Soluble CD4 molecules neutralize human immunodeficiency virus type 1

Extracellular domain, hinge, and transmembrane determinants affecting surface CD4 expression of a novel anti-HIV chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) construct

Chimeric antigen receptor (CAR)-T cells have demonstrated clinical potential, but current receptors still need improvements to be successful against chronic HIV infection. In this study, we address some requirements of CAR motifs for strong surface expression of a novel anti-HIV CAR by evaluating important elements in the extracellular, hinge, and transmembrane (TM) domains. When combining a truncated CD4 extracellular domain and CD8α hinge/TM, the novel CAR did not express extracellularly but was detectable intracellularly. By shortening the CD8α hinge, CD4-CAR surface expression was partially recovered and addition of the LYC motif at the end of the CD8α TM fully recovered both intracellular and extracellular CAR expression. Mutation of LYC to TTA or TTC showed severe abrogation of CAR expression by flow cytometry and confocal microscopy. Additionally, we determined that CD4-CAR surface expression could be maximized by the removal of FQKAS motif at the junction of the extracellular domain and the hinge region. CD4-CAR surface expression also resulted in cytotoxic CAR T cell killing of HIV Env+ target cells. In this study, we identified elements that are crucial for optimal CAR surface expression, highlighting the need for structural analysis studies to establish fundamental guidelines of CAR designs.

Extracellular domain, hinge, and transmembrane determinants affecting surface CD4 expression of a novel anti-HIV chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) construct

Chimeric antigen receptor (CAR)-T cells have demonstrated clinical potential, but current receptors still need improvements to be successful against chronic HIV infection. In this study, we address some requirements of CAR motifs for strong surface expression of a novel anti-HIV CAR by evaluating important elements in the extracellular, hinge, and transmembrane (TM) domains. When combining a truncated CD4 extracellular domain and CD8α hinge/TM, the novel CAR did not express extracellularly but was detectable intracellularly. By shortening the CD8α hinge, CD4-CAR surface expression was partially recovered and addition of the LYC motif at the end of the CD8α TM fully recovered both intracellular and extracellular CAR expression. Mutation of LYC to TTA or TTC showed severe abrogation of CAR expression by flow cytometry and confocal microscopy. Additionally, we determined that CD4-CAR surface expression could be maximized by the removal of FQKAS motif at the junction of the extracellular domain and the hinge region. CD4-CAR surface expression also resulted in cytotoxic CAR T cell killing of HIV Env+ target cells. In this study, we identified elements that are crucial for optimal CAR surface expression, highlighting the need for structural analysis studies to establish fundamental guidelines of CAR designs.

Enhancement of CD4 Binding, Host Cell Entry, and Sensitivity to CD4bs Antibody Inhibition Conferred by a Natural but Rare Polymorphism in the HIV-1 Envelope

A rare but natural polymorphism in the HIV-1 envelope (Env) glycoprotein, lysine at position 425 was selected as a mutation conferring resistance to maraviroc (MVC) in vitro. N425K has not been identified in HIV-infected individuals failing an MVC-based treatment. This study reports that the rare K425 polymorphism in an HIV-1 subtype A Env has increased affinity for CD4, resulting in faster host cell entry kinetics and the ability to scavenge for low cell surface expression of CD4 to mediate entry. Whereas the subtype A wild-type isolate-74 Env (N425) is inhibited by soluble (s) CD4, HIV-1 with K425 A74 Env shows enhanced infection and the ability to infect CCR5+ cells when pretreated with sCD4. Upon adding K425 or N425 HIV-1 to CD4⁺/CCR5+ cells along with RANTES/CCL3, only K425 HIV-1 was able to infect cells when CCR5 recycled/returned to the cell surface at 12 h post-treatment. These findings suggest that upon binding to CD4, K425 Env may maintain a stable State 2 "open" conformation capable of engaging CCR5 for entry. Only K425 was significantly more sensitivity than wild-type N425 A74 to inhibition by the CD4 binding site (bs) compound, BMS-806, the CD4bs antibody, VRC01 and N6, and the single-chain CD4i antibody, SCm9. K425 A74 was also capable of activating B cells expressing the VRC01 surface immunoglobulin. In summary, despite increased replicative fitness, we propose that K425 HIV-1 may be counterselected within infected individuals if K425 HIV-1 is rapidly eliminated by CD4bs-neutralizing antibodies. IMPORTANCE Typically, a natural amino acid polymorphism is found as the wild-type sequence in the HIV-1 population if it provides a selective advantage to the virus. The natural K425 polymorphism in HIV-1 Env results in higher host cell entry efficiency and greater replicative fitness by virtue of its high binding affinity to CD4. The studies presented herein suggest that the rare K425 HIV-1, compared to the common N425 HIV-1, may be more sensitive to inhibition by CD4bs-neutralizing antibodies (i.e., antibodies that bind to the CD4 binding pocket on the HIV-1 envelope glycoprotein). If CD4bs antibodies did emerge in an infected individual, the K425 HIV-1 may be hypersensitive to inhibition, and thus this K425 virus variant may be removed from the HIV-1 swarm despite its higher replication fitness. Studies are now underway to determine whether addition of the K425 polymorphism into the Envelope-based HIV-1 vaccines could enhance protective immunity.

Fusion Proteins CLD and CLDmut Demonstrate Potent and Broad Neutralizing Activity against HIV-1

HIV-1 envelope glycoprotein (Env) interacts with cellular receptors and mediates virus entry into target cells. Blocking Env-receptor interactions represents an effective interventional strategy for developing HIV-1 entry inhibitors. We previously designed a panel of CD4-linker-DC-SIGN (CLD) constructs by fusing the extracellular CD4 and DC-SIGN domains with various linkers. Such CLDs produced by the prokaryotic system efficiently inhibited HIV-1 infection and dissemination in vitro and ex vivo. In this study, following the construction and identification of the most promising candidate with a linker of 8 Gly₄Ser repeats (named CLD), we further designed an improved form (named CLDmut) by back mutating Cys to Ser at amino acid 60 of CD4. Both CLD and CLDmut were produced in mammalian (293F) cells for better protein translation and modification. The anti-HIV-1 activity of CLD and CLDmut was assessed against the infection of a range of HIV-1 isolates, including transmitted and founder (T/F) viruses. While both CLD and CLDmut efficiently neutralized the tested HIV-1 isolates, CLDmut demonstrated much higher neutralizing activity than CLD, with an IC₅₀ up to one log lower. The neutralizing activity of CLDmut was close to or more potent than those of the highly effective HIV-1 broadly neutralizing antibodies (bNAbs) reported to date. Findings in this study indicate that mammalian cell-expressed CLDmut may have the potential to be used as prophylaxis or/and therapeutics against HIV-1 infection.

Small-molecule HIV-1 entry inhibitors targeting the epitopes of broadly neutralizing antibodies

Highly active antiretroviral therapy currently used for HIV/AIDS has significantly increased the life expectancy of HIV-infected individuals. It has also improved the quality of life, reduced mortality, and decreased the incidence of AIDS and HIV-related conditions. Currently, however, affected individuals are typically on a lifetime course of several therapeutic drugs, all with the potential for associated toxicity and emergence of resistance. This calls for development of novel, potent, and broad anti-HIV agents able to stop the spread of HIV/AIDS. Significant progress has been made toward identification of anti-HIV-1 broadly neutralizing antibodies (bNAbs). However, antibody-based drugs are costly to produce and store. Administration (by injection only) and other obstacles limit clinical use. In recent years, several highly promising small-molecule HIV-1 entry inhibitors targeting the epitopes of bNAbs have been developed. These newly developed compounds are the focus of the present article.

Rational Design of A Novel Small-Molecule HIV-1 Inactivator Targeting Both gp120 and gp41 of HIV-1

Virus inactivator can inactivate cell-free virions without relying on their replication cycle, potentially reducing the impact of viral infection on cells. Previously, we successfully constructed a HIV-1 protein inactivator, 2DLT, by conjugating the D1D2 region of CD4 to the fusion inhibitor T1144 via a 35-amino acid linker. Therefore, it targets both the CD4 binding site in gp120 and NHR region in gp41. Considering that small-molecule agents have the advantages of fast production, low cost, good stability, and oral availability, we herein report the design of a new small-molecule HIV-1 inactivator, FD028, by conjugating FD016 (an analog of NBD-556, a gp120-CD4 binding inhibitor) with FD017 (an analog of 11d, an HIV-1 fusion inhibitor). The results showed that FD028 inactivated cell-free virions at a moderate nanomolar concentration by targeting both HIV-1 gp120 and gp41. Moreover, FD028 has broad-spectrum inhibition and inactivation activity against HIV-1 resistant strains and primary isolates of different subtypes without significant cytotoxicity. Therefore, FD028 has potential for further development as an HIV-1 inactivator-based therapeutic.

Opening the HIV envelope: potential of CD4 mimics as multifunctional HIV entry inhibitors

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Close to 2 million individuals globally become infected with HIV-1 each year and just over two-thirds will have access to life-prolonging antivirals. However, the rapid development of drug resistance creates challenges, such that generation of more effective therapies is not only warranted but a necessary endeavour. This review discusses a group of HIV-1 entry inhibitors known as CD4 mimics which exploit the highly conserved relationship between the HIV-1 envelope glycoprotein and the receptor, CD4.

RECENT FINDINGS

We review the structure/function guided evolution of these inhibitors, vital mechanistic insights that underpin broad and potent functional antagonism, recent evidence of utility demonstrated in animal and physiologically relevant in-vitro models, and current progress towards effective new-generation inhibitors.

SUMMARY

The current review highlights the promising potential of CD4 mimetics as multifunctional therapeutics.

Signaling from T cell receptors (TCRs) and chimeric antigen receptors (CARs) on T cells

T cells react to foreign or self-antigens through T cell receptor (TCR) signaling. Several decades of research have delineated the mechanism of TCR signal transduction and its impact on T cell performance. This knowledge provides the foundation for chimeric antigen receptor T cell (CAR-T cell) technology, by which T cells are redirected in a major histocompatibility complex-unrestricted manner. TCR and CAR signaling plays a critical role in determining the T cell state, including exhaustion and memory. Given its artificial nature, CARs might affect or rewire signaling differently than TCRs. A better understanding of CAR signal transduction would greatly facilitate improvements to CAR-T cell technology and advance its usefulness in clinical practice. Herein, we systematically review the knowns and unknowns of TCR and CAR signaling, from the contact of receptors and antigens, proximal signaling, immunological synapse formation, and late signaling outcomes. Signaling through different T cell subtypes and how signaling is translated into practice are also discussed.

Protein- and Peptide-Based Virus Inactivators: Inactivating Viruses Before Their Entry Into Cells

Infectious diseases caused by human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and other highly pathogenic enveloped viruses, have threatened the global public health. Most antiviral drugs act as passive defenders to inhibit viral replication inside the cell, while a few of them function as gate keepers to combat viruses outside the cell, including fusion inhibitors, e.g., enfuvirtide, and receptor antagonists, e.g., maraviroc, as well as virus inactivators (including attachment inhibitors). Different from fusion inhibitors and receptor antagonists that must act in the presence of target cells, virus inactivators can actively inactivate cell-free virions in the blood, through interaction with one or more sites in the envelope glycoproteins (Envs) on virions. Notably, a number of protein- and peptide-based virus inactivators (PPVIs) under development are expected to have a better utilization rate than the current antiviral drugs and be safer for in vivo human application than the chemical-based virus inactivators. Here we have highlighted recent progress in developing PPVIs against several important enveloped viruses, including HIV, influenza virus, Zika virus (ZIKV), dengue virus (DENV), and herpes simplex virus (HSV), and the potential use of PPVIs for urgent treatment of infection by newly emerging or re-emerging viruses.

Development of Protein- and Peptide-Based HIV Entry Inhibitors Targeting gp120 or gp41

Application of highly active antiretroviral drugs (ARDs) effectively reduces morbidity and mortality in HIV-infected individuals. However, the emergence of multiple drug-resistant strains has led to the increased failure of ARDs, thus calling for the development of anti-HIV drugs with targets or mechanisms of action different from those of the current ARDs. The first peptide-based HIV entry inhibitor, enfuvirtide, was approved by the U.S. FDA in 2003 for treatment of HIV/AIDS patients who have failed to respond to the current ARDs, which has stimulated the development of several series of protein- and peptide-based HIV entry inhibitors in preclinical and clinical studies. In this review, we highlighted the properties and mechanisms of action for those promising protein- and peptide-based HIV entry inhibitors targeting the HIV-1 gp120 or gp41 and discussed their advantages and disadvantages, compared with the current ARDs.

HIV Entry and Its Inhibition by Bifunctional Antiviral Proteins

HIV entry is a highly specific and time-sensitive process that can be divided into receptor binding, coreceptor binding, and membrane fusion. Bifunctional antiviral proteins (bAVPs) exploit the multi-step nature of the HIV entry process by binding to two different extracellular targets. They are generated by expressing a fusion protein containing two entry inhibitors with a flexible linker. The resulting fusion proteins exhibit exceptional neutralization potency and broad cross-clade inhibition. In this review, we summarize the HIV entry process and provide an overview of the design, antiviral potency, and methods of delivery of bAVPs. Additionally, we discuss the advantages and limitations of bAVPs for HIV prevention and treatment.

HIV Apheresis Tags (HIVAT) Aided Elimination of Viremia

INTRODUCTION

HIV viremia is the essential element for progression of an initial HIV infection into AIDS and death. The currently approved management relies primarily on chemotherapy repressing the HIV replication in the infected CD4+ cells, although with severe systemic adverse effects. The problem is that it does not physically eliminate viruses, which then not only keep infecting healthy cells of these patients, but also promote infections of other people.

SPECIFIC AIM

An overall objective of our work is biomolecular engineering of virus apheresis tags (VAT) that eliminate viremias without adverse effects. The specific aim of this project was biomolecular engineering of Human Immunodeficiency Virus Apheresis Tags (HIVAT): CD4-Au-Fe3O4, CD4-SiO2-Fe3O4, anti-gp120-Au-Fe3O4, and anti-gp120-SiO2-Fe3O4.

HEALTHY DONORS AND PATIENTS

Per the Institutional Review Board's approval and in compliance with Declaration of Helsinki, healthy donors and patients were presented with Patient Bill of Rights and provided Patient Informed Consent, while all the procedures were pursued by the licensed physicians.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

CD4, gp120, gp41, gp160, anti-gp120, p24 were transgenomically expressed. Superparamagnetic core-shell particles (SPM-CSP) were synthesized. SPM-CSP were used as the nucleation centers for assembling the expressed molecules upon them to create virus apheresis tags (VAT). VAT were injected into the blood or lymph acquired from the HIV+ and HBV+ patients followed by apheresis at 0.47 - 9.4 T. VAT efficacy in eliminating viremia was determined through immunoblots, NMR and q-RT-PCR.

RESULTS

Treatment of blood or lymph of the HIV+ patients' with VAT followed by virus apheresis resulted in rapid elimination of the HIV viremia. Efficacy of apheresis was contingent upon the gravity of viremia versus doses and regimens of VAT. Importantly, administration of VAT also effectively improved levels of non-infected CD4+ lymphocytes.

DISCUSSION / CONCLUSIONS

Herein, we present the proof of concept for a new, effective treatment with virus apheresis tags (VAT), specifically Human Immunodeficiency Virus Apheresis Tags (HIVAT), of the HIV+ patients' blood and lymph, which is eliminating the HIV viremia.It can be easily adapted as treatments of viremias perpetrated by other deadly viruses, which we vigorously pursue.

eCD4-Ig Variants That More Potently Neutralize HIV-1

The human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) entry inhibitor eCD4-Ig is a fusion of CD4-Ig and a coreceptor-mimetic peptide. eCD4-Ig is markedly more potent than CD4-Ig, with neutralization efficiencies approaching those of HIV-1 broadly neutralizing antibodies (bNAbs). However, unlike bNAbs, eCD4-Ig neutralized all HIV-1, HIV-2, and simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) isolates that it has been tested against, suggesting that it may be useful in clinical settings, where antibody escape is a concern. Here, we characterize three new eCD4-Ig variants, each with a different architecture and each utilizing D1.22, a stabilized form of CD4 domain 1. These variants were 10- to 20-fold more potent than our original eCD4-Ig variant, with a construct bearing four D1.22 domains (eD1.22-HL-Ig) exhibiting the greatest potency. However, this variant mediated less efficient antibody-dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity (ADCC) activity than eCD4-Ig itself or several other eCD4-Ig variants, including the smallest variant (eD1.22-Ig). A variant with the same architecture as the original eCD4-Ig (eD1.22-D2-Ig) showed modestly higher thermal stability and best prevented the promotion of infection of CCR5-positive, CD4-negative cells. All three variants, and eCD4-Ig itself, mediated more efficient shedding of the HIV-1 envelope glycoprotein gp120 than did CD4-Ig. Finally, we show that only three D1.22 mutations contributed to the potency of eD1.22-D2-Ig and that introduction of these changes into eCD4-Ig resulted in a variant 9-fold more potent than eCD4-Ig and 2-fold more potent than eD1.22-D2-Ig. These studies will assist in developing eCD4-Ig variants with properties optimized for prophylaxis, therapy, and cure applications.IMPORTANCE HIV-1 bNAbs have properties different from those of antiretroviral compounds. Specifically, antibodies can enlist immune effector cells to eliminate infected cells, whereas antiretroviral compounds simply interfere with various steps in the viral life cycle. Unfortunately, HIV-1 is adept at evading antibody recognition, limiting the utility of antibodies as a treatment for HIV-1 infection or as part of an effort to eradicate latently infected cells. eCD4-Ig is an antibody-like entry inhibitor that closely mimics HIV-1's obligate receptors. eCD4-Ig appears to be qualitatively different from antibodies, since it neutralizes all HIV-1, HIV-2, and SIV isolates. Here, we characterize three new structurally distinct eCD4-Ig variants and show that each excels in a key property useful to prevent, treat, or cure an HIV-1 infection. For example, one variant neutralized HIV-1 most efficiently, while others best enlisted natural killer cells to eliminate infected cells. These observations will help generate eCD4-Ig variants optimized for different clinical applications.

HIV Universal Vaccine

BACKGROUND

For many deadly viruses, there are no preventive and / or therapeutic vaccines approved by health authorities World-wide (e.g., HIV, Ebola, Dengue, and many others). Although, for some viruses, prophylactic vaccines are very effective (e.g., HBV, and many others).In this realm, we design, manufacture, test, and streamline into the clinics novel viral universal vaccines (VUV). VUV have such unique features, that medical vaccination or natural infection induced immunity against some viruses (e.g., HBV) upon the VUV's administration to the infected with other, different viruses patients, is redirected against these other, newly infecting viruses (e.g., HIV).

SPECIFIC AIM

The specific aim of this work was biomolecular engineering of the HIV universal vaccine comprising the two main functional domains: CD4 or anti-gp120 - as the HIV tagging domain and HBsAg - as the immune response eliciting domain, so that upon its administration the HBV medical immunization or natural infection induced immunity would be redirected, accelerated, and amplified to fight the HIV infection.

HEALTHY DONORS AND PATIENTS

Per the Institutional Review Board approval and in compliance with the Declaration of Helsinki, all healthy donors and patients were presented with the Patients' Bill of Rights and provided Patient Informed Consent. All the procedures were pursued by the licensed medical doctors.

METHODS & RESULTS

We have biomolecularly engineered HIV universal vaccine (HIVUV) comprising human CD4 or anti-gp120 and HBsAg of HBV. By immunoblotting and magnetic activated molecular sorting, we have demonstrated high specificity of this vaccine in binding HIV. By flow cytometry and nuclear magnetic resonance, we have demonstrated high efficacy of these vaccines to engage HBV immunized patients' immune system against HIV. Administration of HIVUV to blood or lymph of the HIV+ patients resulted in rapid reduction of the HIV viremia down to undetectable. It also resulted in protection of populations of CD4+ cells against HIV caused decline.

CONCLUSIONS

We have demonstrated the proof of concept for high efficacy of VUV, specifically HIVUV, in annihilating HIV. Nevertheless, the same compositions, processes, and methods, for persons skilled in biotechnology, pharmacogenomics, and molecular medicine, are adaptable for other deadly viral infections, which we vigorously pursue.

Induction of a Tier-1-Like Phenotype in Diverse Tier-2 Isolates by Agents That Guide HIV-1 Env to Perturbation-Sensitive, Nonnative States

The envelope glycoproteins (Envs) on the surfaces of HIV-1 particles are targeted by host antibodies. Primary HIV-1 isolates demonstrate different global sensitivities to antibody neutralization; tier-1 isolates are sensitive, whereas tier-2 isolates are more resistant. Single-site mutations in Env can convert tier-2 into tier-1-like viruses. We hypothesized that such global change in neutralization sensitivity results from weakening of intramolecular interactions that maintain Env integrity. Three strategies commonly applied to perturb protein structure were tested for their effects on global neutralization sensitivity: exposure to low temperature, Env-activating ligands, and a chaotropic agent. A large panel of diverse tier-2 isolates from clades B and C was analyzed. Incubation at 0°C, which globally weakens hydrophobic interactions, causes gradual and reversible exposure of the coreceptor-binding site. In the cold-induced state, Envs progress at isolate-specific rates to unstable forms that are sensitive to antibody neutralization and then gradually lose function. Agents that mimic the effects of CD4 (CD4Ms) also induce reversible structural changes to states that exhibit isolate-specific stabilities. The chaotropic agent urea (at low concentrations) does not affect the structure or function of native Env. However, urea efficiently perturbs metastable states induced by cold and CD4Ms and increases their sensitivity to antibody neutralization and their inactivation rates Therefore, chemical and physical agents can guide Env from the stable native state to perturbation-sensitive forms and modulate their stability to bestow tier-1-like properties on primary tier-2 strains. These concepts can be applied to enhance the potency of vaccine-elicited antibodies and microbicides at mucosal sites of HIV-1 transmission.IMPORTANCE An effective vaccine to prevent transmission of HIV-1 is a primary goal of the scientific and health care communities. Vaccine-elicited antibodies target the viral envelope glycoproteins (Envs) and can potentially inhibit infection. However, the potency of such antibodies is generally low. Single-site mutations in Env can enhance the global sensitivity of HIV-1 to neutralization by antibodies. We found that such a hypersensitivity phenotype can also be induced by agents that destabilize protein structure. Exposure to 0°C or low concentrations of Env-activating ligands gradually guides Env to metastable forms that expose cryptic epitopes and that are highly sensitive to neutralization. Low concentrations of the chaotropic agent urea do not affect native Env but destabilize perturbed states induced by cold or CD4Ms and increase their neutralization. The concept of enhancing antibody sensitivity by chemical agents that affect the structural stability of proteins can be applied to increase the potency of topical microbicides and vaccine-elicited antibodies.

Anti-HIV Activities of Novel Nucleoside Analogues: Acyclic and Tricyclic Base Nucleosides

Two series of new nucleoside derivatives, acyclic nucleosides and tricyclic base nucleosides, were screened for cellular toxicity and against HIV-1. Compounds were tested on MT4, MT2, U937 cell lines and PBMCs in multiwell tissue culture plates. Cells were infected in vitro with 2 TCID50/105 cells or 0.2 TCID50/105 cells of HIV-1-LAV-1. Two out of eight tricyclic derivatives showed little cytotoxicity; at 100μM, only two acyclic compounds exhibited cellular toxicity in U937 cells. In vitro, none of these 19 compounds demonstrated any efficient activity against the lentiviral HIV infection and replication. Furthermore, combinations of these acyclonucleosides with ddC or AZT did not inhibit HIV-1-LAV-1 replication additively or synergistically. Because acyclonucleosides did not induce any cytotoxic effect, other compounds of this family should be investigated.

R5 Macrophage-Tropic HIV-1 in the Male Genital Tract

The entry tropism of HIV-1 Env proteins from virus isolated from the blood and genital tract of five men with compartmentalized lineages was determined. The Env proteins isolated from the genital tract of subject C018 were macrophage-tropic proteins, while the remaining cloned env genes encoded R5 T cell-tropic proteins. The detection of a macrophage-tropic lineage of HIV-1 within the male genital tract strongly suggests that evolution of macrophage-tropic viruses can occur in anatomically isolated sites outside the central nervous system.

Identification of the key genes connected with plasma cells of multiple myeloma using expression profiles

Objective

To uncover the potential regulatory mechanisms of the relevant genes that contribute to the prognosis and prevention of multiple myeloma (MM).

Methods

Microarray data (GSE13591) were downloaded, including five plasma cell samples from normal donors and 133 plasma cell samples from MM patients. Differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were identified by Student’s t-test. Functional enrichment analysis was performed for DEGs using the Gene Ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) databases. Transcription factors and tumor-associated genes were also explored by mapping genes in the TRANSFAC, the tumor suppressor gene (TSGene), and tumor-associated gene (TAG) databases. A protein–protein interaction (PPI) network and PPI subnetworks were constructed by Cytoscape software using the Search Tool for the Retrieval of Interacting Genes (STRING) database.

Results

A total of 63 DEGs (42 downregulated, 21 upregulated) were identified. Functional enrichment analysis showed that HLA-DRB1 and VCAM1 might be involved in the positive regulation of immune system processes, and HLA-DRB1 might be related to the intestinal immune network for IgA production pathway. The genes CEBPD, JUND, and ATF3 were identified as transcription factors. The top ten nodal genes in the PPI network were revealed including HLA-DRB1, VCAM1, and TFRC. In addition, genes in the PPI subnetwork, such as HLA-DRB1 and VCAM1, were enriched in the cell adhesion molecules pathway, whereas CD4 and TFRC were both enriched in the hematopoietic cell pathway.

Conclusion

Several crucial genes correlated to MM were identified, including CD4, HLA-DRB1, TFRC, and VCAM1, which might exert their roles in MM progression via immune-mediated pathways. There might be certain regulatory correlations between HLA-DRB1, CD4, and TFRC.

Human T-Cell Development and Thymic Egress: An Infectious Disease Perspective

Emigration of mature naïve CD4 SP T cells from the human thymus to the periphery is not fully understood, although elucidation of the mechanisms that govern egress of T cells is crucial to understanding both basic immunology and the immune response in diseases such as HIV infection. Recent work has brought to light the requirement for sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P) and its receptors in a variety of fields including mature naïve T-cell egress from the thymus of mice. We are examining the expression and function of this novel requisite T-cell egress receptor within the human thymus, characterizing changes observed in the expression and function of this receptor in infectious diseases. To perform this work, we use a variety of humanized murine models reviewed in this article. Future work in the field of T-cell egress, especially as it pertains to S1P receptors, should advance the fields of basic T-cell immunology and immunopathology and open new avenues for exploration into novel therapeutics.

A novel gene therapy strategy using secreted multifunctional anti-HIV proteins to confer protection to gene-modified and unmodified target cells

Current human immunodeficiency virus type I (HIV) gene therapy strategies focus on rendering HIV target cells non-permissive to viral replication. However, gene-modified cells fail to accumulate in patients and the virus continues to replicate in the unmodified target cell population. We have designed lentiviral vectors encoding secreted anti-HIV proteins to protect both gene-modified and unmodified cells from infection. Soluble CD4 (sCD4), a secreted single chain variable fragment (sscFv(17b)) and a secreted fusion inhibitor (sFI(T45)) were used to target receptor binding, co-receptor binding and membrane fusion, respectively. Additionally, we designed bi- and tri-functional fusion proteins to exploit the multistep nature of HIV entry. Of the seven antiviral proteins tested, sCD4, sCD4-scFv(17b), sCD4-FI(T45) and sCD4-scFv(17b)-FI(T45) efficiently inhibited HIV entry. The neutralization potency of the bi-functional fusion proteins sCD4-scFv(17b) and sCD4-FI(T45) was superior to that of sCD4 and the Food and Drug Administration-approved fusion inhibitor T-20. In co-culture experiments, sCD4, sCD4-scFv(17b) and sCD4-FI(T45) secreted from gene-modified producer cells conferred substantial protection to unmodified peripheral blood mononuclear cells. In conclusion, continuous delivery of secreted anti-HIV proteins via gene therapy may be a promising strategy to overcome the limitations of the current treatment.

Comparison of drug and cell-based delivery: engineered adult mesenchymal stem cells expressing soluble tumor necrosis factor receptor II prevent arthritis in mouse and rat animal models

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a systemic autoimmune disease with unknown etiology where tumor necrosis factor-α (TNFα) plays a critical role. Etanercept, a recombinant fusion protein of human soluble tumor necrosis factor receptor II (hsTNFR) linked to the Fc portion of human IgG1, is used to treat RA based on the rationale that sTNFR binds TNFα and blocks TNFα-mediated inflammation. We compared hsTNFR protein delivery from genetically engineered human mesenchymal stem cells (hMSCs) with etanercept. Blocking TNFα-dependent intercellular adhesion molecule-1 expression on transduced hMSCs and inhibition of nitric oxide production from TNFα-treated bovine chondrocytes by conditioned culture media from transduced hMSCs demonstrated the functionality of the hsTNFR construction. Implanted hsTNFR-transduced mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) reduced mouse serum circulating TNFα generated from either implanted TNFα-expressing cells or lipopolysaccharide induction more effectively than etanercept (TNFα, 100%; interleukin [IL]-1α, 90%; and IL-6, 60% within 6 hours), suggesting faster clearance of the soluble tumor necrosis factor receptor (sTNFR)-TNFα complex from the animals. In vivo efficacy of sTNFR-transduced MSCs was illustrated in two (immune-deficient and immune-competent) arthritic rodent models. In the antibody-induced arthritis BalbC/SCID mouse model, intramuscular injection of hsTNFR-transduced hMSCs reduced joint inflammation by 90% compared with untransduced hMSCs; in the collagen-induced arthritis Fischer rat model, both sTNFR-transduced rat MSCs and etanercept inhibited joint inflammation by 30%. In vitro chondrogenesis assays showed the ability of TNFα and IL1α, but not interferon γ, to inhibit hMSC differentiation to chondrocytes, illustrating an additional negative role for inflammatory cytokines in joint repair. The data support the utility of hMSCs as therapeutic gene delivery vehicles and their potential to be used in alleviating inflammation within the arthritic joint.

HIV inhibition by CD4 and CCR5-derived glycopeptides

We have previously proposed a method by which natural antibodies can be redirected toward a known pathogen. We could show that CD4-derived peptides coupled to the galα1,3gal sugar moiety, a specificity held by natural antibodies, were able to neutralize HIV. Importantly, the antibody-peptide-antigen complexes activated the innate immune system through the Fc parts of the natural antibody. We now tested these peptides for their effectiveness on primary isolates and included sequence variations to increase their binding affinity. In addition, we evaluated three new CCR5-derived peptides. All peptides were tested for neutralization of six primary HIV-1 isolates. When testing three of the previously published glycopeptides we found that 10 to 100 times higher concentrations were needed to achieve the same neutralization of primary isolates. We found that the modifications of the CD4 glycopeptides modestly improved the neutralization of HIV-1. The modified CD4 and the CCR5 glycopeptides neutralized HIV-1 strains from different patients and of different subtypes. Notably, the combination of CD4 and CCR5 glycopeptides enhanced the neutralization potential as compared to the single peptides. A combination of CD4- and CCR5-galα1,3gal-linked peptides redirected natural antibodies to neutralize primary isolates of HIV-1, although less efficiently than laboratory-adapted strains. This might represent a new and valuable tool to block the entry of HIV into susceptible cells.

Anti-retroviral strategies for AIDS and related diseases

The replication cycle of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) and other retroviruses consists of four stages: attachment of the virus to specific receptors on the cell surface; uncoating of the viral nucleic acid and conversion to DNA; production of viral RNA and proteins; and assembly and liberation of progeny virus from the cell. Each of these steps represents a potential target for antiviral chemotherapy. Combinations of drugs which act against different steps in the viral replication cycle might be expected to have synergistic potential. Zidovudine (AZT) is the most widely used drug to date for impeding the replication of HIV-1. Although AZT therapy has been reasonably successful, it has not been free from toxicity. In addition, there have been several reports of isolation of AZT-resistant variants of HIV-1.

Design and characterization of stabilized derivatives of human CD4D12 and CD4D1

CD4 is present on the surface of T-lymphocytes and is the primary cellular receptor for HIV-1. CD4 consists of a cytoplasmic tail, one transmembrane region, and four extracellular domains, D1-D4. A construct consisting of the first two domains of CD4 (CD4D12) is folded and binds gp120 with similar affinity as soluble 4-domain CD4 (sCD4). However, the first domain alone (CD4D1) was previously shown to be largely unfolded and had 3-fold weaker affinity for gp120 when compared to sCD4 [Sharma, D.; et al. (2005) Biochemistry 44, 16192-16202]. We now report the design and characterization of three single-site mutants of CD4D12 (G6A, L51I, and V86L) and one multisite mutant of CD4D1 (G6A/L51I/L5K/F98T). G6A, L51I, and V86L are cavity-filling mutations while L5K and F98T are surface mutations which were introduced to minimize the aggregation of CD4D1 upon removal of the second domain. Two mutations, G6A and V86L in CD4D12 increased the stability and yield of the protein relative to the wild-type protein. The mutant CD4D1 (CD4D1a) with the 4 mutations was folded and more stable compared to the original CD4D1, but both bound gp120 with comparable affinity. In in vitro neutralization assays, both CD4D1a and G6A-CD4D12 were able to neutralize diverse HIV-1 viruses with similar IC(50)s as 4-domain CD4. These stabilized derivatives of human CD4 can be useful starting points for the design of other more complex viral entry inhibitors.

Engineered single human CD4 domains as potent HIV-1 inhibitors and components of vaccine immunogens

Soluble forms of the HIV-1 receptor CD4 (sCD4) have been extensively characterized for more than 2 decades as promising inhibitors and components of vaccine immunogens. However, they were mostly based on the first two CD4 domains (D1D2), and numerous attempts to develop functional, high-affinity, stable soluble one-domain sCD4 (D1) have not been successful because of the strong interactions between the two domains. We have hypothesized that combining the power of structure-based design with sequential panning of large D1 mutant libraries against different HIV-1 envelope glycoproteins (Envs) and screening for soluble mutants could not only help solve the fundamental stability problem of isolated D1, but may also allow improvement of D1 affinity while preserving its cross-reactivity. By using this strategy, we identified two stable monomeric D1 mutants, mD1.1 and mD1.2, which were significantly more soluble and bound Env gp120s more strongly (50-fold) than D1D2, neutralized a panel of HIV-1 primary isolates from different clades more potently than D1D2, induced conformational changes in gp120, and sensitized HIV-1 for neutralization by CD4-induced antibodies. mD1.1 and mD1.2 exhibited much lower binding to human blood cell lines than D1D2; moreover, they preserved a β-strand secondary structure and stability against thermally induced unfolding, trypsin digestion, and degradation by human serum. Because of their superior properties, mD1.1 and mD1.2 could be potentially useful as candidate therapeutics, components of vaccine immunogens, and research reagents for exploration of HIV-1 entry and immune responses. Our approach could be applied to other cases where soluble isolated protein domains are needed.

AFM force measurements of the gp120-sCD4 and gp120 or CD4 antigen-antibody interactions

Soluble CD4 (sCD4), anti-CD4 antibody, and anti-gp120 antibody have long been regarded as entry inhibitors in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) therapy. However, the interactions between these HIV entry inhibitors and corresponding target molecules are still poorly understood. In this study, atomic force microscopy (AFM) was utilized to investigate the interaction forces among them. We found that the unbinding forces of sCD4-gp120 interaction, CD4 antigen-antibody interaction, and gp120 antigen-antibody interaction were 25.45 ± 20.46, 51.2 2 ± 34.64, and 89.87 ± 44.63 pN, respectively, which may provide important mechanical information for understanding the effects of viral entry inhibitors on HIV infection. Moreover, we found that the functionalization of an interaction pair on AFM tip or substrate significantly influenced the results, implying that we must perform AFM force measurement and analyze the data with more caution.

HIV-1 Entry, Inhibitors, and Resistance

Entry inhibitors represent a new class of antiretroviral agents for the treatment of infection with HIV-1. While resistance to other HIV drug classes has been well described, resistance to this new class is still ill defined despite considerable clinical use. Several potential mechanisms have been proposed: tropism switching (utilization of CXCR4 instead of CCR5 for entry), increased affinity for the coreceptor, increased rate of virus entry into host cells, and utilization of inhibitor-bound receptor for entry. In this review we will address the development of attachment, fusion, and coreceptor entry inhibitors and explore recent studies describing potential mechanisms of resistance.

Therapies for coronaviruses. Part I of II -- viral entry inhibitors

BACKGROUND

Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) coronavirus emerged fleetingly in the winter of 2002 and again in the winter of 2003, resulting in the infection of ~8,000 people and the death of ~800. The identification of the putative natural reservoir suggests that a re-emergence is possible. The functions of many coronaviral proteins have now been elucidated, resulting in many novel approaches to therapy.

OBJECTIVE

To review anticoronaviral therapies based on inhibition of viral entry into the host cell and to cast light on promising approaches and future developments.

METHOD

The published literature, in particular patent publications, is searched for relevant documents. The information is organized and critiqued.

RESULTS/CONCLUSION

The approaches to combating coronaviral infections are built on the foundation of antivirals against other viruses and the fundamental insights gained by dissection of the coronaviral lifecycle. These approaches include the prevention of viral entry, reviewed here, and interference with the intracellular lifecycle of the virus in the infected cell, reviewed next. Of the viral-entry inhibitors, monoclonal antibodies have demonstrated efficacy, clinical application in other viral infections, and the potential to impact a future epidemic. Moreover, combinations of monoclonal antibodies have been shown to have a broader spectrum of antiviral activity.

Neutralization of HIV-1 by redirection of natural antibodies

The great variability and high glycosylation of gp120 poses a great challenge for the design of a functional immune therapy. The binding region of the CD4 receptor to gp120, however, is well conserved and may constitute a target to limit viral entry and infectivity. Our strategy consists in using a preexisting pool of natural antibodies directed toward the gal(alpha1,3)gal disaccharide and to redirect it to HIV. We here show that using CD4-derived, gp120-binding, synthetic peptides chemically linked to gal(alpha1,3)gal can redirect these natural antibodies and improve the HIV-1 neutralizing activity of the CD4-derived peptides in vitro. Importantly, the binding of the CD4-gal(alpha1,3)gal peptides to HIV-1-infected cells conferred antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity after the addition of human sera. Thus, the temporary redirection of naturally occurring antibodies and their biological activities to a new antigen represents a completely new way of targeting a human disease.

Construction of immunoglobulin fusion proteins

Recombinant DNA technology has allowed the preparation of chimeric genes encoding proteins with novel properties. This unit describes the construction and subsequent testing of genes encoding immunoglobulin chimeras. The first protocol details fusion of a protein (or protein fragment) of interest onto an immunoglobulin constant region using a modified version of the expression vector pCDM8. The resulting fusion protein generally retains the functional properties of both the protein of interest and the immunoglobulin constant region; this can be demonstrated as described here.

Synthesis and anti-HIV activity of trivalent CD4-mimetic miniproteins

A series of trivalent CD4-mimetic miniproteins was synthesized, in which three CD4M9 miniprotein moieties were tethered on a threefold-symmetric scaffold. The trivalent miniproteins were designed to target the CD4-binding sites displayed in the trimeric gp120 complex of HIV-1. The synthesis takes advantage of the highly efficient ligation between a cysteine-tagged CD4M9 miniprotein and a suitable trivalent maleimide that varied in the nature and length of spacer. Antiviral assay revealed that most of the synthetic trivalent miniproteins demonstrated significantly enhanced anti-HIV activities over the monomeric CD4M9 against both R5- and X4-tropic viruses, indicating the beneficial multivalent effects. One compound that possesses a hydrophobic linker was shown to be 140-fold more active than CD4M9 against HIV-1(Bal) infection, implicating a positive contribution of the lipid portion to the antiviral activity. It was also found that most of the trivalent miniproteins showed comparable anti-HIV activities in comparison with a typical bivalent miniprotein, regardless of the length of the linker. The results implicate a novel mechanism of the interactions between the multivalent inhibitors and the trimeric gp120 complex.

Preferential targeting of CD4-CCR5 complexes with bifunctional inhibitors: a novel approach to block HIV-1 infection

Two receptors, CD4 and one of several chemokine receptors, are required for cellular HIV-1 infection, with CCR5 being the main coreceptor for macrophage-tropic strains. We have designed bifunctional fusion proteins, consisting of RANTES/CCL5 and a single-chain Fv Ab fragment against CD4 to simultaneously block CD4 and CCR5. The fusion proteins bind to both receptors, compete with RANTES/CCL5 binding, and induce down-modulation of CCR5 approximately 10 times more efficiently on CD4+ compared with CD8+ T cells. Moreover, after short incubation and subsequent washout, a significant down-modulation of CCR5 was only seen with the fusion proteins and only on CD4+ cells, but not with unmodified RANTES or on CD4- cells, indicating a preferential targeting of CCR5 on CD4+ T cells. The fusion proteins block M-tropic HIV infection more efficiently than RANTES/CCL5 and CD4 Abs alone or in combination. To our knowledge this is the first report of simultaneous blockade of an HIV-1 receptor and coreceptor with bifunctional inhibitors.

Soluble V domain of Nectin-1/HveC enables entry of herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) into HSV-resistant cells by binding to viral glycoprotein D

Interaction of herpes simplex virus (HSV) glycoprotein D (gD) with specific cellular receptors is essential for HSV infection of susceptible cells. Virus mutants that lack gD can bind to the cell surface (attachment) but do not enter, implying that interaction of gD with its receptor(s) initiates the postattachment (entry) phase of HSV infection. In this report, we have studied HSV entry in the presence of the gD-binding variable (V) domain of the common gD receptor nectin-1/HveC to determine whether cell association of the gD receptor is required for HSV infection. In the presence of increasing amounts of the soluble nectin-1 V domain (sNec1(123)), increasing viral entry into HSV-resistant CHO-K1 cells was observed. At a multiplicity of 3 in the presence of optimal amounts of sNec1(123), approximately 90% of the cells were infected. The soluble V domain of nectin-2, a strain-specific HSV entry receptor, promoted entry of the HSV type 1 (HSV-1) Rid-1 mutant strain, but not of wild-type HSV-1. Preincubation and immunofluorescence studies indicated that free or gD-bound sNec1(123) did not associate with the cell surface. sNec1(123)-mediated entry was highly impaired by interference with the cell-binding activities of viral glycoproteins B and C. While gD has at least two functions, virus attachment to the cell and initiation of the virus entry process, our results demonstrate that the attachment function of gD is dispensable for entry provided that other means of attachment are available, such as gB and gC binding to cell surface glycosaminoglycans.

Anti-HIV agents targeting the interaction of gp120 with the cellular CD4 receptor

Perhaps one of the most effective approaches to prevent and inhibit viral infections is to block host cell receptors that are used by viruses to gain cell entry. Major advances have been made over the past decade in the understanding of the molecular mechanism of HIV entry into target cells. A crucial step in this entry process is the interaction of the external HIV envelope glycoprotein, gp120, with the cellular CD4 receptor molecule. This binding step represents a potential target for new antiviral agents, and current efforts to develop safe and effective HIV entry inhibitors are focused on natural ligands and/or monoclonal antibodies that interfere with gp120/CD4 interaction. Also, small synthetic compounds obtained either by high-throughput screening of large compound libraries or by structure-guided rational design have recently entered the antiretroviral arena. In this review, the anti-HIV activity of novel entry inhibitors targeting gp120/CD4 interaction is outlined, and special attention is given to the cyclotriazadisulfonamide compounds, which are the most specific CD4-targeted antiviral drugs described so far.

Discovery of small-molecule human immunodeficiency virus type 1 entry inhibitors that target the gp120-binding domain of CD4

The interaction between human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) gp120 and the CD4 receptor is highly specific and involves relatively small contact surfaces on both proteins according to crystal structure analysis. This molecularly conserved interaction presents an excellent opportunity for antiviral targeting. Here we report a group of pentavalent antimony-containing small molecule compounds, NSC 13778 (molecular weight, 319) and its analogs, which exert a potent anti-HIV activity. These compounds block the entry of X4-, R5-, and X4/R5-tropic HIV-1 strains into CD4(+) cells but show little or no activity in CD4-negative cells or against vesicular stomatitis virus-G pseudotyped virions. The compounds compete with gp120 for binding to CD4: either immobilized on a solid phase (soluble CD4) or on the T-cell surface (native CD4 receptor) as determined by a competitive gp120 capture enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay or flow cytometry. NSC 13778 binds to an N-terminal two-domain CD4 protein, D1/D2 CD4, immobilized on a surface plasmon resonance sensor chip, and dose dependently reduces the emission intensity of intrinsic tryptophan fluorescence of D1/D2 CD4, which contains two of the three tryptophan residues in the gp120-binding domain. Furthermore, T cells incubated with the compounds alone show decreased reactivity to anti-CD4 monoclonal antibodies known to recognize the gp120-binding site. In contrast to gp120-binders that inhibit gp120-CD4 interaction by binding to gp120, these compounds appear to disrupt gp120-CD4 contact by targeting the specific gp120-binding domain of CD4. NSC 13778 may represent a prototype of a new class of HIV-1 entry inhibitors that can break into the gp120-CD4 interface and mask the gp120-binding site on the CD4 molecules, effectively repelling incoming virions.

HIV-1 neutralization by chimeric CD4-CG10 polypeptides fused to human IgG1

The envelope glycoprotein of HIV-1 is the principal target for entry inhibitors. The use of soluble CD4 has been found to be impractical as most clinical isolates are resistant to neutralization at feasible concentrations. CG10 is one of a small group of monoclonal antibodies specific to CD4-induced epitopes, which are structurally associated with the chemokine receptor-binding site and are capable of blocking the interaction of gp120 with its obligatory co-receptor. We have reasoned that fusing the single chain Fv of CG10 with CD4 can lead to increased HIV-1 neutralization activity and that this effect could be further enhanced by engrafting this chimeric construct onto an IgG Fc. Here we report the cloning of the genes encoding the variable regions of CG10 heavy and light chains and demonstrate that when attached to human IgG1 Fc, the single chain Fv of CG10 retains the binding properties of the original mouse antibody. Fusing CG10 single chain Fv with the gp120-binding portion of CD4 on a human IgG1 Fc backbone results in stronger binding of gp120 of different tropisms and in enhanced neutralization of laboratory-adapted strains and most, but not all, clade B and clade C isolates tested. Our findings underscore the potential use of CD4-based fusion proteins in the design of HIV immuno-therapeutics.

Therapeutic potential of blocking HIV entry into cells: focus on membrane fusion inhibitors

Despite a number of recent therapeutic advancements, there remains an urgent need to develop a new class of therapy for human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). This review summarises attempts at blocking HIV binding and entry into host cells, an approach that would provide theoretical advantages over the currently available drugs targeting enzymes (reverse transcriptase and protease), brought into play in the later stages of the viral life cycle. The multi-step process of HIV entry into cells, binding of the surface glycoprotein (gp120) to the CD4 receptor and one of the chemokine receptors, followed by the membrane fusion step mediated by the transmembrane glycoprotein (gp41), has recently been understood with greater clarity. The importance of the chemokine co-receptors, such as CCR5 and CXCR4, for HIV entry may help to explain the limitations of earlier approaches using recombinant soluble CD4 or polyanionic compounds to interfere non-specifically with HIV glycoprotein function. Conversely, previous investigations demonstrating the in vitro inhibitory potential of beta chemokines themselves, or small-molecule chemokine receptor inhibitors, may now be understood in a new light. Promising laboratory investigations (particularly with the bicyclam compound, AMD3100) and extensive pharmaceutical experience with related chemical structures suggest great potential for targeting the chemokine nexus. Finally, the evolution of transmembrane peptide investigations from the laboratory to early clinical trials is described. Clinical trials of T-20, a peptide designed to inhibit gp-41 mediated fusion, have provided 'proof of concept' that therapeutics targeting a viral entry event can result in safe and potent inhibition of viral replication. The author speculates on the future prospect of using novel therapeutic strategies aimed at the initial interactions between HIV and target cells, in the battle against AIDS.

Synthetic Bivalent CD4-Mimetic Miniproteins Show Enhanced Anti-HIV Activity over the Monovalent Miniprotein

HIV-1 envelope glycoprotein gp120 is displayed as a trimeric complex on the surface of virion and infected T-cells, making it a typical multivalent target. This paper describes the design and synthesis of bivalent CD4-mimetic miniproteins to target the conserved CD4-binding pockets in the trimeric gp120. Using miniprotein CD4M9 as the model inhibitor, we created bivalent inhibitors in which two CD4M9 moieties were tethered by a spacer of varied length and evaluated their anti-HIV activity using a cell culture assay. The synthetic bivalent miniproteins showed 5-21-fold enhancement in anti-HIV activity over the monovalent miniprotein. The activity enhancement is dependent on the length of the spacer. The study suggests that targeting the oligomeric gp120 complex by novel multivalent ligands offers a valuable strategy for developing highly specific and effective HIV entry inhibitors.

Neutralization sensitivity of a simian–human immunodeficiency virus (SHIV-HXBc2P 3.2N) isolated from an infected rhesus macaque with neurological disease

Simian-human immunodeficiency virus (SHIV) chimerae, after in vivo passage in monkeys, can induce acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS)-like illness and death. A monkey infected with the molecularly cloned, pathogenic SHIV-HXBc2P 3.2 exhibited multifocal granulomatous pneumonia as well as progressive neurological impairment characterized by tremors and pelvic limb weakness. SHIV-HXBc2P 3.2N was isolated from brain tissue explants and characterized. Viruses with the envelope glycoproteins of SHIV-HXBc2P 3.2N exhibited increased sensitivity to soluble CD4 and several neutralizing antibodies compared with viruses with the parental SHIV-HXBc2P 3.2 envelope glycoproteins. By contrast, viruses with SHIV-HXBc2P 3.2 and SHIV-HXBc2P 3.2N envelope glycoproteins were neutralized equivalently by 2G12 and 2F5 antibodies, which are rarely elicited in HIV-1-infected humans. A constellation of changes involving both gp120 and gp41 envelope glycoproteins was responsible for the difference in susceptibility to neutralization by most antibodies. Surprisingly, the gain of an N-linked glycosylation site in the gp41 ectodomain contributed greatly to neutralization sensitivity. Thus, the environment of the central nervous system, particularly in the context of immunodeficiency, allows the evolution of immunodeficiency viruses with greater susceptibility to neutralization by antibodies.

HIV-1 entry and its inhibition

Entry of HIV-1 virions into cells is a complex and dynamic process carried out by envelope (Env) glycoproteins on the surface of the virion that promote the thermodynamically unfavorable fusion of highly stable viral and target cell membranes. Insight gained from studies of the mechanism of viral entry allowed insight into the design of novel inhibitors of HIV-1 entry, several of which are now in clinical trials. This review highlights the mechanism by which viral and cellular proteins mediate entry of HIV-1 into permissive cells, with an emphasis on targeting this process in the design of novel therapies that target distinct steps of the entry process, including antagonizing receptor binding events and blocking conformational changes intimately involved in membrane fusion.

Specific CD4 down-modulating compounds with potent anti-HIV activity

Despite the availability of the current clinically approved anti-HIV drugs, new classes of effective antiviral agents are still urgently needed to combat AIDS. A promising approach for drug development and vaccine design involves targeting research on HIV-1 entry, a multistep process that comprises viral attachment, coreceptor interactions, and fusion. Determination of the viral entry process in detail has enabled the design of specific agents that can inhibit each step in the HIV entry process. Therapeutic agents that interfere with the binding of the HIV envelope glycoprotein gp120 to the CD4 receptor (e.g., PRO 542, PRO 2000, and CV-N) or the coreceptors CCR5 and CXCR4 (e.g., SCH-C and AMD3100) are briefly outlined in this review. The anti-HIV activity of cyclotriazadisulfonamides, a novel class of compounds with a unique mode of action by down-modulating the CD4 receptor in lymphocytic and monocytic cells, is especially highlighted. On the basis of the successful results of T-20, the first approved entry inhibitor, the development of effective antiretrovirals that block HIV entry will certainly be further encouraged.

Gp120 stability on HIV-1 virions and Gag-Env pseudovirions is enhanced by an uncleaved Gag core

Human immunodeficiency virus type-1 (HIV-1) particles incorporate a trimeric envelope complex (Env) made of gp120 (SU) and gp41 (TM) heterodimers. It has been previously established that soluble CD4 (sCD4) interaction leads to shedding of gp120 from viral particles, and that gp120 may also be easily lost from virions during incubation or particle purification procedures. In the design of HIV particle or pseudovirion-based HIV vaccines, it may be important to develop strategies to maximize the gp120 content of particles. We analyzed the gp120 retention of HIV-1 laboratory-adapted isolates and primary isolates following incubation with sCD4 and variations in temperature. NL4-3 shed gp120 readily in a temperature- and sCD4-dependent manner. Surprisingly, inactivation of the viral protease led to markedly reduced shedding of gp120. Gp120 shedding was shown to vary markedly between HIV-1 strains, and was not strictly determined by whether the isolate was adapted to growth on immortalized T cell lines or was a primary isolate. Pseudovirions produced by expression of codon-optimized gag and env genes also demonstrated enhanced gp120 retention when an immature core structure was maintained. Pseudovirions of optimal stability were produced through a combination of an immature Gag protein core and a primary isolate Env. These results support the feasibility of utilizing pseudovirion particles as immunogens for the induction of humoral responses directed against native envelope structures.

Mutations conferring resistance to neutralization by a soluble form of the neurotrophin receptor (p75NTR) map outside of the known antigenic sites of the rabies virus glycoprotein

The neurotrophin receptor (p75NTR) serves as a receptor for rabies virus (RV). We expressed and purified a soluble chimera consisting of the p75NTR ectodomain fused to the human immunoglobulin G1 (IgG1) Fc fragment (p75-Fc). Although p75-Fc interacts with RV, the infectivity of RV did not decrease significantly when it was incubated in the presence of the soluble receptor alone. However, when it was subsequently incubated with an antihuman IgG directed against the Fc fragment of p75-Fc, the infectivity of RV was significantly lowered (>90%), whereas incubation with antihuman IgG alone had no effect. We then selected eight independent RV mutants that were not neutralized by p75-Fc and antihuman IgG (srr [soluble receptor resistant] mutants). Each mutant carried a single mutation in the glycoprotein gene leading to one amino acid substitution in the protein. A total of four different substitutions were found. Two of the mutations were located at position 318 (phenylalanine replaced by a serine or a valine residue), and two were located at position 352 (histidine replaced by a tyrosine or an arginine residue). All of the mutations prevented the interaction with p75NTR as either a soluble or a membrane-anchored form. Two mutants (F318S) and (H352R) resulted in the formation of small plaques on BSR cells, probably due to the slower maturation of the glycoprotein. Immunoprecipitation, immunofluorescence, and neutralization assays showed that the four mutated glycoproteins still interacted with representative anti-RV glycoprotein monoclonal antibodies (MAbs), indicating that p75NTR binds outside of the known RV glycoprotein antigenic sites.

Identification of components of protein complexes using a fluorescent photo-cross-linker and mass spectrometry

This study describes a novel method for improving the specific recognition, detection, and identification of proteins involved in multiprotein complexes. The method is based on a combination of coimmunoprecipitation, chemical cross-linking, and specific fluorescent tagging of protein components in close association with one another. Specific fluorescent tagging of the protein complex components was achieved using the cleavable, fluorescent cross-linker sulfosuccinimidyl 2-(7-azido-4-methylcoumarin-3-acetamido) ethyl-1,3'-dithiopropionate (SAED). Following dissociation and separation by SDS-PAGE, the fluorescently tagged proteins are then visualized by UV illumination, excised, and, following in-gel digestion, identified by mass spectrometry. In this study, a complex of the HIV-envelope protein gp120 and its cellular receptor CD4 was used as a model system. The sensitivity of detection of fluorescent SAED-labeled proteins in SDS gels, and the sensitivity of the mass spectrometric identification of fluorescent proteins after in-gel digestion, is in the range of a few hundred femtomoles of protein. This sensitivity is comparable to that achieved with silver-staining techniques, but fluorescence detection is protein independent and no background interference occurs. Furthermore, fluorescence labeling is significantly more compatible with mass spectrometric identification of proteins than is silver staining. The first application of this strategy was in the investigation of the mechanism of spermiation, the process by which mature spermatids separate from Sertoli cells. For the coimmunoprecipitation experiment, an antibody against paxillin, a protein involved in spermatid-Sertoli cell junctional complexes, was used. More components of the paxillin protein complex were visible by fluorescence detection of SAED-labeled proteins than were visible on comparable silver-stained gels. Mass spectrometric analysis of the fluorescently labeled proteins identified integrin alpha6 precursor as a protein associated in a complex with paxillin. The identification of integrin alpha6 precursor was confirmed by Western blot analysis and verifies the applicability of this novel approach for identifying proteins involved in protein complexes.

Mechanisms of viral membrane fusion and its inhibition

Viral envelope glycoproteins promote viral infection by mediating the fusion of the viral membrane with the host-cell membrane. Structural and biochemical studies of two viral glycoproteins, influenza hemagglutinin and HIV-1 envelope protein, have led to a common model for viral entry. The fusion mechanism involves a transient conformational species that can be targeted by therapeutic strategies. This mechanism of infectivity is likely utilized by a wide variety of enveloped viruses for which similar therapeutic interventions should be possible.

Characterization of the tertiary structure of soluble CD4 bound to glycosylated full-length HIVgp120 by chemical modification of arginine residues and mass spectrometric analysis

The initial step of infection of blood cells with the human immunodeficiency virus, HIV, is the formation of a complex of the viral envelope protein gp120 and its human receptor CD4. We have examined structural features of recombinant soluble CD4 (sCD4) by chemical modification of arginine residues with hydroxyphenylglyoxal and subsequent analysis by matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization and electrospray ionization mass spectrometry. As R58, R59, R131, R134, R219, R240, R293, and R329 could be derivatized free in solution, these arginine residues were exposed on the surface of the protein. In the noncovalent complex of sCD4 with HIV(SF2)gp120, only R58, R131, R134, R219, R240, R293, and R329 were accessible for the derivatizing agent. R59 was shielded from hydroxyphenylglyoxal and was, therefore, considered to be part of the interaction site with gp120. This indicates that the carbohydrate moieties and the flexible variable loops of the glycosylated full-length gp120 from HIV strain SF2 do not induce a reorganization of CD4 in its binding to gp120 and, therefore, do not appear to significantly affect the structural orientation of the primary receptor in complex with the HIV envelope protein as compared to the binding observed in the crystal structure of CD4 with truncated deglycosylated gp120.

Envelope glycoprotein determinants of neutralization resistance in a simian-human immunodeficiency virus (SHIV-HXBc2P 3.2) derived by passage in monkeys

The simian-human immunodeficiency virus SHIV-HXBc2 contains the envelope glycoproteins of a laboratory-adapted, neutralization-sensitive human immunodeficiency virus type 1 variant, HXBc2. Serial in vivo passage of the nonpathogenic SHIV-HXBc2 generated SHIV KU-1, which causes rapid CD4(+) T-cell depletion and an AIDS-like illness in monkeys. A molecularly cloned pathogenic SHIV, SHIV-HXBc2P 3.2, was derived from the SHIV KU-1 isolate and differs from the parental SHIV-HXBc2 by only 12 envelope glycoprotein amino acid residues. Relative to SHIV-HXBc2, SHIV-HXBc2P 3.2 was resistant to neutralization by all of the antibodies tested with the exception of the 2G12 antibody. The sequence changes responsible for neutralization resistance were located in variable regions of the gp120 exterior envelope glycoprotein and in the gp41 transmembrane envelope glycoprotein. The 2G12 antibody, which neutralized SHIV-HXBc2 and SHIV-HXBc2P 3.2 equally, bound the HXBc2 and HXBc2P 3.2 envelope glycoproteins on the cell surface comparably. The ability of the other tested antibodies to achieve saturation was less for the HXBc2P 3.2 envelope glycoproteins than for the HXBc2 envelope glycoproteins, even though the affinity of the antibodies for the two envelope glycoproteins was similar. Thus, a highly neutralization-sensitive SHIV, by modifying both gp120 and gp41 glycoproteins, apparently achieves a neutralization-resistant state by decreasing the saturability of its envelope glycoproteins by antibodies.

Loss of a single N-linked glycan allows CD4-independent human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection by altering the position of the gp120 V1/V2 variable loops

The gp120 envelope glycoprotein of primary human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) promotes virus entry by sequentially binding CD4 and the CCR5 chemokine receptor on the target cell. Previously, we adapted a primary HIV-1 isolate, ADA, to replicate in CD4-negative canine cells expressing human CCR5. The gp120 changes responsible for CD4-independent replication were limited to the V2 loop-V1/V2 stem. Here we show that elimination of a single glycosylation site at asparagine 197 in the V1/V2 stem is sufficient for CD4-independent gp120 binding to CCR5 and for HIV-1 entry into CD4-negative cells expressing CCR5. Deletion of the V1/V2 loops also allowed CD4-independent viral entry and gp120 binding to CCR5. The binding of the wild-type ADA gp120 to CCR5 was less dependent upon CD4 at 4 degrees C than at 37 degrees C. In the absence of the V1/V2 loops, neither removal of the N-linked carbohydrate at asparagine 197 nor lowering of the temperature increased the CD4-independent phenotypes. A CCR5-binding conformation of gp120, achieved by CD4 interaction or by modification of temperature, glycosylation, or variable loops, was preferentially recognized by the monoclonal antibody 48d. These results suggest that the CCR5-binding region of gp120 is occluded by the V1/V2 variable loops, the position of which can be modulated by temperature, CD4 binding, or an N-linked glycan in the V1/V2 stem.