure was used to verify the effect of students' scientific self-efficacy and cognitive anxiety on science engagement. A total of 357 valid questionnaires were used for structural equation model research. The results indicated that two types of scientific self-efficacy, as indicated by scientific learning ability and scientific learning behavior, were negatively associated with cognitive anxiety. In addition, cognitive anxiety was also negatively correlated to four types of science engagement, as indicated by cognitive engagement, emotional engagement, behavioral engagement, and social engagement through smartphone interactions. These findings provide further evidence for game-based learning promoted by smart phones, contributing to a deeper understanding of the associations between scientific self-efficacy, cognitive anxiety, and science engagement. This study points out that the QODE model is suitable for implementing smart mobile devices to students' science learning.

Exploring the Dimensionality of the Social Skills Improvement System Using Exploratory Graph Analysis and Bifactor-(S - 1) Modeling

Since its development over a decade ago, the Social Skills Improvement System (SSIS) has been one of the most widely used measures of social skills in children. However, evidence of its structural validity has been scant. The current study examined the original seven-factor and more recent five-factor structure (SSIS-SEL) of the self-report SSIS in a sample of English elementary school students (N = 3,331) aged 8 to 10 years (M = 8.66, SD = 0.59). A problematic fit was found for both structures with poor discriminant validity. Using exploratory graph analysis and bifactor-(S − 1) modeling, we found support for a four-factor structure, the variation of which was captured by a general factor defined by “empathy and prosocial skills.” Future researchers, particularly those interested in using specific domains of the SSIS, are urged to assess its structure in their studies, if their findings are to be theoretically meaningful.

Assessing mental well-being in a Sinhala speaking Sri Lankan population: validation of the WHO-5 well-being index

Purpose

The WHO-5 well-being index is a widely used, short rating scale that measures subjective well-being. We translated the WHO-5 index into Sinhala and tested its psychometric properties including measurement invariance among diverse groups in a community sample in Sri Lanka.

Methods

The sample of 267 persons aged between 16 and 75 years was recruited from a semi-urban area. 219 completed a paper-based questionnaire and 48 responded to an online survey. Construct validity was tested for factorial validity (Confirmatory Factor Analysis -CFA), convergent validity and known group validity. Composite reliability for congeneric measures and test-retest reliability were also tested. Multi-group CFA (MG-CFA) was used to test measurement invariance.

Results

The translated Sinhala version demonstrated good content and face validity. Internal consistency reliability of the five items had a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.85 and test-retest reliability over 2 weeks was satisfactory (Pearson r = 0.72, p < 0.001, ICC = 0.82). Confirmatory factor analysis supported factorial validity with a \documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \usepackage{amsmath} \usepackage{wasysym} \usepackage{amsfonts} \usepackage{amssymb} \usepackage{amsbsy} \usepackage{mathrsfs} \usepackage{upgreek} \setlength{\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \begin{document}$$ {\chi}_5^2 $$\end{document}χ52 =4.99 (p = 0.28), a RMSEA of 0.03 (90% C.I. =0.00–0.10), a SRMR of 0.02, a TLI of 0.99 and a CFI of 0.99; factor loadings were between 0.55 and 0.89. Measurement invariance was acceptable for configural, metric and scalar invariance for gender.

WHO-5 scores were significantly negatively correlated with the Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9) (Pearson’s r = − 0.45, p < 0.001) scores and the Kessler Psychological Distress Scale (K10) scores (Pearson’s r = − 0.56, p < 0.001).

Conclusion

The Sinhala translation of WHO-5 well-being index has shown acceptable psychometric properties and can be used for assessing mental well-being in the community in Sri Lanka. Further testing of the measure with larger and diverse (including different ethnic/cultural) groups are indicated to test measurement invariance of the measure.

The Supports Intensity Scale Children's Version-Icelandic Translation: Examining Measurement Properties

An innovation in developing the Supports Intensity Scale-Children's Version (SIS-C) was the adoption of latent variable modeling approaches to norm development. In regard to translated versions of the SIS-C, the latent modeling approaches provided opportunities to leverage the large standardization sample generated in the United States (n = 4,015) to generate translation-specific norms from data collected on smaller samples in other countries and enable future cross-cultural analyses. In this study, data were collected on children in Iceland who received special education services (as defined and delivered in Iceland), a more diverse group of children with disabilities than the U.S. sample. This provided a unique context to explore cross-cultural differences. Findings indicated the structure of the SIS-C (i.e., seven support need domains organized under an overall support needs construct), was supported in the Icelandic context. However, findings also suggested that supports planning teams in Iceland must consider specific age-related factors that differ from other cultural contexts.

Boundary buffering: limiting interference and information leakage in design teams

Purpose

Two challenges faced by automotive component design projects within contracted design agencies are (1) specification changes requested by the manufacturers and (2) product information or core technology knowledge leakage to external actors. We examine the effects of targeted boundary activities that address these challenges under the contingencies of environmental uncertainty and project complexity.

Design/methodology/approach

Based on Boundary management theory, a bidirectional model of boundary buffering was conceptualized in the context of design agency teams developing automotive components. A survey is derived from the proposed model. Regression analysis is performed using empirical data from 234 auto component design projects in Chinese design agencies.

Findings

Boundary buffering activities that strengthen outside-in boundaries and inside-out boundaries directly improve the final design quality. Further, the magnitude of effect for outside-in buffering on design quality is enhanced under environmental uncertainty, while the impact of inside-out buffering on design quality is enhanced under project complexity.

Research limitations/implications

Boundary activities should consider differences in boundary targets, directional flow of information, and context of scope.

Practical implications

Automotive component design agents should attend to both outside-in and inside-out boundary buffering, especially under conditions of environmental uncertainty or project complexity.

Originality/value

The proposed bidirectional view on boundary buffering adds perspective to team boundary management theory. Specific contingencies include common risk elements of project complexity and environmental uncertainty not typically associated with the need for buffering activities.

The EV Scaling Method for Variances of Latent Variables

Abstract. The paper describes EV scaling for variances of latent variables included in confirmatory factor models. EV-scaled variances can be achieved in two ways: the estimation of variance parameters based on adjusted factor loadings and alternatively the summation of squared factor loadings obtained under the condition that the variance parameter is set equal to one. By definition, the second procedure yields values that are always positive. EV-scaled variances of latent variables show sizes similar to eigenvalues. The outcome of applying this scaling method is demonstrated in empirical data. The results of a simulation study reveal that the outcomes of the two ways virtually always correspond if the data are generated to include the contribution of a latent source. If there is no such source, the exclusion of solutions with negative error variances virtually always leads to correspondence.

Factors associated with women's desire for control of healthcare during childbirth: Psychometric analysis and construct validation

The desire for control of healthcare is a significant moderator of outcomes related to childbirth. Researchers have shown that a sense of control of healthcare during childbirth is strongly correlated with postpartum maternal well-being. The aims of this study were to examine (a) the psychometric characteristics of an instrument to assess women's desire for control of healthcare during childbirth, and (b) examine desire for control in relation to parity, medical complications of pregnancy, and women's choices of childbirth providers and setting. The study design was cross-sectional using two different samples totaling 385 pregnant women. In Sample 1, (n = 193) we conducted an exploratory factor analysis to reduce the initial item pool. In Sample 2, (n = 192) we conducted a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) of the final 12-item instrument and examined factors related to the desire for control. Results of the analysis in Sample 1 were supportive of a single-factor structure reflecting women's desire to influence the childbirth healthcare environment and decision-making. The final 12-item instrument had high internal consistency reliability (Cronbach's alpha = 0.93). CFA in Sample 2 was supportive of the single-factor structure with good model fit. The desire for control was directly correlated with an internal locus of control. Nulliparous women reported a lower desire for control compared with multiparous women. The desire for control among women with self-reported medical complications of pregnancy was comparable to that among women without pregnancy complications. The desire for control was a predictor of choosing midwives (vs. obstetricians), home or birth center (vs. hospitals), and professional labor support (e.g., doulas). Implications for future research on the impact of desire for control on maternal health outcomes are discussed.

Measuring affective well-being at work using short-form scales: Implications for affective structures and participant instructions

Measuring affective well-being in organizational studies has become increasingly widespread, given its association with key work-performance and other markers of organizational functioning. As such, researchers and policy-makers need to be confident that well-being measures are valid, reliable and robust. To reduce the burden on participants in applied settings, short-form measures of affective well-being are proving popular. However, these scales are seldom validated as standalone, comprehensive measures in their own right. In this article, we used a short-form measure of affective well-being with 10 items: the Daniels five-factor measure of affective well-being (D-FAW). In Study 1, across six applied sample groups (N = 2624), we found that the factor structure of the short-form D-FAW is robust when issued as a standalone measure, and that it should be scored differently depending on the participant instruction used. When participant instructions focus on now or today, then affect is best represented by five discrete emotion factors. When participant instructions focus on the past week, then affect is best represented by two or three mood-based factors. In Study 2 (N = 39), we found good construct convergent validity of short-form D-FAW with another widely used scale (PANAS). Implications for the measurement and structure of affect are discussed.

How customer orientation enhances salespeople’s performance? A case study from an international market

Purpose

The purpose of this paper is to examine the mediating role of salespeople’s customer orientation on the relationship between sales manager personal characteristics, fellow salespeople’s characteristics, job satisfaction and adaptive selling and salespeople’s performance in the insurance industry in Jordan.

Design/methodology/approach

A structured and self-administered survey was employed targeting 500 insurance salespeople working at insurance companies operating in Jordan. The final sample size was 320 salespeople representing a response rate of 64 percent. A Confirmatory factor analysis was used to assess the research constructs dimensions, unidimensionality, validity and composite reliability. Structural path analysis was also used to test the hypothesized relationships of the research model.

Findings

The empirical findings indicate that salespeople’s customer orientation fully mediates the effect of fellow salespeople’s characteristics and adaptive selling on salespeople’s performance. Sales managers’ personal characteristics have a direct effect on salespeople’s performance, contrary to job satisfaction that had no effect on salespeople’s performance.

Research limitations/implications

This paper has examined only five factors that affected directly and indirectly salespeople’s performance; meanwhile other factors may affect their performance, such as salespeople experience, internal marketing and corporate image. Additionally, the fact that paper’s sample consisted only of insurance salespeople working at insurance companies limits its generalization potential to other industries.

Practical implications

The findings emphasize the importance of fostering good relationships among fellow salespeople’s characteristics and adaptive selling strategies. Further, sales managers’ personal characteristics directly affecting salespeople’s performance signifies the importance to hire managers with the right personal approach.

Originality/value

This paper represents one of the early attempts that investigate factors affecting salespeople’s performance through the mediating role of customer orientation. Accordingly, the findings shed more light into the strategic role of this construct in enhancing salespeople’s performance. Also, the paper is the first of its kind to build and examine an integrated model of salespeople’s performance in the insurance market of Jordan, which provides valuable empirical evidence concerning the drivers of salespeople’s performance in the insurance industry in Jordan.

Anxiety sensitivity cognitive concerns drive the relation between anxiety sensitivity and symptoms of depression

Depression is typically treated as a homogeneous construct despite evidence for distinct cognitive, affective, and somatic symptom dimensions. Anxiety sensitivity (AS; the fear of consequences of anxiety symptoms) is a cognitive risk factor implicated in the development of depressive symptoms. However, it is unclear how lower order AS dimensions (i.e. physical, cognitive, and social concerns) relate to depressive symptom factors. Confirmatory factor analysis, followed by structural equation modeling, were conducted to examine the factor structure of depression and to then examine the relations between these factors and the lower order factors of AS. This study was conducted in a sample of 374 adults (M age = 35.5, 54.3% female) with elevated levels of psychopathology (89.2% meeting criteria for at least one DSM-5 diagnosis, 25.6% primary depressive disorder). In this study a two-factor model of depression, composed of Cognitive and Affective/Somatic factors, was superior to one- and three-factor solutions. AS cognitive concerns were related to both cognitive and affective/somatic symptoms of depression. Neither of the other AS dimensions was related to depression symptom dimensions. These findings provide a better understanding of the relations between AS and depression symptoms.

Making a Good Impression at Work: National Differences in Employee Impression Management Behaviors in Japan, Korea, and the United States

Impression management has important implications for success at work. This study explores differences in impression management in the East and West by examining the use of self-promotion, ingratiation, and exemplification directed towards three targets: supervisors, peers, and subordinates among 945 company employees from Japan, Korea, and the United States. Our results show that Korean employees used all three strategies most frequently, followed by United States, and then Japanese employees. Japanese and Korean employees used impression management strategies differentially across the three targets, and U.S. employees used impression management equally across targets. This elucidates how cultural trends in hierarchical relationships impact social behavior within the workplace. A follow-up mediation analysis found that relational or labor mobility fully mediated country differences in impression management, suggesting that culture is also reflected in larger social ecological trends in employee's ability and likelihood to change jobs, which also account for impression management strategy usage. Theoretical and practical implications for international business are discussed. This research may be useful in aligning strategies foreign employees might employ for using impression management when in Japan, Korea, and the United States.

Choosing Prediction Over Explanation in Psychology: Lessons From Machine Learning

Psychology has historically been concerned, first and foremost, with explaining the causal mechanisms that give rise to behavior. Randomized, tightly controlled experiments are enshrined as the gold standard of psychological research, and there are endless investigations of the various mediating and moderating variables that govern various behaviors. We argue that psychology's near-total focus on explaining the causes of behavior has led much of the field to be populated by research programs that provide intricate theories of psychological mechanism but that have little (or unknown) ability to predict future behaviors with any appreciable accuracy. We propose that principles and techniques from the field of machine learning can help psychology become a more predictive science. We review some of the fundamental concepts and tools of machine learning and point out examples where these concepts have been used to conduct interesting and important psychological research that focuses on predictive research questions. We suggest that an increased focus on prediction, rather than explanation, can ultimately lead us to greater understanding of behavior.

Empirically Corrected Rescaled Statistics for SEM with Small N and Large p

Survey data often contain many variables. Structural equation modeling (SEM) is commonly used in analyzing such data. With typical nonnormally distributed data in practice, a rescaled statistic T_rml proposed by Satorra and Bentler was recommended in the literature of SEM. However, T_rml has been shown to be problematic when the sample size N is small and/or the number of variables p is large. There does not exist a reliable test statistic for SEM with small N or large p, especially with nonnormally distributed data. Following the principle of Bartlett correction, this article develops empirical corrections to T_rml so that the mean of the empirically corrected statistics approximately equals the degrees of freedom of the nominal chi-square distribution. Results show that empirically corrected statistics control type I errors reasonably well even when N is smaller than 2p, where T_rml may reject the correct model 100% even for normally distributed data. The application of the empirically corrected statistics is illustrated via a real data example.

Validation of the WHO-5 as a first-step screening instrument for depression in adults with diabetes: Results from Diabetes MILES - Australia

AIMS

Screening for depression is recommended internationally. The World Health Organization's 5-item Well-being Index (WHO-5) is used clinically to screen for depression but its empirical suitability for this purpose is not well documented. We investigated the psychometric properties of the WHO-5 and its suitability for identifying likely depression in Australian adults with diabetes.

METHODS

The Diabetes MILES - Australia study dataset provided a sample of N=3249 who completed the WHO-5 (positively-worded 5-item measure of emotional well-being) and the PHQ-9 (9-item measure of depressive symptoms). Analyses were conducted for the full sample, and separately by diabetes type and treatment (type 1, non-insulin-treated type 2, and insulin-treated type 2 diabetes). Construct (convergent and factorial) validity and reliability of the WHO-5 were examined. ROC analyses were used to examine the sensitivity and specificity of the WHO-5 as a depression screening instrument, comparing two commonly used WHO-5 cut-off values (≤7 and <13) with the PHQ-9.

RESULTS

For the whole sample, the WHO-5 demonstrated satisfactory internal consistency reliability (α=0.90) and convergent validity with the PHQ-9 (r=-0.73, p<0.001). Confirmatory factor analysis partially supported factorial validity: Χ²(5)=834.94, p<0.001; RMSEA=0.23, 90% CI 0.21-0.24; CFI=0.98, TLI=0.96; factor loadings=0.78-0.92. The AUC was 0.87 (95% CI: 0.86-0.89, p<0.001). The sensitivity/specificity of the WHO-5 for detecting likely depression was 0.44/0.96 for the ≤7 cut-off, and 0.79/0.79 for the <13 cut-off, with similar findings by diabetes type and treatment.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings support use of a WHO-5 cut-point of <13 to identify likely depression in Australian adults with diabetes, regardless of type/treatment.

The Thorny Relation Between Measurement Quality and Fit Index Cutoffs in Latent Variable Models

Latent variable modeling is a popular and flexible statistical framework. Concomitant with fitting latent variable models is assessment of how well the theoretical model fits the observed data. Although firm cutoffs for these fit indexes are often cited, recent statistical proofs and simulations have shown that these fit indexes are highly susceptible to measurement quality. For instance, a root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) value of 0.06 (conventionally thought to indicate good fit) can actually indicate poor fit with poor measurement quality (e.g., standardized factors loadings of around 0.40). Conversely, an RMSEA value of 0.20 (conventionally thought to indicate very poor fit) can indicate acceptable fit with very high measurement quality (standardized factor loadings around 0.90). Despite the wide-ranging effect on applications of latent variable models, the high level of technical detail involved with this phenomenon has curtailed the exposure of these important findings to empirical researchers who are employing these methods. This article briefly reviews these methodological studies in minimal technical detail and provides a demonstration to easily quantify the large influence measurement quality has on fit index values and how greatly the cutoffs would change if they were derived under an alternative level of measurement quality. Recommendations for best practice are also discussed.

An overview of structural equation modeling: its beginnings, historical development, usefulness and controversies in the social sciences

This paper is a tribute to researchers who have significantly contributed to improving and advancing structural equation modeling (SEM). It is, therefore, a brief overview of SEM and presents its beginnings, historical development, its usefulness in the social sciences and the statistical and philosophical (theoretical) controversies which have often appeared in the literature pertaining to SEM. Having described the essence of SEM in the context of causal analysis, the author discusses the years of the development of structural modeling as the consequence of many researchers' systematically growing needs (in particular in the social sciences) who strove to effectively understand the structure and interactions of latent phenomena. The early beginnings of SEM models were related to the work of Spearman and Wright, and to that of other prominent researchers who contributed to SEM development. The importance and predominance of theoretical assumptions over technical issues for the successful construction of SEM models are also described. Then, controversies regarding the use of SEM in the social sciences are presented. Finally, the opportunities and threats of this type of analytical strategy as well as selected areas of SEM applications in the social sciences are discussed.

IAL-K: Entwicklung einer Kurzform der Interpersonalen Adjektivliste

Zusammenfassung. Der Interpersonale Circumplex (IC) ist ein etabliertes Modell zur Beschreibung und Messung interpersonaler Variablen. Die Kurzversion der Interpersonalen Adjektivliste (IAL-K) setzt das IC-Konzept zur Messung individueller Unterschiede im interpersonalen Stil um. Anhand von vier Stichproben (N1 = 1127, N2 = 610, N3 = 286, N4 = 128) wurden die IAL-Skalen um 47 % auf 34 Items gekürzt und die Kurzskalen hinsichtlich ihrer strukturellen, konvergenten und divergenten Validität, Reliabilität und zeitlichen Stabilität geprüft. Ferner wurde ihr konstruktanalytisches Potenzial an 14 Kriteriumsvariablen veranschaulicht. Die IAL-K zeigte gute Konstruktvalidität, zufriedenstellende psychometrische Eigenschaften und hohe Konvergenz zur IAL. Sie kann daher als reliable, valide und inhaltlich nahezu deckungsgleiche, jedoch deutlich ökonomischere Kurzversion der IAL betrachtet werden.

Evaluating Multilevel Models in Cross-Cultural Research

To assess how culture influences the behavior of people, multilevel models are an immediate choice for modeling the relationship at the levels of the individual and culture. The authors propose structural equation modeling (SEM) to test the universality of psychological processes at the individual and culture levels. Specifically, the structural equivalence of the measurement (where the instrument is measuring the same construct across countries) is first tested with meta-analytic SEM. If the measurement is structurally equivalent, cross-level equivalence (where the instrument is measuring similar constructs at different levels) will then be tested with multilevel SEM. A large data set on social axioms with 7,590 university students from 40 cultural groups was used to illustrate the procedures. The results showed that the structural equivalence of the social axioms was well supported at the individual level across 40 cultural groups, whereas the cross-level equivalence was partially supported. The superiority of the SEM approach and the theoretical meaning of its solution are discussed.

Assessing Measurement Invariance for Spanish Sentence Repetition and Morphology Elicitation Tasks

PURPOSE

The purpose of this study was to evaluate evidence supporting the construct validity of two grammatical tasks (sentence repetition, morphology elicitation) included in the Spanish Screener for Language Impairment in Children (Restrepo, Gorin, & Gray, 2013). We evaluated if the tasks measured the targeted grammatical skills in the same way across predominantly Spanish-speaking children with typical language development and those with primary language impairment.

METHOD

A multiple-group, confirmatory factor analytic approach was applied to examine factorial invariance in a sample of 307 predominantly Spanish-speaking children (177 with typical language development; 130 with primary language impairment). The 2 newly developed grammatical tasks were modeled as measures in a unidimensional confirmatory factor analytic model along with 3 well-established grammatical measures from the Clinical Evaluation of Language Fundamentals-Fourth Edition, Spanish (Wiig, Semel, & Secord, 2006).

RESULTS

Results suggest that both new tasks measured the construct of grammatical skills for both language-ability groups in an equivalent manner.

CONCLUSIONS

There was no evidence of bias related to children's language status for the Spanish Screener for Language Impairment in Children Sentence Repetition or Morphology Elicitation tasks. Results provide support for the validity of the new tasks as measures of grammatical skills.

The Problem with Having Two Watches: Assessment of Fit When RMSEA and CFI Disagree

The root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) and the comparative fit index (CFI) are two widely applied indices to assess fit of structural equation models. Because these two indices are viewed positively by researchers, one might presume that their values would yield comparable qualitative assessments of model fit for any data set. When RMSEA and CFI offer different evaluations of model fit, we argue that researchers are likely to be confused and potentially make incorrect research conclusions. We derive the necessary as well as the sufficient conditions for inconsistent interpretations of these indices. We also study inconsistency in results for RMSEA and CFI at the sample level. Rather than indicating that the model is misspecified in a particular manner or that there are any flaws in the data, the two indices can disagree because (a) they evaluate, by design, the magnitude of the model's fit function value from different perspectives; (b) the cutoff values for these indices are arbitrary; and (c) the meaning of "good" fit and its relationship with fit indices are not well understood. In the context of inconsistent judgments of fit using RMSEA and CFI, we discuss the implications of using cutoff values to evaluate model fit in practice and to design SEM studies.

Investigating Factors that Bias the Reporting of Depression Symptomatology Among Older Australian Adults

OBJECTIVE

To investigate factors that may bias the reporting of major depression symptoms among older adults, specifically the presence of physical conditions, bereavement, episode onset, and episode length.

METHODS

A secondary data analysis of a nationally representative cross-sectional survey of community-dwelling older Australian adults aged 50-85 years who completed the depression module in the 2007 Australian National Survey of Mental Health and Wellbeing (N=629) was conducted. Depression symptomatology was assessed according to Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition, criteria using the World Mental Health Composite International Diagnostic Interview.

RESULTS

Multiple indicators multiple causes modeling indicated a unidimensional factor structure of depression. Two depressive symptoms displayed measurement noninvariance (i.e., nonequivalency): worthlessness/guilt and suicidality/thoughts of death. Specifically, older adults who were bereaved were significantly less likely to report worthlessness/guilt (OR: 0.29; 95% CI: 0.16-0.50) and more likely to report suicidality/thoughts of death (OR: 4.67; 95% CI: 2.84-7.68), compared with older adults who were not bereaved. Examination of latent mean differences revealed that older adults with physical conditions displayed significantly greater depression severity compared with older adults without physical conditions.

CONCLUSION

The presence of physical conditions and episode onset and length do not appear to differentially influence reporting of depression symptoms among older Australian adults, suggesting these factors do not bias prevalence estimates of depression. Reporting of worthlessness/guilt and suicidality/thoughts of death may be biased toward older adults who are bereaved; however, these did not influence overall depression severity.

Age and sex related differences in subcortical brain iron concentrations among healthy adults

Age and sex can influence brain iron levels. We studied the influence of these variables on deep gray matter magnetic susceptibilities. In 183 healthy volunteers (44.7 ± 14.2 years, range 20-69, ♀ 49%), in vivo quantitative susceptibility mapping (QSM) at 1.5T was performed to estimate brain iron accumulation in the following regions of interest (ROIs): caudate nucleus (Cd), putamen (Pt), globus pallidus (Gp), thalamus (Th), pulvinar (Pul), red nucleus (Rn), substantia nigra (Sn) and the cerebellar dentate nuclei (Dn). We gauged the influence of age and sex on magnetic susceptibility by specifying a series of structural equation models. The distributions of susceptibility varied in degree across the structures, conforming to histologic findings (Hallgren and Sourander, 1958), with the highest degree of susceptibility in the Gp and the lowest in the Th. Iron increase correlated across several ROIs, which may reflect an underlying age-related process. Advanced age was associated with a particularly strong linear rise of susceptibility in the striatum. Nonlinear age trends were found in the Rn, where they were the most pronounced, followed by the Pul and Sn, while minimal nonlinear trends were observed for the Pt, Th, and Dn. Moreover, sex related variations were observed, so that women showed lower levels of susceptibility in the Sn after accounting for age. Regional susceptibility of the Pul increased linearly with age in men but exhibited a nonlinear association with age in women with a leveling off starting from midlife. Women expected to be post menopause (+51 years) showed lower total magnetic susceptibility in the subcortical gray matter. The current report not only is consistent with previous reports of age related variations of brain iron, but also adds to the current knowledge by reporting age-related changes in less studied, smaller subcortical nuclei. This is the first in-vivo report to show lower total subcortical brain iron levels selectively in women from midlife, compared to men and younger women. These results encourage further assessment of sex differences in brain iron. We anticipate that age and sex are important co-factors to take into account when establishing a baseline level for differentiating pathologic neurodegeneration from healthy aging. The variations in regional susceptibility reported herein should be evaluated further using a longitudinal study design to determine within-person changes in aging.