Physicochemical speciation of lead in drinking water

Pb Mineral Precipitation in Solutions of Sulfate, Carbonate and Phosphate: Measured and Modeled Pb Solubility and Pb2+ Activity

Lead (Pb) solubility is commonly limited by dissolution–precipitation reactions of secondary mineral phases in contaminated soils and water. In the research described here, Pb solubility and free Pb2+ ion activities were measured following the precipitation of Pb minerals from aqueous solutions containing sulfate or carbonate in a 1:5 mole ratio in the absence and presence of phosphate over the pH range 4.0–9.0. Using X-ray diffraction and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopic analysis, we identified anglesite formed in sulfate-containing solutions at low pH. At higher pH, Pb carbonate and carbonate-sulfate minerals, hydrocerussite and leadhillite, were formed in preference to anglesite. Precipitates formed in the Pb-carbonate systems over the pH range of 6 to 9 were composed of cerussite and hydrocerussite, with the latter favored only at the highest pH investigated. The addition of phosphate into the Pb-sulfate and Pb-carbonate systems resulted in the precipitation of Pb3(PO4)2 and structurally related pyromorphite minerals and prevented Pb sulfate and carbonate mineral formation. Phosphate increased the efficiency of Pb removal from solution and decreased free Pb2+ ion activity, causing over 99.9% of Pb to be precipitated. Free Pb2+ ion activities measured using the ion-selective electrode revealed lower values than predicted from thermodynamic constants, indicating that the precipitated minerals may have lower KSP values than generally reported in thermodynamic databases. Conversely, dissolved Pb was frequently greater than predicted based on a speciation model using accepted thermodynamic constants for Pb ion-pair formation in solution. The tendency of the thermodynamic models to underestimate Pb solubility while overestimating free Pb2+ activity in these systems, at least in the higher pH range, indicates that soluble Pb ion-pair formation constants and KSP values need correction in the models.

Lead Particle Size Fractionation and Identification in Newark, New Jersey's Drinking Water

Following a pH reduction in their drinking water over a span of more than 20 years, the City of Newark, New Jersey, has struggled with elevated lead (Pb) release from Pb service lines and domestic plumbing in the zone fed by the Pequannock Water Treatment Plant. In response, Newark initiated orthophosphate addition and provided faucet-mounted point-of-use (POU) filters and pitcher filters certified for Pb and particulate reduction under NSF/ANSI Standards 53 and 42 to residential homes in that zone. Water chemistry analysis and size fractionation sampling were performed at four of these houses. Analysis of the particulate material retained by the fractionation filters revealed that Pb was dominantly present in the water as fine Pb(II) orthophosphate particles. A considerable amount of the particulates occurred as a nanoscale fraction that sometimes passed through the POU faucet or pitcher filtration units. Scanning electron microscopy, transmission electron microscopy, and energy-dispersive spectroscopy analyses showed that the nanoparticles (<100 nm) and their aggregates were composed of Pb, phosphorus, and chlorine, which are consistent with pyromorphite, Pb₅(PO₄)₃Cl. Electron diffraction and X-ray analyses supported the presence of hydroxypyromorphite and chloropyromorphite nanoparticles and the size range estimates from the imaging. This research confirmed that nonadherent Pb(II)-orthophosphate nanoparticles were an important form of Pb in drinking water in the Pequannock water quality zone of Newark.

Pb(ii) binding to the brain specific mammalian metallothionein isoform MT3 and its isolated αMT3 and βMT3 domains

The toxicity of lead, one of the most ubiquitous toxic metals, is well known. Some of its pathological effects are related to its preference for the sulfhydryl groups of proteins. Metallothioneins (MT) are a particular family of metalloproteins characterized by their high Cys content that, among other functions, are linked to the detoxification of heavy metals. In mammals, 4 MT isoforms have been found. The MT3 isoform, also called "neuronal growth inhibitory factor", is mainly synthesized in the brain and contains several structural differences that may contribute to important functional differences between it and other MT isoforms. The abilities of recombinant MT3 and its individual αMT3 and βMT3 fragments to bind Pb(ii) have been investigated here, under different pH conditions, by means of spectroscopy, mass spectrometry and isothermal titration calorimetry. The results obtained show that the binding of Pb(ii) to the intact MT3 protein is relatively unaffected by pH, while the individual domains interact with Pb(ii) in a pH-sensitive manner. The mass spectrometry data reveal the evolution with time of the initially formed Pb-MT complexes. In the case of the full length protein, Pb(ii) remains bound for a long period of time. With the isolated fragments, the lead is eventually released. The Pb-species formed depend on the amount of Pb(ii) present in solution. The thermodynamic data recorded, as measured by ITC, for the replacement of Zn(ii) by Pb(ii) in reactions with Zn-MT3, Zn-αMT3 and Zn-βMT3 are all similar, and in all cases, the displacement of Zn(ii) by Pb(ii) is thermodynamically favorable. Zn-Replete and Pb-replete MT3 have distinctive circular dichroism spectra, suggestive of structural differences with different metallation status.

Assessing the Lead Solubility Potential of Untreated Groundwater of the United States

In the U.S., about 44 million people rely on self-supplied groundwater for drinking water. Because most self-supplied homeowners do not treat their water to control corrosion, drinking water can be susceptible to lead (Pb) contamination from metal plumbing. To assess the types and locations of susceptible groundwater, a geochemical reaction model that included pure Pb minerals and solid solutions of calcite (Ca _xPb_{1- x}CO₃) and apatite [Ca _xPb_5-x(PO₄)₃(OH; Cl; F)] was developed to estimate the lead solubility potential (LSP) for over 8300 untreated groundwater samples collected from domestic and public-supply sites between 2000 and 2016 in the U.S. The LSP is the calculated amount of Pb metal that could dissolve at 25 °C before a Pb-bearing mineral precipitates. About 33% of untreated groundwater samples had LSP greater than 15 μg/L-the USEPA action level for dissolved plus particulate forms of Pb. Five percent of samples had high LSP (above 300 μg/L) and tended to occur in the eastern and southeastern U.S. Measured Pb concentrations above 15 μg/L were rarely detected (<1%) but always coincided with high LSP values. Future work will provide a better understanding of the relation between water chemistry, Pb-mineral formation, and dissolved Pb concentrations in tap water.

A new scenario of lead contamination in potable water distribution systems: Galvanic corrosion between lead and stainless steel

Lead pipe has been banned for distributing drinking water in the 1980s and partial replacement of lead pipes with stainless steel pipes has been practiced in many Asian countries. Due to the different potentials of lead and stainless steel, galvanic corrosion may take place. The extent of lead release and effects of water chemistry on this process, however, are largely unknown. The objectives of this study are to characterize lead release resulting from galvanic connection between lead and stainless steel, the effects of pH, chloride and sulfate concentrations on this process, and the effectiveness of using orthophosphate to mitigate this problem. The experiments were conducted by connecting aged lead pipes to stainless steel fittings and placing the couple in different water conditions. The results of this study demonstrated that lead release significantly accelerated when lead and stainless steel were galvanically connected and the rate of lead release accelerated with decreasing pH and increasing chloride-to-sulfate mass ratio (CSMR). Orthophosphate could effectively reduce lead release but CSMR needs to be considered since water with a higher CSMR still caused more lead release when galvanic corrosion took place.

Galvanic Corrosion of Lead by Iron (Oxyhydr)Oxides: Potential Impacts on Drinking Water Quality

Lead exposure via drinking water remains a significant public health risk; this study explored the potential effects of upstream iron corrosion on lead mobility in water distribution systems. Specifically, galvanic corrosion of lead by iron (oxyhydr)oxides was investigated. Coupling an iron mineral cathode with metallic lead in a galvanic cell increased lead release by 531 μg L^-1 on average-a 9-fold increase over uniform corrosion in the absence of iron. Cathodes were composed of spark plasma sintered Fe₃O₄ or α-Fe₂O₃ or field-extracted Fe₃O₄ and α-FeOOH. Orthophosphate immobilized oxidized lead as insoluble hydroxypyromorphite, while humic acid enhanced lead mobility. Addition of a humic isolate increased lead release due to uniform corrosion by 81 μg L^-1 and-upon coupling lead to a mineral cathode-release due to galvanic corrosion by 990 μg L^-1. Elevated lead in the presence of humic acid appeared to be driven by complexation, with ²⁰⁸Pb and UV₂₅₄ size-exclusion chromatograms exhibiting strong correlation under these conditions (R²_average = 0.87). A significant iron corrosion effect was consistent with field data: lead levels after lead service line replacement were greater by factors of 2.3-4.7 at sites supplied by unlined cast iron distribution mains compared with the alternative, lined ductile iron.

Understanding the Role of Particulate Iron in Lead Release to Drinking Water

Lead service lines (LSLs) are a major source of drinking water lead, and high iron levels are frequently observed along with elevated lead release. A model distribution system, dosed with orthophosphate, was used to evaluate the effect of corroded iron distribution mains on lead release from recovered LSLs. Lead release was higher by 96 μg L(-1), on average, from LSLs supplied by corroded iron compared to the inert reference material (PVC). This effect may be explained by deposition of semiconducting iron oxide particles within LSLs. When galvanic cells with lead and magnetite (Fe3O4) electrodes were short-circuited, lead release increased 8-fold and a current averaging 26 μA was observed. In effluent from LSLs with an upstream iron main, colloidal lead and iron occurred in the same size fraction-possibly due to release of colloidal particles from LSL corrosion scale enriched with iron. Under these circumstances, high molecular weight (>669 kDa) (208)Pb and (56)Fe elution profiles, observed via size-exclusion chromatography, were highly correlated (average R(2) = 0.97). Increasing orthophosphate from 0.5 to 1.0 mg L(-1) (as PO4(3-)) accompanied an average reduction in lead release of 6 μg L(-1) month(-1) but did not significantly reduce the effect of an upstream iron main.

A new analytical approach to understanding nanoscale lead-iron interactions in drinking water distribution systems

High levels of iron in distributed drinking water often accompany elevated lead release from lead service lines and other plumbing. Lead-iron interactions in drinking water distribution systems are hypothesized to be the result of adsorption and transport of lead by iron oxide particles. This mechanism was explored using point-of-use drinking water samples characterized by size exclusion chromatography with UV and multi-element (ICP-MS) detection. In separations on two different stationary phases, high apparent molecular weight (>669 kDa) elution profiles for (56)Fe and (208)Pb were strongly correlated (average R(2)=0.96, N=73 samples representing 23 single-unit residences). Moreover, (56)Fe and (208)Pb peak areas exhibited an apparent linear dependence (R(2)=0.82), consistent with mobilization of lead via adsorption to colloidal particles rich in iron. A UV254 absorbance peak, coincident with high molecular weight (56)Fe and (208)Pb, implied that natural organic matter was interacting with the hypothesized colloidal species. High molecular weight UV254 peak areas were correlated with both (56)Fe and (208)Pb peak areas (R(2)=0.87 and 0.58, respectively). On average, 45% (std. dev. 10%) of total lead occurred in the size range 0.05-0.45 μm.

Divalent Metal Transporter 1 in Lead and Cadmium Transport

The effect of exposure to cadmium (Cd) and lead (Pb) on human health has been recognized for many years and recent information suggests that minimal exposure levels are themselves too high. Common scenarios for Pb exposure include occupational, residential, and/or behavioral (hand-to-mouth activity) settings. The main source of Cd exposure for nonsmokers is dietary, through plants or animals that accumulate the metal. Specific cellular importers for Pb and Cd are unlikely as these metals are nonessential and toxic. Accordingly, in the intestine, the operational mechanism is assumed to be inadvertent uptake through pathways intended for essential nutrients such as iron. Results from experimental and epidemiological studies indicated that diets low in iron (Fe) result in increased absorption of Pb and Cd, suggesting common molecular mechanisms of Cd and Pb transport. Indeed, recent mechanistic studies found that the intestinal transporter for nonheme iron, divalent metal transporter 1 (DMT1), mediates the transport of Pb and Cd. DMT1 is regulated, in part, by dietary iron, and chemical species of Cd and Pb that are transported by DMT1 would be made available through digestion and are also found in plasma. Accordingly, the involvement of DMT1 in metal uptake offers a mechanistic explanation for why an iron-deficient diet is a risk factor for Pb and Cd poisoning. It also suggests that diets rich in iron-containing food could be protective against heavy metal poisoning.