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Prelic S, Keesey IW, Lavista-Llanos S, Hansson BS, Wicher D. Innexin expression and localization in the Drosophila antenna indicate gap junction or hemichannel involvement in antennal chemosensory sensilla. Cell Tissue Res 2024; 398:35-62. [PMID: 39174822 DOI: 10.1007/s00441-024-03909-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2023] [Accepted: 07/25/2024] [Indexed: 08/24/2024]
Abstract
Odor detection in insects is largely mediated by structures on antennae called sensilla, which feature a strongly conserved architecture and repertoire of olfactory sensory neurons (OSNs) and various support cell types. In Drosophila, OSNs are tightly apposed to supporting cells, whose connection with neurons and functional roles in odor detection remain unclear. Coupling mechanisms between these neuronal and non-neuronal cell types have been suggested based on morphological observations, concomitant physiological activity during odor stimulation, and known interactions that occur in other chemosensory systems. For instance, it is not known whether cell-cell coupling via gap junctions between OSNs and neighboring cells exists, or whether hemichannels interconnect cellular and extracellular sensillum compartments. Here, we show that innexins, which form hemichannels and gap junctions in invertebrates, are abundantly expressed in adult drosophilid antennae. By surveying antennal transcriptomes and performing various immunohistochemical stainings in antennal tissues, we discover innexin-specific patterns of expression and localization, with a majority of innexins strongly localizing to glial and non-neuronal cells, likely support and epithelial cells. Finally, by injecting gap junction-permeable dye into a pre-identified sensillum, we observe no dye coupling between neuronal and non-neuronal cells. Together with evidence of non-neuronal innexin localization, we conclude that innexins likely do not conjoin neurons to support cells, but that junctions and hemichannels may instead couple support cells among each other or to their shared sensillum lymph to achieve synchronous activity. We discuss how coupling of sensillum microenvironments or compartments may potentially contribute to facilitate chemosensory functions of odor sensing and sensillum homeostasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sinisa Prelic
- Dept. Evolutionary Neuroethology, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Jena, Germany
| | - Ian W Keesey
- Dept. Evolutionary Neuroethology, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Jena, Germany
| | - Sofia Lavista-Llanos
- Dept. Evolutionary Neuroethology, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Jena, Germany
| | - Bill S Hansson
- Dept. Evolutionary Neuroethology, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Jena, Germany
| | - Dieter Wicher
- Dept. Evolutionary Neuroethology, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Jena, Germany.
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2
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Cárdenas-García SP, Ijaz S, Pereda AE. The components of an electrical synapse as revealed by expansion microscopy of a single synaptic contact. eLife 2024; 13:e91931. [PMID: 38994821 PMCID: PMC11333041 DOI: 10.7554/elife.91931] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2023] [Accepted: 07/08/2024] [Indexed: 07/13/2024] Open
Abstract
Most nervous systems combine both transmitter-mediated and direct cell-cell communication, known as 'chemical' and 'electrical' synapses, respectively. Chemical synapses can be identified by their multiple structural components. Electrical synapses are, on the other hand, generally defined by the presence of a 'gap junction' (a cluster of intercellular channels) between two neuronal processes. However, while gap junctions provide the communicating mechanism, it is unknown whether electrical transmission requires the contribution of additional cellular structures. We investigated this question at identifiable single synaptic contacts on the zebrafish Mauthner cells, at which gap junctions coexist with specializations for neurotransmitter release and where the contact unequivocally defines the anatomical limits of a synapse. Expansion microscopy of these single contacts revealed a detailed map of the incidence and spatial distribution of proteins pertaining to various synaptic structures. Multiple gap junctions of variable size were identified by the presence of their molecular components. Remarkably, most of the synaptic contact's surface was occupied by interleaving gap junctions and components of adherens junctions, suggesting a close functional association between these two structures. In contrast, glutamate receptors were confined to small peripheral portions of the contact, indicating that most of the synaptic area functions as an electrical synapse. Thus, our results revealed the overarching organization of an electrical synapse that operates with not one, but multiple gap junctions, in close association with structural and signaling molecules known to be components of adherens junctions. The relationship between these intercellular structures will aid in establishing the boundaries of electrical synapses found throughout animal connectomes and provide insight into the structural organization and functional diversity of electrical synapses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandra P Cárdenas-García
- Dominick P. Purpura Department of Neuroscience, Albert Einstein College of MedicineBronxUnited States
| | - Sundas Ijaz
- Dominick P. Purpura Department of Neuroscience, Albert Einstein College of MedicineBronxUnited States
| | - Alberto E Pereda
- Dominick P. Purpura Department of Neuroscience, Albert Einstein College of MedicineBronxUnited States
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3
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Stein L, Vollstaedt ML, Amasheh S. Cannabidiol Strengthening of Gastric Tight Junction Complexes Analyzed in an Improved Xenopus Oocyte Assay. MEMBRANES 2024; 14:18. [PMID: 38248708 PMCID: PMC10819461 DOI: 10.3390/membranes14010018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2023] [Revised: 12/25/2023] [Accepted: 01/03/2024] [Indexed: 01/23/2024]
Abstract
Cannabidiol (CBD), the non-psychoactive compound derived from the cannabis plant, has gained attention in recent years as a remedy against gastrointestinal disorders ranging from nausea and inflammation to abdominal pain. Recent advances demonstrated an effect on inflammatory pathways and barrier proteins. However, information on possible direct effects is scarce and needs to be addressed, as applications are currently increasing in popularity. To accomplish this, we have employed Xenopus laevis oocytes as a heterologous expression system for analysis of the direct effects on stomach-specific claudins and further developed tight junction (TJ) protein interaction assays. Human claudin-4, claudin-5, and claudin-18.2 were expressed in Xenopus oocytes, clustered in pairs to form contact areas, and analyzed in a two-cell model approach, including measurement of the contact area and contact strength. CLDN4/5/18 + CLDN4/5/18 oocyte pairs were incubated with 20 µM CBD or with 40 µM CBD and were compared to cells without CBD treatment (ctrl). For interaction analysis, the contact area was measured after 24 h and 48 h. Whereas CBD did not affect the size of the protein interaction area, Double Orbital Challenge experiments revealed an increased contact strength after 24 h incubation with CBD. In addition, the Xenopus oocyte experiments were accompanied by an analysis of claudin-4, -5, and -18 expression in gastric epithelium by immunoblotting and immunohistochemistry. Claudin-4, -5, and -18 were strongly expressed, indicating a major role for gastric epithelial barrier function. In summary, our study shows direct effects of 40 µM CBD on Xenopus oocytes heterologously expressing a stomach-specific claudin combination, indicating a supportive and beneficial effect of CBD on gastric TJ proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Salah Amasheh
- Institute of Veterinary Physiology, School of Veterinary Medicine, Freie Universität Berlin, 14163 Berlin, Germany; (L.S.); (M.-L.V.)
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4
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Cárdenas-García SP, Ijaz S, Pereda AE. The components of an electrical synapse as revealed by expansion microscopy of a single synaptic contact. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.07.25.550347. [PMID: 37546897 PMCID: PMC10402082 DOI: 10.1101/2023.07.25.550347] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/08/2023]
Abstract
Most nervous systems combine both transmitter-mediated and direct cell-cell communication, known as 'chemical' and 'electrical' synapses, respectively. Chemical synapses can be identified by their multiple structural components. Electrical synapses are, on the other hand, generally defined by the presence of a 'gap junction' (a cluster of intercellular channels) between two neuronal processes. However, while gap junctions provide the communicating mechanism, it is unknown whether electrical transmission requires the contribution of additional cellular structures. We investigated this question at identifiable single synaptic contacts on the zebrafish Mauthner cells, at which gap junctions coexist with specializations for neurotransmitter release and where the contact defines the anatomical limits of a synapse. Expansion microscopy of these contacts revealed a detailed map of the incidence and spatial distribution of proteins pertaining to various synaptic structures. Multiple gap junctions of variable size were identified by the presence of their molecular components. Remarkably, most of the synaptic contact's surface was occupied by interleaving gap junctions and components of adherens junctions, suggesting a close functional association between these two structures. In contrast, glutamate receptors were confined to small peripheral portions of the contact, indicating that most of the synaptic area works as an electrical synapse. Thus, our results revealed the overarching organization of an electrical synapse that operates with not one, but multiple gap junctions, in close association with structural and signaling molecules known to be components of AJs. The relationship between these intercellular structures will aid in establishing the boundaries of electrical synapses found throughout animal connectomes and provide insight into the structural organization and functional diversity of electrical synapses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandra P. Cárdenas-García
- Dominick P. Purpura Department of Neuroscience, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, USA
| | - Sundas Ijaz
- Dominick P. Purpura Department of Neuroscience, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, USA
| | - Alberto E. Pereda
- Dominick P. Purpura Department of Neuroscience, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, USA
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5
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Vaughn MJ, Haas JS. On the Diverse Functions of Electrical Synapses. Front Cell Neurosci 2022; 16:910015. [PMID: 35755782 PMCID: PMC9219736 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2022.910015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2022] [Accepted: 05/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Electrical synapses are the neurophysiological product of gap junctional pores between neurons that allow bidirectional flow of current between neurons. They are expressed throughout the mammalian nervous system, including cortex, hippocampus, thalamus, retina, cerebellum, and inferior olive. Classically, the function of electrical synapses has been associated with synchrony, logically following that continuous conductance provided by gap junctions facilitates the reduction of voltage differences between coupled neurons. Indeed, electrical synapses promote synchrony at many anatomical and frequency ranges across the brain. However, a growing body of literature shows there is greater complexity to the computational function of electrical synapses. The paired membranes that embed electrical synapses act as low-pass filters, and as such, electrical synapses can preferentially transfer spike after hyperpolarizations, effectively providing spike-dependent inhibition. Other functions include driving asynchronous firing, improving signal to noise ratio, aiding in discrimination of dissimilar inputs, or dampening signals by shunting current. The diverse ways by which electrical synapses contribute to neuronal integration merits furthers study. Here we review how functions of electrical synapses vary across circuits and brain regions and depend critically on the context of the neurons and brain circuits involved. Computational modeling of electrical synapses embedded in multi-cellular models and experiments utilizing optical control and measurement of cellular activity will be essential in determining the specific roles performed by electrical synapses in varying contexts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mitchell J Vaughn
- Department of Biological Sciences, Lehigh University, Bethlehem, PA, United States
| | - Julie S Haas
- Department of Biological Sciences, Lehigh University, Bethlehem, PA, United States
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6
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Ammer G, Vieira RM, Fendl S, Borst A. Anatomical distribution and functional roles of electrical synapses in Drosophila. Curr Biol 2022; 32:2022-2036.e4. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2022.03.040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2021] [Revised: 02/16/2022] [Accepted: 03/14/2022] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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7
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Palumbos SD, Skelton R, McWhirter R, Mitchell A, Swann I, Heifner S, Von Stetina S, Miller DM. cAMP controls a trafficking mechanism that maintains the neuron specificity and subcellular placement of electrical synapses. Dev Cell 2021; 56:3235-3249.e4. [PMID: 34741804 DOI: 10.1016/j.devcel.2021.10.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2021] [Revised: 08/30/2021] [Accepted: 10/08/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Electrical synapses are established between specific neurons and within distinct subcellular compartments, but the mechanisms that direct gap junction assembly in the nervous system are largely unknown. Here, we show that a developmental program tunes cAMP signaling to direct the neuron-specific assembly and placement of electrical synapses in the C. elegans motor circuit. We use live-cell imaging to visualize electrical synapses in vivo and an optogenetic assay to confirm that they are functional. In ventral A class (VA) motor neurons, the UNC-4 transcription factor blocks expression of cAMP antagonists that promote gap junction miswiring. In unc-4 mutants, VA electrical synapses are established with an alternative synaptic partner and are repositioned from the VA axon to soma. cAMP counters these effects by driving gap junction trafficking into the VA axon for electrical synapse assembly. Thus, our experiments establish that cAMP regulates gap junction trafficking for the biogenesis of functional electrical synapses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sierra D Palumbos
- Neuroscience Program, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 37212, USA
| | - Rachel Skelton
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 37212, USA
| | - Rebecca McWhirter
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 37212, USA
| | - Amanda Mitchell
- Vanderbilt Summer Science Academy, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 37212, USA
| | - Isaiah Swann
- Vanderbilt Summer Science Academy, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 37212, USA
| | | | - Stephen Von Stetina
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 37212, USA
| | - David M Miller
- Neuroscience Program, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 37212, USA; Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 37212, USA.
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8
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Huang YC, Chen KH, Chen YY, Tsao LH, Yeh TH, Chen YC, Wu PY, Wang TW, Yu JY. βPS-Integrin acts downstream of Innexin 2 in modulating stretched cell morphogenesis in the Drosophila ovary. G3-GENES GENOMES GENETICS 2021; 11:6310741. [PMID: 34544125 PMCID: PMC8496311 DOI: 10.1093/g3journal/jkab215] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2021] [Accepted: 06/14/2021] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
During oogenesis, a group of specialized follicle cells, known as stretched cells (StCs), flatten drastically from cuboidal to squamous shape. While morphogenesis of epithelia is critical for organogenesis, genes and signaling pathways involved in this process remain to be revealed. In addition to formation of gap junctions for intercellular exchange of small molecules, gap junction proteins form channels or act as adaptor proteins to regulate various cellular behaviors. In invertebrates, gap junction proteins are Innexins. Knockdown of Innexin 2 but not other Innexins expressed in follicle cells attenuates StC morphogenesis. Interestingly, blocking of gap junctions with an inhibitor carbenoxolone does not affect StC morphogenesis, suggesting that Innexin 2 might control StCs flattening in a gap-junction-independent manner. An excessive level of βPS-Integrin encoded by myospheroid is detected in Innexin 2 mutant cells specifically during StC morphogenesis. Simultaneous knockdown of Innexin 2 and myospheroid partially rescues the morphogenetic defect resulted from Innexin 2 knockdown. Furthermore, reduction of βPS-Integrin is sufficient to induce early StCs flattening. Taken together, our data suggest that βPS-Integrin acts downstream of Innexin 2 in modulating StCs morphogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi-Chia Huang
- Department of Life Sciences and Institute of Genome Sciences, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Taipei 112, Taiwan
| | - Kuan-Han Chen
- Department of Life Sciences and Institute of Genome Sciences, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Taipei 112, Taiwan
| | - Yu-Yang Chen
- Department of Life Sciences and Institute of Genome Sciences, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Taipei 112, Taiwan
| | - Liang-Hsuan Tsao
- Department of Life Sciences and Institute of Genome Sciences, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Taipei 112, Taiwan
| | - Tsung-Han Yeh
- Department of Life Sciences and Institute of Genome Sciences, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Taipei 112, Taiwan
| | - Yu-Chia Chen
- Department of Life Sciences and Institute of Genome Sciences, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Taipei 112, Taiwan
| | - Ping-Yen Wu
- Department of Life Sciences and Institute of Genome Sciences, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Taipei 112, Taiwan
| | - Tsu-Wei Wang
- Department of Life Science, National Taiwan Normal University, Taipei 116, Taiwan
| | - Jenn-Yah Yu
- Department of Life Sciences and Institute of Genome Sciences, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Taipei 112, Taiwan.,Brain Research Center, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Taipei 112, Taiwan
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9
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Syrjanen J, Michalski K, Kawate T, Furukawa H. On the molecular nature of large-pore channels. J Mol Biol 2021; 433:166994. [PMID: 33865869 PMCID: PMC8409005 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmb.2021.166994] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2020] [Revised: 04/08/2021] [Accepted: 04/08/2021] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Membrane transport is a fundamental means to control basic cellular processes such as apoptosis, inflammation, and neurodegeneration and is mediated by a number of transporters, pumps, and channels. Accumulating evidence over the last half century has shown that a type of so-called "large-pore channel" exists in various tissues and organs in gap-junctional and non-gap-junctional forms in order to flow not only ions but also metabolites such as ATP. They are formed by a number of protein families with little or no evolutionary linkages including connexin, innexin, pannexin, leucine-rich repeat-containing 8 (LRRC8), and calcium homeostasis modulator (CALHM). This review summarizes the history and concept of large-pore channels starting from connexin gap junction channels to the more recent developments in innexin, pannexin, LRRC8, and CALHM. We describe structural and functional features of large-pore channels that are crucial for their diverse functions on the basis of available structures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johanna Syrjanen
- W.M. Keck Structural Biology Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor, NY 11724, USA
| | - Kevin Michalski
- W.M. Keck Structural Biology Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor, NY 11724, USA
| | - Toshimitsu Kawate
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Fields of Biochemistry, Molecular, and Cell Biology (BMCB), and Biophysics, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Hiro Furukawa
- W.M. Keck Structural Biology Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor, NY 11724, USA.
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10
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Mersman BA, Jolly SN, Lin Z, Xu F. Gap Junction Coding Innexin in Lymnaea stagnalis: Sequence Analysis and Characterization in Tissues and the Central Nervous System. Front Synaptic Neurosci 2020; 12:1. [PMID: 32158385 PMCID: PMC7052179 DOI: 10.3389/fnsyn.2020.00001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2019] [Accepted: 01/09/2020] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Connections between neurons called synapses are the key components underlying all nervous system functions of animals and humans. However, important genetic information on the formation and plasticity of one type, the electrical (gap junction-mediated) synapse, is understudied in many invertebrates. In the present study, we set forth to identify and characterize the gap junction-encoding gene innexin in the central nervous system (CNS) of the mollusk pond snail Lymnaea stagnalis. With PCR, 3′ and 5′ RACE, and BLAST searches, we identified eight innexin genes in the L. stagnalis genome, named Lst Inx1–Lst Inx8. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that the L. stagnalis innexin genes originated from a single copy in the common ancestor of molluskan species by multiple gene duplication events and have been maintained in L. stagnalis since they were generated. The paralogous innexin genes demonstrate distinct expression patterns among tissues. In addition, one paralog, Lst Inx1, exhibits heterogeneity in cells and ganglia, suggesting the occurrence of functional diversification after gene duplication. These results introduce possibilities to study an intriguing potential relationship between innexin paralog expression and cell-specific functional outputs such as heterogenic ability to form channels and exhibit synapse plasticity. The L. stagnalis CNS contains large neurons and functionally defined networks for behaviors; with the introduction of L. stagnalis in the gap junction gene field, we are providing novel opportunities to combine genetic research with direct investigations of functional outcomes at the cellular, synaptic, and behavioral levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brittany A Mersman
- Department of Biology, College of Arts and Sciences, Saint Louis University, St. Louis, MO, United States.,Henry and Amelia Nasrallah Center for Neuroscience, Saint Louis University, St. Louis, MO, United States
| | - Sonia N Jolly
- Department of Biology, College of Arts and Sciences, Saint Louis University, St. Louis, MO, United States
| | - Zhenguo Lin
- Department of Biology, College of Arts and Sciences, Saint Louis University, St. Louis, MO, United States
| | - Fenglian Xu
- Department of Biology, College of Arts and Sciences, Saint Louis University, St. Louis, MO, United States.,Henry and Amelia Nasrallah Center for Neuroscience, Saint Louis University, St. Louis, MO, United States
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11
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Bao W, Tang KFJ, Alcivar-Warren A. The Complete Genome of an Endogenous Nimavirus ( Nimav-1_LVa) From the Pacific Whiteleg Shrimp Penaeus ( Litopenaeus) Vannamei. Genes (Basel) 2020; 11:E94. [PMID: 31947590 PMCID: PMC7016691 DOI: 10.3390/genes11010094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2019] [Revised: 01/08/2020] [Accepted: 01/09/2020] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
White spot syndrome virus (WSSV), the lone virus of the genus Whispovirus under the family Nimaviridae, is one of the most devastating viruses affecting the shrimp farming industry. Knowledge about this virus, in particular, its evolution history, has been limited, partly due to its large genome and the lack of other closely related free-living viruses for comparative studies. In this study, we reconstructed a full-length endogenous nimavirus consensus genome, Nimav-1_LVa (279,905 bp), in the genome sequence of Penaeus (Litopenaeus) vannamei breed Kehai No. 1 (ASM378908v1). This endogenous virus seemed to insert exclusively into the telomeric pentanucleotide microsatellite (TAACC/GGTTA)n. It encoded 117 putative genes, with some containing introns, such as g012 (inhibitor of apoptosis, IAP), g046 (crustacean hyperglycemic hormone, CHH), g155 (innexin), g158 (Bax inhibitor 1 like). More than a dozen Nimav-1_LVa genes are involved in the pathogen-host interactions. We hypothesized that g046, g155, g158, and g227 (semaphorin 1A like) were recruited host genes for their roles in immune regulation. Sequence analysis indicated that a total of 43 WSSV genes belonged to the ancestral/core nimavirus gene set, including four genes reported in this study: wsv112 (dUTPase), wsv206, wsv226, and wsv308 (nucleocapsid protein). The availability of the Nimav-1_LVa sequence would help understand the genetic diversity, epidemiology, evolution, and virulence of WSSV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Weidong Bao
- Genetic Information Research Institute, 20380 Town Center Lane, Suite 240, Cupertino, CA 95014, USA
| | - Kathy F. J. Tang
- Yellow Sea Fisheries Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences, 106 Nanjing Road, Qingdao 266071, China
| | - Acacia Alcivar-Warren
- Fundación para la Conservation de la Biodiversidad Acuática y Terrestre (FUCOBI), Quito EC1701, Ecuador
- Environmental Genomics Inc., ONE HEALTH Epigenomics Educational Initiative, P.O. Box 196, Southborough, MA 01772, USA
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12
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Peterson NG, Stormo BM, Schoenfelder KP, King JS, Lee RRS, Fox DT. Cytoplasmic sharing through apical membrane remodeling. eLife 2020; 9:58107. [PMID: 33051002 PMCID: PMC7655102 DOI: 10.7554/elife.58107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2020] [Accepted: 10/13/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Multiple nuclei sharing a common cytoplasm are found in diverse tissues, organisms, and diseases. Yet, multinucleation remains a poorly understood biological property. Cytoplasm sharing invariably involves plasma membrane breaches. In contrast, we discovered cytoplasm sharing without membrane breaching in highly resorptive Drosophila rectal papillae. During a six-hour developmental window, 100 individual papillar cells assemble a multinucleate cytoplasm, allowing passage of proteins of at least 62 kDa throughout papillar tissue. Papillar cytoplasm sharing does not employ canonical mechanisms such as incomplete cytokinesis or muscle fusion pore regulators. Instead, sharing requires gap junction proteins (normally associated with transport of molecules < 1 kDa), which are positioned by membrane remodeling GTPases. Our work reveals a new role for apical membrane remodeling in converting a multicellular epithelium into a giant multinucleate cytoplasm.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nora G Peterson
- Department of Cell Biology, Duke University Medical CenterDurhamUnited States
| | - Benjamin M Stormo
- Department of Cell Biology, Duke University Medical CenterDurhamUnited States
| | | | - Juliet S King
- Department of Pharmacology & Cancer Biology, Duke University Medical CenterDurhamUnited States
| | | | - Donald T Fox
- Department of Cell Biology, Duke University Medical CenterDurhamUnited States,University Program in Genetics and Genomics, Duke UniversityDurhamUnited States,Department of Pharmacology & Cancer Biology, Duke University Medical CenterDurhamUnited States
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13
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Gaps and barriers: Gap junctions as a channel of communication between the soma and the germline. Semin Cell Dev Biol 2019; 97:167-171. [PMID: 31558347 DOI: 10.1016/j.semcdb.2019.09.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2019] [Revised: 08/29/2019] [Accepted: 09/04/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Gap junctions, expressed in most tissues of the body, allow for the cytoplasmic coupling of adjacent cells and promote tissue cooperation. Gap junctions connect also the soma and the germline in many animals, and transmit somatic signals that are crucial for germline maturation and integrity. In this review, we examine the involvement of gap junctions in the relay of information between the soma and the germline, and ask whether such communication could have consequences for the progeny. While the influence of parental experiences on descendants is of great interest, the possibility that gap junctions participate in the transmission of information across generations is largely unexplored.
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14
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A Computational Model of the Escape Response Latency in the Giant Fiber System of Drosophila melanogaster. eNeuro 2019; 6:eN-NWR-0423-18. [PMID: 31001574 PMCID: PMC6469880 DOI: 10.1523/eneuro.0423-18.2019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2018] [Revised: 02/22/2019] [Accepted: 03/11/2019] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
The giant fiber system (GFS) is a multi-component neuronal pathway mediating rapid escape response in the adult fruit-fly Drosophila melanogaster, usually in the face of a threatening visual stimulus. Two branches of the circuit promote the response by stimulating an escape jump followed by flight initiation. A recent work demonstrated an age-associated decline in the speed of signal propagation through the circuit, measured as the stimulus-to-muscle depolarization response latency. The decline is likely due to the diminishing number of inter-neuronal gap junctions in the GFS of ageing flies. In this work, we presented a realistic conductance-based, computational model of the GFS that recapitulates the experimental results and identifies some of the critical anatomical and physiological components governing the circuit’s response latency. According to our model, anatomical properties of the GFS neurons have a stronger impact on the transmission than neuronal membrane conductance densities. The model provides testable predictions for the effect of experimental interventions on the circuit’s performance in young and ageing flies.
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15
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Lee J, Iyengar A, Wu CF. Distinctions among electroconvulsion- and proconvulsant-induced seizure discharges and native motor patterns during flight and grooming: quantitative spike pattern analysis in Drosophila flight muscles. J Neurogenet 2019; 33:125-142. [PMID: 30982417 DOI: 10.1080/01677063.2019.1581188] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
In Drosophila, high-frequency electrical stimulation across the brain triggers a highly stereotypic repertoire of spasms. These electroconvulsive seizures (ECS) manifest as distinctive spiking discharges across the nervous system and can be stably assessed throughout the seizure repertoire in the large indirect flight muscles dorsal longitudinal muscles (DLMs) to characterize modifications in seizure-prone mutants. However, the relationships between ECS-spike patterns and native motor programs, including flight and grooming, are not known and their similarities and distinctions remain to be characterized. We employed quantitative spike pattern analyses for the three motor patterns including: (1) overall firing frequency, (2) spike timing between contralateral fibers, and (3) short-term variability in spike interval regularity (CV2) and instantaneous firing frequency (ISI-1). This base-line information from wild-type (WT) flies facilitated quantitative characterization of mutational effects of major neurotransmitter systems: excitatory cholinergic (Cha), inhibitory GABAergic (Rdl) and electrical (ShakB) synaptic transmission. The results provide an initial glimpse on the vulnerability of individual motor patterns to different perturbations. We found marked alterations of ECS discharge spike patterns in terms of either seizure threshold, spike frequency or spiking regularity. In contrast, no gross alterations during grooming and a small but noticeable reduction of firing frequency during Rdl mutant flight were found, suggesting a role for GABAergic modulation of flight motor programs. Picrotoxin (PTX), a known pro-convulsant that inhibits GABAA receptors, induced DLM spike patterns that displayed some features, e.g. left-right coordination and ISI-1 range, that could be found in flight or grooming, but distinct from ECS discharges. These quantitative techniques may be employed to reveal overlooked relationships among aberrant motor patterns as well as their links to native motor programs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jisue Lee
- a Department of Biology , University of Iowa , Iowa City , IA , USA
| | - Atulya Iyengar
- a Department of Biology , University of Iowa , Iowa City , IA , USA.,b Interdisiplinary Graduate Program in Neuroscience , University of Iowa , Iowa City , IA , USA
| | - Chun-Fang Wu
- a Department of Biology , University of Iowa , Iowa City , IA , USA.,b Interdisiplinary Graduate Program in Neuroscience , University of Iowa , Iowa City , IA , USA
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16
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Abstract
BACKGROUND Gap junctions (GJ) are one of the most common forms of intercellular communication. GJs are assembled from proteins that form channels connecting the cytoplasm of adjacent cells. They are considered to be the main or the only type of intercellular channels and the universal feature of all multicellular animals. Two unrelated protein families are currently considered to be involved in this function, namely, connexins and pannexins (pannexins/innexins). Pannexins were hypothesized to be the universal GJ proteins of multicellular animals, distinct from connexins that are characteristic of chordates only. Here we have revised this supposition by applying growing high throughput sequencing data from diverse metazoan species. RESULTS Pannexins were found in Chordates, Ctenophores, Cnidarians, and in the most major groups of bilateral protostomes. Yet some metazoans appear to have neither connexins nor pannexins in their genomes. We detected no connexins or pannexins/innexins homologues in representatives of all five classes of echinoderms and their closest relatives hemichordates with available genomic sequences. Despite this, our intracellular recordings demonstrate direct electrical coupling between blastomeres at the 2-cell embryo of the echinoderm (starfish Asterias rubens). In these experiments, carboxyfluorescein fluorescent dye did not diffuse between electrically coupled cells. This excludes the possibility that the observed electrical coupling is mediated by incomplete cytoplasm separation during cleavage. CONCLUSION Functional GJs are present in representatives of the clade that lack currently recognized GJ protein families. New undiscovered protein families utilized for intercellular channels are predicted. It is possible that the new type(s) of intercellular channels are present in parallel to pannexin and connexin gap junctions in animal groups, other than Echinodermata.
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Affiliation(s)
- Georgy A Slivko-Koltchik
- Kharkevich Institute for Information Transmission Problems, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russian Federation, 127994
| | - Victor P Kuznetsov
- Kharkevich Institute for Information Transmission Problems, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russian Federation, 127994
| | - Yuri V Panchin
- Kharkevich Institute for Information Transmission Problems, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russian Federation, 127994.
- A.N. Belozersky Institute of Physico-Chemical Biology Moscow State University, Moscow, Russian Federation, 119991.
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17
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Faber DS, Pereda AE. Two Forms of Electrical Transmission Between Neurons. Front Mol Neurosci 2018; 11:427. [PMID: 30534051 PMCID: PMC6276723 DOI: 10.3389/fnmol.2018.00427] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2018] [Accepted: 11/05/2018] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Electrical signaling is a cardinal feature of the nervous system and endows it with the capability of quickly reacting to changes in the environment. Although synaptic communication between nerve cells is perceived to be mainly chemically mediated, electrical synaptic interactions also occur. Two different strategies are responsible for electrical communication between neurons. One is the consequence of low resistance intercellular pathways, called "gap junctions", for the spread of electrical currents between the interior of two cells. The second occurs in the absence of cell-to-cell contacts and is a consequence of the extracellular electrical fields generated by the electrical activity of neurons. Here, we place present notions about electrical transmission in a historical perspective and contrast the contributions of the two different forms of electrical communication to brain function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Donald S. Faber
- Dominick P. Purpura Department of Neuroscience, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, New York, NY, United States
- Marine Biological Laboratory, Woods Hole, MA, United States
| | - Alberto E. Pereda
- Dominick P. Purpura Department of Neuroscience, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, New York, NY, United States
- Marine Biological Laboratory, Woods Hole, MA, United States
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18
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Güiza J, Barría I, Sáez JC, Vega JL. Innexins: Expression, Regulation, and Functions. Front Physiol 2018; 9:1414. [PMID: 30364195 PMCID: PMC6193117 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2018.01414] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2018] [Accepted: 09/18/2018] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
The innexin (Inx) proteins form gap junction channels and non-junctional channels (named hemichannels) in invertebrates. These channels participate in cellular communication playing a relevant role in several physiological processes. Pioneer studies conducted mainly in worms and flies have shown that innexins participate in embryo development and behavior. However, recent studies have elucidated new functions of innexins in Arthropoda, Nematoda, Annelida, and Cnidaria, such as immune response, and apoptosis. This review describes emerging data of possible new roles of innexins and summarizes the data available to date.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan Güiza
- Laboratorio de Fisiología Experimental, Instituto Antofagasta, Universidad de Antofagasta, Antofagasta, Chile
| | - Iván Barría
- Laboratorio de Fisiología Experimental, Instituto Antofagasta, Universidad de Antofagasta, Antofagasta, Chile
| | - Juan C Sáez
- Departamento de Fisiología, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile.,Instituto de Neurociencias, Centro Interdisciplinario de Neurociencias de Valparaíso, Universidad de Valparaíso, Valparaíso, Chile
| | - José L Vega
- Laboratorio de Fisiología Experimental, Instituto Antofagasta, Universidad de Antofagasta, Antofagasta, Chile
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19
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Oshima A. Structure of an innexin gap junction channel and cryo-EM sample preparation. Microscopy (Oxf) 2018; 66:371-379. [PMID: 29036409 PMCID: PMC6084585 DOI: 10.1093/jmicro/dfx035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2017] [Accepted: 08/31/2017] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Gap junction channels are essential for mediating intercellular communication in most multicellular organisms. Two gene families encode gap junction channels, innexin and connexin. Although the sequence similarity between these two families based on bioinformatics is not conclusively determined, the gap junction channels encoded by these two gene families are structurally and functionally analogous. We recently reported an atomic structure of an invertebrate innexin gap junction channel using single-particle cryo-electron microscopy. Our findings revealed that connexin and innexin families share several structural properties with regard to their monomeric and oligomeric structures, while simultaneously suggesting a diversity of gap junction channels in nature. This review summarizes cutting-edge progress toward determining an innexin gap junction channel structure, as well as essential tips for preparing cryo-electron microscopy samples for high-resolution structural analysis of an innexin gap junction channel.
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Affiliation(s)
- Atsunori Oshima
- Cellular and Structural Physiology Institute (CeSPI), Nagoya University, Furo-cho, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya 464-8601, Japan.,Department of Basic Medicinal Sciences, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Nagoya University, Furo-cho, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya 464-8601, Japan
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20
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Liu L, MacKenzie KR, Putluri N, Maletić-Savatić M, Bellen HJ. The Glia-Neuron Lactate Shuttle and Elevated ROS Promote Lipid Synthesis in Neurons and Lipid Droplet Accumulation in Glia via APOE/D. Cell Metab 2017; 26:719-737.e6. [PMID: 28965825 PMCID: PMC5677551 DOI: 10.1016/j.cmet.2017.08.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 316] [Impact Index Per Article: 45.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2017] [Revised: 06/21/2017] [Accepted: 08/30/2017] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Elevated reactive oxygen species (ROS) induce the formation of lipids in neurons that are transferred to glia, where they form lipid droplets (LDs). We show that glial and neuronal monocarboxylate transporters (MCTs), fatty acid transport proteins (FATPs), and apolipoproteins are critical for glial LD formation. MCTs enable glia to secrete and neurons to absorb lactate, which is converted to pyruvate and acetyl-CoA in neurons. Lactate metabolites provide a substrate for synthesis of fatty acids, which are processed and transferred to glia by FATP and apolipoproteins. In the presence of high ROS, inhibiting lactate transfer or lowering FATP or apolipoprotein levels decreases glial LD accumulation in flies and in primary mouse glial-neuronal cultures. We show that human APOE can substitute for a fly glial apolipoprotein and that APOE4, an Alzheimer's disease susceptibility allele, is impaired in lipid transport and promotes neurodegeneration, providing insights into disease mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucy Liu
- Department of Neuroscience, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Kevin R MacKenzie
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA; Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA; Center for Drug Discovery, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Nagireddy Putluri
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology and Advanced Technology Cor, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Mirjana Maletić-Savatić
- Department of Neuroscience, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA; Department of Pediatrics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA; Jan and Dan Duncan Neurological Research Institute at Texas Children's Hospital, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Hugo J Bellen
- Department of Neuroscience, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA; Jan and Dan Duncan Neurological Research Institute at Texas Children's Hospital, Houston, TX 77030, USA; Department of Molecular and Human Genetics, Baylor College of Medicine, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA; Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA.
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21
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Calkins TL, Piermarini PM. A Blood Meal Enhances Innexin mRNA Expression in the Midgut, Malpighian Tubules, and Ovaries of the Yellow Fever Mosquito Aedes aegypti. INSECTS 2017; 8:insects8040122. [PMID: 29113099 PMCID: PMC5746805 DOI: 10.3390/insects8040122] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2017] [Revised: 10/30/2017] [Accepted: 10/31/2017] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Mosquitoes are vectors of pathogens that cause diseases of medical and veterinary importance. Female mosquitoes transmit these pathogens while taking a blood meal, which most species require to produce eggs. The period after a blood meal is a time of extreme physiological change that requires rapid coordination of specific tissues. Gap junctions (GJ) are intercellular channels that aid in the coordination of cells within tissues via the direct transfer of certain small molecules and ions between cells. Evolutionarily distinct groups of proteins form the gap junctions of vertebrate and invertebrate animals (connexins and innexins, respectively). Aedes aegypti mosquitoes possess six genes encoding innexins: inx1, inx2, inx3, inx4, inx7, and inx8. The goal of this study was to identify potential roles of innexins in the physiology of mosquitoes after a blood meal by using qPCR to quantify their mRNA expression in adult females at 3 h and 24 h post-blood meal (PBM) relative to non-blood-fed controls. We found that at 24 h PBM, expression levels of inx2, inx3, and inx4 mRNAs increased; inx2 was the most highly upregulated innexin in key tissues associated with blood-meal digestion and egg production (i.e., the midgut and ovaries, respectively). However, knocking down inx2 mRNA levels by over 75% via RNA interference had no significant effect on fecundity. Altogether, our results suggest that a blood meal influences the molecular expression of innexins in mosquitoes, but their specific physiological roles remain to be elucidated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Travis L Calkins
- Department of Entomology, Ohio Agricultural Research and Development Center, The Ohio State University, Wooster, OH 44691, USA.
| | - Peter M Piermarini
- Department of Entomology, Ohio Agricultural Research and Development Center, The Ohio State University, Wooster, OH 44691, USA.
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22
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Augustin H, McGourty K, Allen MJ, Madem SK, Adcott J, Kerr F, Wong CT, Vincent A, Godenschwege T, Boucrot E, Partridge L. Reduced insulin signaling maintains electrical transmission in a neural circuit in aging flies. PLoS Biol 2017; 15:e2001655. [PMID: 28902870 PMCID: PMC5597081 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pbio.2001655] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2016] [Accepted: 08/04/2017] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Lowered insulin/insulin-like growth factor (IGF) signaling (IIS) can extend healthy lifespan in worms, flies, and mice, but it can also have adverse effects (the “insulin paradox”). Chronic, moderately lowered IIS rescues age-related decline in neurotransmission through the Drosophila giant fiber system (GFS), a simple escape response neuronal circuit, by increasing targeting of the gap junctional protein innexin shaking-B to gap junctions (GJs). Endosomal recycling of GJs was also stimulated in cultured human cells when IIS was reduced. Furthermore, increasing the activity of the recycling small guanosine triphosphatases (GTPases) Rab4 or Rab11 was sufficient to maintain GJs upon elevated IIS in cultured human cells and in flies, and to rescue age-related loss of GJs and of GFS function. Lowered IIS thus elevates endosomal recycling of GJs in neurons and other cell types, pointing to a cellular mechanism for therapeutic intervention into aging-related neuronal disorders. Insulin and insulin-like growth factors play an important role in the nervous system development and function. Reduced insulin signaling, however, can improve symptoms of neurodegenerative diseases in different model organisms and protect against age-associated decline in neuronal function extending lifespan. Here, we analyze the effects of genetically attenuated insulin signaling on the escape response pathway in the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster. This simple neuronal circuit is dominated by electrical synapses composed of the gap junctional shaking-B protein, which allows for the transfer of electrical impulses between cells. Transmission through the circuit is known to slow down with age. We show that this functional decline is prevented by systemic or circuit-specific suppression of insulin signaling due to the preservation of the number of gap junctional proteins in aging animals. Our experiments in a human cell culture system reveal increased membrane targeting of gap junctional proteins via small proteins Rab4 and Rab11 under reduced insulin conditions. We also find that increasing the level of these recycling-mediating proteins in flies preserves the escape response circuit output in old flies and suggests ways of improving the function of neuronal circuits dominated by electrical synapses during aging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hrvoje Augustin
- Max Planck Institute for Biology of Aging, Köln, Germany
- Institute of Healthy Aging, and Genetics, Evolution, and Environment, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Kieran McGourty
- Department of Structural and Molecular Biology, London, United Kingdom
| | - Marcus J. Allen
- School of Biosciences, University of Kent, Canterbury, Kent, United Kingdom
| | - Sirisha Kudumala Madem
- Department of Biological Sciences, Florida Atlantic University, Jupiter, Florida, United States of America
| | - Jennifer Adcott
- Max Planck Institute for Biology of Aging, Köln, Germany
- Institute of Healthy Aging, and Genetics, Evolution, and Environment, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Fiona Kerr
- Max Planck Institute for Biology of Aging, Köln, Germany
- Institute of Healthy Aging, and Genetics, Evolution, and Environment, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Chi Tung Wong
- Max Planck Institute for Biology of Aging, Köln, Germany
| | - Alec Vincent
- Max Planck Institute for Biology of Aging, Köln, Germany
| | - Tanja Godenschwege
- Department of Biological Sciences, Florida Atlantic University, Jupiter, Florida, United States of America
| | - Emmanuel Boucrot
- Department of Structural and Molecular Biology, London, United Kingdom
| | - Linda Partridge
- Max Planck Institute for Biology of Aging, Köln, Germany
- Institute of Healthy Aging, and Genetics, Evolution, and Environment, University College London, London, United Kingdom
- * E-mail:
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23
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Skerrett IM, Williams JB. A structural and functional comparison of gap junction channels composed of connexins and innexins. Dev Neurobiol 2017; 77:522-547. [PMID: 27582044 PMCID: PMC5412853 DOI: 10.1002/dneu.22447] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2016] [Revised: 08/12/2016] [Accepted: 08/30/2016] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
Methods such as electron microscopy and electrophysiology led to the understanding that gap junctions were dense arrays of channels connecting the intracellular environments within almost all animal tissues. The characteristics of gap junctions were remarkably similar in preparations from phylogenetically diverse animals such as cnidarians and chordates. Although few studies directly compared them, minor differences were noted between gap junctions of vertebrates and invertebrates. For instance, a slightly wider gap was noted between cells of invertebrates and the spacing between invertebrate channels was generally greater. Connexins were identified as the structural component of vertebrate junctions in the 1980s and innexins as the structural component of pre-chordate junctions in the 1990s. Despite a lack of similarity in gene sequence, connexins and innexins are remarkably similar. Innexins and connexins have the same membrane topology and form intercellular channels that play a variety of tissue- and temporally specific roles. Both protein types oligomerize to form large aqueous channels that allow the passage of ions and small metabolites and are regulated by factors such as pH, calcium, and voltage. Much more is currently known about the structure, function, and structure-function relationships of connexins. However, the innexin field is expanding. Greater knowledge of innexin channels will permit more detailed comparisons with their connexin-based counterparts, and provide insight into the ubiquitous yet specific roles of gap junctions. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Develop Neurobiol 77: 522-547, 2017.
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Affiliation(s)
- I Martha Skerrett
- Biology Department, SUNY Buffalo State, 1300 Elmwood Ave, Buffalo, New York, 14222
| | - Jamal B Williams
- Biology Department, SUNY Buffalo State, 1300 Elmwood Ave, Buffalo, New York, 14222
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24
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Palacios-Prado N, Huetteroth W, Pereda AE. Hemichannel composition and electrical synaptic transmission: molecular diversity and its implications for electrical rectification. Front Cell Neurosci 2014; 8:324. [PMID: 25360082 PMCID: PMC4197764 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2014.00324] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2014] [Accepted: 09/26/2014] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Unapposed hemichannels (HCs) formed by hexamers of gap junction proteins are now known to be involved in various cellular processes under both physiological and pathological conditions. On the other hand, less is known regarding how differences in the molecular composition of HCs impact electrical synaptic transmission between neurons when they form intercellular heterotypic gap junctions (GJs). Here we review data indicating that molecular differences between apposed HCs at electrical synapses are generally associated with rectification of electrical transmission. Furthermore, this association has been observed at both innexin and connexin (Cx) based electrical synapses. We discuss the possible molecular mechanisms underlying electrical rectification, as well as the potential contribution of intracellular soluble factors to this phenomenon. We conclude that asymmetries in molecular composition and sensitivity to cellular factors of each contributing hemichannel can profoundly influence the transmission of electrical signals, endowing electrical synapses with more complex functional properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicolás Palacios-Prado
- Dominick P. Purpura Department of Neuroscience, Albert Einstein College of Medicine Bronx, NY, USA ; Marine Biological Laboratory, Woods Hole Massachusetts, MA, USA
| | - Wolf Huetteroth
- Marine Biological Laboratory, Woods Hole Massachusetts, MA, USA ; Department of Neurobiology, University of Konstanz Konstanz, Germany
| | - Alberto E Pereda
- Dominick P. Purpura Department of Neuroscience, Albert Einstein College of Medicine Bronx, NY, USA ; Marine Biological Laboratory, Woods Hole Massachusetts, MA, USA
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25
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Sangaletti R, Dahl G, Bianchi L. Mechanosensitive unpaired innexin channels in C. elegans touch neurons. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol 2014; 307:C966-77. [PMID: 25252948 DOI: 10.1152/ajpcell.00246.2014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
Invertebrate innexin proteins share sequence homology with vertebrate pannexins and general membrane topology with both pannexins and connexins. While connexins form gap junctions that mediate intercellular communication, pannexins are thought to function exclusively as plasma membrane channels permeable to both ions and small molecules. Undoubtedly, certain innexins function as gap junction proteins. However, due to sequence similarity to pannexins, it was postulated that innexins also function as plasma membrane channels. Indeed, some of the leech innexins were found to mediate ATP release as unpaired membrane channels with shared pharmacology to pannexin channels. We show here that Caenorhabditis elegans touch-sensing neurons express a mechanically gated innexin channel with a conductance of ∼1 nS and voltage-dependent and K(+)-selective subconductance state. We also show that C. elegans touch neurons take up ethidium bromide through a mechanism that is activated and blocked by innexin activating stimuli and inhibitors, respectively. Finally, we present evidence that touch neurons' innexins are required for cell death induced by chemical ischemia. Our work demonstrates that innexins function as plasma membrane channels in native C. elegans neurons, where they may play a role in pathological cell death.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachele Sangaletti
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, University of Miami, Miller School of Medicine, Miami, Florida
| | - Gerhard Dahl
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, University of Miami, Miller School of Medicine, Miami, Florida
| | - Laura Bianchi
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, University of Miami, Miller School of Medicine, Miami, Florida
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26
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Hasegawa DK, Turnbull MW. Recent findings in evolution and function of insect innexins. FEBS Lett 2014; 588:1403-10. [DOI: 10.1016/j.febslet.2014.03.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2014] [Revised: 03/03/2014] [Accepted: 03/04/2014] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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27
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Abstract
The pannexins (Panxs) are a family of chordate proteins homologous to the invertebrate gap junction forming proteins named innexins. Three distinct Panx paralogs (Panx1, Panx2, and Panx3) are shared among the major vertebrate phyla, but they appear to have suppressed (or even lost) their ability to directly couple adjacent cells. Connecting the intracellular and extracellular compartments is now widely accepted as Panx's primary function, facilitating the passive movement of ions and small molecules along electrochemical gradients. The tissue distribution of the Panxs ranges from pervasive to very restricted, depending on the paralog, and are often cell type-specific and/or developmentally regulated within any given tissue. In recent years, Panxs have been implicated in an assortment of physiological and pathophysiological processes, particularly with respect to ATP signaling and inflammation, and they are now considered to be a major player in extracellular purinergic communication. The following is a comprehensive review of the Panx literature, exploring the historical events leading up to their discovery, outlining our current understanding of their biochemistry, and describing the importance of these proteins in health and disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen R Bond
- Genome Technology Branch, Division of Intramural Research, National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health Bethesda, MD, USA ; Department of Cellular and Physiological Science, Life Sciences Institute, University of British Columbia Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Christian C Naus
- Department of Cellular and Physiological Science, Life Sciences Institute, University of British Columbia Vancouver, BC, Canada
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28
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Takaku Y, Hwang JS, Wolf A, Böttger A, Shimizu H, David CN, Gojobori T. Innexin gap junctions in nerve cells coordinate spontaneous contractile behavior in Hydra polyps. Sci Rep 2014; 4:3573. [PMID: 24394722 PMCID: PMC3882753 DOI: 10.1038/srep03573] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2013] [Accepted: 12/04/2013] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Nerve cells and spontaneous coordinated behavior first appeared near the base of animal evolution in the common ancestor of cnidarians and bilaterians. Experiments on the cnidarian Hydra have demonstrated that nerve cells are essential for this behavior, although nerve cells in Hydra are organized in a diffuse network and do not form ganglia. Here we show that the gap junction protein innexin-2 is expressed in a small group of nerve cells in the lower body column of Hydra and that an anti-innexin-2 antibody binds to gap junctions in the same region. Treatment of live animals with innexin-2 antibody eliminates gap junction staining and reduces spontaneous body column contractions. We conclude that a small subset of nerve cells, connected by gap junctions and capable of synchronous firing, act as a pacemaker to coordinate the contraction of the body column in the absence of ganglia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yasuharu Takaku
- Hamamatsu University School of Medicine, Department of Biology, 1-20-1 Handayama, Higashi-ku, Hamamatsu, 431-3192, Japan
- These authors contributed equally to this work
| | - Jung Shan Hwang
- Center for Information Biology-DNA Data Bank of Japan, National Institute of Genetics, Mishima 411-8540, Japan
- These authors contributed equally to this work
| | - Alexander Wolf
- Helmholtz Zentrum München - German Research Center of Environmental Health, Institute of Molecular Toxicology and Pharmacology, Ingolstädter Landstr. 1, 85764 Neuherberg, Germany
- These authors contributed equally to this work
| | - Angelika Böttger
- Department Biologie II, Ludwig Maximilians University, Munich 80539, Germany
| | - Hiroshi Shimizu
- Department of Developmental Genetics, National Institute of Genetics, Mishima 411-8540, Japan
| | - Charles N. David
- Department Biologie II, Ludwig Maximilians University, Munich 80539, Germany
| | - Takashi Gojobori
- Biological and Environmental Science and Engineering Division and Computational Bioscience Research Center, KAUST, Thuwal 23955-6900, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
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29
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Marks WD, Skerrett IM. Role of amino terminus in voltage gating and junctional rectification of Shaking B innexins. J Neurophysiol 2013; 111:1383-95. [PMID: 24381032 DOI: 10.1152/jn.00385.2013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Rectifying electrical synapses are rare gap junctions that favor transmission of signals in one direction. Such synapses have been identified in neural systems, including those mediating rapid escape responses of arthropods. In the Drosophila giant fiber system, adjacent cells express and contribute different transcript variants of the innexin Shaking B, resulting in heterotypic gap junctions with rectifying properties. When expressed exogenously, variants Shaking B Lethal (ShakBL) and Shaking B neural + 16 (ShakBN16) form heterotypic junctions that gate asymmetrically in response to transjunctional voltage. To determine whether the amino terminus confers properties of gating and rectification, amino-terminal domains were exchanged between ShakBL and ShakBN16, creating chimeric proteins SBL NTN16 and SBN16 NTL. The properties were analyzed in paired Xenopus oocytes. Our results suggest that the amino terminus plays an important role in establishing rectifying properties inherent to heterotypic junctions composed of ShakBL and ShakBN16. ShakBL/SBL NTN16 junctions behaved similarly to ShakBL/ShakBN16 junctions, gating in response to transjunctional voltage of one polarity and inducing a highly asymmetric conductance-voltage relationship. However, the amino terminus did not act independently to confer sensitivity to transjunctional voltage. The complementary pairing ShakBN16/SBN16 NTL displayed little sensitivity to voltage of either polarity, and in homotypic pairings SBL NTN16 was strongly gated by transjunctional voltage. We propose a model in which the amino terminus induces gating only when matched with an accommodating innexin body.
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Affiliation(s)
- William D Marks
- Biology Department, State University of New York, Buffalo State, Buffalo, New York; and
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Giuliani F, Giuliani G, Bauer R, Rabouille C. Innexin 3, a new gene required for dorsal closure in Drosophila embryo. PLoS One 2013; 8:e69212. [PMID: 23894431 PMCID: PMC3722180 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0069212] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2012] [Accepted: 06/10/2013] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Dorsal closure is a morphogenetic event that occurs during mid-embryogenesis in many insects including Drosophila, during which the ectoderm migrates on the extraembryonic amnioserosa to seal the embryo dorsally. The contribution of the ectoderm in this event has been known for a long time. However, amnioserosa tension and contractibility have recently been shown also to be instrumental to the closure. A critical pre-requisite for dorsal closure is integrity of these tissues that in part is mediated by cell-cell junctions and cell adhesion. In this regard, mutations impairing junction formation and/or adhesion lead to dorsal closure. However, no role for the gap junction proteins Innexins has so far been described. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Here, we show that Innexin 1, 2 and 3, are present in the ectoderm but also in the amnioserosa in plaques consistent with gap junctions. However, only the loss of Inx3 leads to dorsal closure defects that are completely rescued by overexpression of inx3::GFP in the whole embryo. Loss of Inx3 leads to the destabilisation of Inx1, Inx2 and DE-cadherin at the plasma membrane, suggesting that these four proteins form a complex. Accordingly, in addition to the known interaction of Inx2 with DE-cadherin, we show that Inx3 can bind to DE-cadherin. Furthermore, Inx3-GFP overexpression recruits DE-cadherin from its wildtype plasma membrane domain to typical Innexin plaques, strengthening the notion that they form a complex. Finally, we show that Inx3 stability is directly dependent on tissue tension. Taken together, we propose that Inx3 is a critical factor for dorsal closure and that it mediates the stability of Inx1, 2 and DE-cadherin by forming a complex.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fabrizio Giuliani
- Hubrecht Institute for Developmental Biology and Stem Cell Research, Utrecht, The Netherlands
- UMC Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Giuliano Giuliani
- Hubrecht Institute for Developmental Biology and Stem Cell Research, Utrecht, The Netherlands
- UMC Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Reinhard Bauer
- LIMES-Institute, Program Unit Development, Genetics and Molecular Physiology, Laboratory for Molecular Developmental Biology, University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany
| | - Catherine Rabouille
- Hubrecht Institute for Developmental Biology and Stem Cell Research, Utrecht, The Netherlands
- UMC Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands
- Department of Cell Biology, UMC Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands
- * E-mail:
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Holcroft CE, Jackson WD, Lin WH, Bassiri K, Baines RA, Phelan P. Innexins Ogre and Inx2 are required in glial cells for normal postembryonic development of the Drosophila central nervous system. J Cell Sci 2013; 126:3823-34. [PMID: 23813964 DOI: 10.1242/jcs.117994] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Innexins are one of two gene families that have evolved to permit neighbouring cells in multicellular systems to communicate directly. Innexins are found in prechordates and persist in small numbers in chordates as divergent sequences termed pannexins. Connexins are functionally analogous proteins exclusive to chordates. Members of these two families of proteins form intercellular channels, assemblies of which constitute gap junctions. Each intercellular channel is a composite of two hemichannels, one from each of two apposed cells. Hemichannels dock in the extracellular space to form a complete channel with a central aqueous pore that regulates the cell-cell exchange of ions and small signalling molecules. Hemichannels can also act independently by releasing paracrine signalling molecules. optic ganglion reduced (ogre) is a member of the Drosophila innexin family, originally identified as a gene essential for postembryonic neurogenesis. Here we demonstrate, by heterologous expression in paired Xenopus oocytes, that Ogre alone does not form homotypic gap-junction channels; however, co-expression of Ogre with Innexin2 (Inx2) induces formation of functional channels with properties distinct from Inx2 homotypic channels. In the Drosophila larval central nervous system, we find that Inx2 partially colocalises with Ogre in proliferative neuroepithelia and in glial cells. Downregulation of either ogre or inx2 selectively in glia, by targeted expression of RNA interference transgenes, leads to a significant reduction in the size of the larval nervous system and behavioural defects in surviving adults. We conclude that these innexins are crucially required in glial cells for normal postembryonic development of the central nervous system.
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Mourão CBF, Heghinian MD, Barbosa EA, Marí F, Bloch C, Restano-Cassulini R, Possani LD, Schwartz EF. Characterization of a Novel Peptide Toxin from Acanthoscurria paulensis Spider Venom: A Distinct Cysteine Assignment to the HWTX-II Family. Biochemistry 2013; 52:2440-52. [DOI: 10.1021/bi4000035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Caroline B. F. Mourão
- Laboratório de Toxinologia,
Departamento de Ciências Fisiológicas, Universidade de Brasília, Brasília, DF
70910-900, Brazil
| | - Mari D. Heghinian
- Department
of Chemistry and
Biochemistry, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, Florida 33431, United States
| | - Eder A. Barbosa
- EMBRAPA Recursos Genéticos e Biotecnologia, Brasília, DF,
Brazil
| | - Frank Marí
- Department
of Chemistry and
Biochemistry, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, Florida 33431, United States
| | - Carlos Bloch
- EMBRAPA Recursos Genéticos e Biotecnologia, Brasília, DF,
Brazil
| | - Rita Restano-Cassulini
- Instituto de Biotecnología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Avenida Universidad, 2001, Apartado Postal 510-3, Cuernavaca, 62210
Morelos, Mexico
| | - Lourival D. Possani
- Instituto de Biotecnología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Avenida Universidad, 2001, Apartado Postal 510-3, Cuernavaca, 62210
Morelos, Mexico
| | - Elisabeth F. Schwartz
- Laboratório de Toxinologia,
Departamento de Ciências Fisiológicas, Universidade de Brasília, Brasília, DF
70910-900, Brazil
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Oshima A, Matsuzawa T, Nishikawa K, Fujiyoshi Y. Oligomeric structure and functional characterization of Caenorhabditis elegans Innexin-6 gap junction protein. J Biol Chem 2013; 288:10513-21. [PMID: 23460640 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m112.428383] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Innexin is the molecular component of invertebrate gap junctions. Here we successfully expressed and purified Caenorhabditis elegans innexin-6 (INX-6) gap junction channels and characterized the molecular dimensions and channel permeability using electron microscopy (EM) and microinjection of fluorescent dye tracers, respectively. Negative staining and thin-section EM of isolated INX-6 gap junction membranes revealed a loosely packed hexagonal lattice and a greater cross-sectional width than that of connexin26 and connexin43 (Cx43)-GFP. In gel filtration analysis, the elution profile of purified INX-6 channels in dodecyl maltoside solution exhibited a peak at ∼400 kDa that was shifted to ∼800 kDa in octyl glucose neopentyl glycol. We also obtained the class averages of purified INX-6 channels from these peak fractions by single particle analysis. The class average from the ∼800-kDa fraction showed features of the junction form with a longitudinal height of 220 Å, a channel diameter of 110 Å in the absence of detergent micelles, and an extracellular gap space of 60 Å, whereas the class averages from the ∼400-kDa fraction showed diameters of up to 140 Å in the presence of detergent micelles. These findings indicate that the purified INX-6 channels are predominantly hemichannels in dodecyl maltoside and docked junction channels in octyl glucose neopentyl glycol. Dye transfer experiments revealed that the INX-6-GFP-His channels are permeable to 3- and 10-kDa tracers, whereas no significant amounts of these tracers passed through the Cx43-GFP channels. Based on these findings, INX-6 channels have a larger overall structure and greater permeability than connexin channels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Atsunori Oshima
- Cellular and Structural Physiology Institute (CeSPI), Nagoya University, Furo-cho, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya 464-8601, Japan.
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Bloemendal S, Kück U. Cell-to-cell communication in plants, animals, and fungi: a comparative review. Naturwissenschaften 2012; 100:3-19. [PMID: 23128987 DOI: 10.1007/s00114-012-0988-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2012] [Revised: 10/22/2012] [Accepted: 10/25/2012] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Cell-to-cell communication is a prerequisite for differentiation and development in multicellular organisms. This communication has to be tightly regulated to ensure that cellular components such as organelles, macromolecules, hormones, or viruses leave the cell in a precisely organized way. During evolution, plants, animals, and fungi have developed similar ways of responding to this biological challenge. For example, in higher plants, plasmodesmata connect adjacent cells and allow communication to regulate differentiation and development. In animals, two main general structures that enable short- and long-range intercellular communication are known, namely gap junctions and tunneling nanotubes, respectively. Finally, filamentous fungi have also developed specialized structures called septal pores that allow intercellular communication via cytoplasmic flow. This review summarizes the underlying mechanisms for intercellular communication in these three eukaryotic groups and discusses its consequences for the regulation of differentiation and developmental processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandra Bloemendal
- Lehrstuhl für Allgemeine und Molekulare Botanik, Ruhr-Universität Bochum, ND7/131, Universitätsstraße 150, Bochum, 44780, Germany
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Wilson RA. The cell biology of schistosomes: a window on the evolution of the early metazoa. PROTOPLASMA 2012; 249:503-518. [PMID: 21976269 DOI: 10.1007/s00709-011-0326-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2011] [Accepted: 09/26/2011] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
This review of schistosome cell biology has a dual purpose; its intent is to alert two separate research communities to the activities of the other. Schistosomes are by far and away the best-characterised platyhelminths, due to their medical and economic importance, but seem to be almost totally ignored by researchers on the free-living lower metazoans. Equally, in their enthusiasm for the parasitic way of life, schistosome researchers seldom pay attention to the work on free-living animals that could inform their molecular investigations. The publication of transcriptomes and/or genomes for Schistosoma mansoni and Schistosoma japonicum, the sponge Archimedon, the cnidarians Nematostella and Hydra and the planarian Schmidtea provide the raw material for comparisons. Apart from interrogation of the databases for molecular similarities, there have been differences in technical approach to these lower metazoans; widespread application of whole mount in situ hybridisation to Schmidtea contrasts with the application of targeted proteomics to schistosomes. Using schistosome cell biology as the template, the key topics of cell adhesion, development, signalling pathways, nerve and muscle, and epithelia, are reviewed, where possible interspersing comparisons with the sponge, cnidarian and planarian data. The biggest jump in the evolution of cellular capabilities appears to be in the transition from a diploblast to triploblast level of organisation associated with development of a mobile and plastic body form.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Alan Wilson
- Centre for Immunology and Infection, Department of Biology, University of York, York YO10 5DD, UK.
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Depriest A, Phelan P, Martha Skerrett I. Tryptophan scanning mutagenesis of the first transmembrane domain of the innexin Shaking-B(Lethal). Biophys J 2011; 101:2408-16. [PMID: 22098739 DOI: 10.1016/j.bpj.2011.10.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2011] [Revised: 10/03/2011] [Accepted: 10/06/2011] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
The channel proteins of gap junctions are encoded by two distinct gene families, connexins, which are exclusive to chordates, and innexins/pannexins, which are found throughout the animal kingdom. Although the relationship between the primary structure and function of the vertebrate connexins has been relatively well studied, there are, to our knowledge, no structure-function analyses of invertebrate innexins. In the first such study, we have used tryptophan scanning to probe the first transmembrane domain (M1) of the Drosophila innexin Shaking-B(Lethal), which is a component of rectifying electrical synapses in the Giant Fiber escape neural circuit. Tryptophan was substituted sequentially for 16 amino acids within M1 of Shaking-B(Lethal). Tryptophan insertion at every fourth residue (H27, T31, L35, and S39) disrupted gap junction function. The distribution of these sites is consistent with helical secondary structure and identifies the face of M1 involved in helix-helix interactions. Tryptophan substitution at several sites in M1 altered channel properties in a variety of ways. Changes in sensitivity to transjunctional voltage (Vj) were common and one mutation (S39W) induced sensitivity to transmembrane voltage (Vm). In addition, several mutations induced hemichannel activity. These changes are similar to those observed after substitutions within the transmembrane domains of connexins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam Depriest
- Biology Department, Buffalo State College, Buffalo, New York, USA
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Abstract
Polydnaviruses are double-stranded DNA viruses associated with some subfamilies of ichneumonoid parasitoid wasps. Polydnavirus virions are delivered during wasp parasitization of a host, and virus gene expression in the host induces alterations of host physiology. Infection of susceptible host caterpillars by the polydnavirus Campoletis sonorensis ichnovirus (CsIV) leads to expression of virus genes, resulting in immune and developmental disruptions. CsIV carries four homologues of insect gap junction genes (innexins) termed vinnexins, which are expressed in multiple tissues of infected caterpillars. Previously, we demonstrated that two of these, VinnexinD and VinnexinG, form functional gap junctions in paired Xenopus oocytes. Here we show that VinnexinQ1 and VinnexinQ2, likewise, form junctions in this heterologous system. Moreover, we demonstrate that the vinnexins interact differentially with the Innexin2 orthologue of an ichnovirus host, Spodoptera frugiperda. Cell pairs coexpressing a vinnexin and Innexin2 or pairs in which one cell expresses a vinnexin and the neighboring cell Innexin2 assemble functional junctions with properties that differ from those of junctions composed of Innexin2 alone. These data suggest that altered gap junctional intercellular communication may underlie certain cellular pathologies associated with ichnovirus infection of caterpillar hosts.
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Luo K, Turnbull MW. Characterization of nonjunctional hemichannels in caterpillar cells. JOURNAL OF INSECT SCIENCE (ONLINE) 2011; 11:6. [PMID: 21521140 PMCID: PMC3281302 DOI: 10.1673/031.011.0106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2010] [Accepted: 12/08/2010] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
Recent studies have demonstrated that hemichannels, which form gap junctions when paired from apposing cells, may serve additional roles when unpaired including cell adhesion and paracrine communication. Hemichannels in mammals are formed by connexins or pannexins, while in insects they are formed by pannexin homologues termed innexins. The formation of functional gap junctions by insect innexins has been established, although their ability to form functional nonjunctional hemichannels has not been reported. Here the characteristics of nonjunctional hemichannels were examined in three lepidopteran cell types, two cell lines (High Five and Sf9) and explanted hemocytes from Heliothis virescens (Fabricius) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae). Selective fluorescent dye uptake by hemichannels was observed in a significant minority of cells, using fluorescence microscopy and flow cytometry. Carbenoxelone, an inhibitor of mammalian junctions, disrupted dye uptake, while flufenamic acid and mefloquine did not. The presence of Ca(2+) and Mg(2+) in the media increased hemichannel activity. Additionally, lipopolysaccharide, a stimulator of immune activity in lepidopterans, decreased dye uptake. These results demonstrate for the first time the activity of nonjunctional hemichannels in insect cells, as well as pharmacological tools to manipulate them. These results will facilitate the further examination of the role of innexins and nonjunctional hemichannels in insect cell biology, including paracrine signaling, and comparative studies of mammalian pannexins and insect innexins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kaijun Luo
- Current Address: School of Life Sciences, Yunnan University, Kunming, Yunnan 650091, China
| | - Matthew W. Turnbull
- Department of Entomology, Soils, and Plant Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, South Carolina 29634-03 15, USA
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Spray DC, Suadicani SO, Srinivas M, Gutstein DE, Fishman GI. Gap Junctions in the Cardiovascular System. Compr Physiol 2011. [DOI: 10.1002/cphy.cp020104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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Parker L, Howlett IC, Rusan ZM, Tanouye MA. Seizure and epilepsy: studies of seizure disorders in Drosophila. INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF NEUROBIOLOGY 2011; 99:1-21. [PMID: 21906534 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-387003-2.00001-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/04/2022]
Abstract
Despite the frequency of seizure disorders in the human population, the genetic and physiological basis for these defects has been difficult to resolve. Although many genetic contributions to seizure susceptibility have been identified, these involve disparate biological processes, many of which are not neural specific. The large number and heterogeneous nature of the genes involved makes it difficult to understand the complex factors underlying the etiology of seizure disorders. Examining the effect known genetic mutations have on seizure susceptibility is one approach that may prove fruitful. This approach may be helpful in both understanding how different physiological processes affect seizure susceptibility and identifying novel therapeutic treatments. We review here factors contributing to seizure susceptibility in Drosophila, a genetically tractable system that provides a model for human seizure disorders. Seizure-like neuronal activities and behaviors in the fruit fly are described, as well as a set of mutations that exhibit features resembling some human epilepsies and render the fly sensitive to seizures. Especially interesting are descriptions of a novel class of mutations that are second-site mutations that act as seizure suppressors. These mutations revert epilepsy phenotypes back to the wild-type range of seizure susceptibility. The genes responsible for seizure suppression are cloned with the goal of identifying targets for lead compounds that may be developed into new antiepileptic drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Louise Parker
- Department of Environmental Science, Policy and Management, Helen Wills Neuroscience Institute, 131 Life Sciences Addition, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
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Mejia M, Heghinian MD, Busch A, Armishaw CJ, Marí F, Godenschwege TA. A novel approach for in vivo screening of toxins using the Drosophila Giant Fiber circuit. Toxicon 2010; 56:1398-407. [PMID: 20723555 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2010.08.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2010] [Revised: 08/09/2010] [Accepted: 08/11/2010] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Finding compounds that affect neuronal or muscular function is of great interest as potential therapeutic agents for a variety of neurological disorders. Alternative applications for these compounds include their use as molecular probes as well as insecticides. We have developed a bioassay that requires small amounts of compounds and allows for unbiased screening of biological activity in vivo. For this, we paired administering compounds in a non-invasive manner with simultaneous electrophysiological recordings from a well-characterized neuronal circuit, the Giant Fiber System of Drosophila melanogaster, which mediates the escape response of the fly. The circuit encompasses a variety of neurons with cholinergic, glutamatergic, and electrical synapses as well as neuromuscular junctions. Electrophysiological recordings from this system allow for the detection of compound-related effects against any molecular target on these components. Here, we provide evidence that this novel bioassay works with small molecules such as the cholinergic receptor blocker mecamylamine hydrochloride and the potassium channel blocker tetraethylammonium hydroxide, as well as with venom from Conus brunneus and isolated conopeptides. Conopeptides have been developed into powerful drugs, such as the painkillers Prialt™ and Xen2174. However, most conopeptides have yet to be characterized, revealing the need for a rapid and straightforward screening method. Our findings show that mecamylamine hydrochloride, as well as the α-conotoxin ImI, which is known to be an antagonist of the human α7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor, efficiently disrupted the synaptic transmission of a Drosophila α7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor-dependent pathway in our circuit but did not affect the function of neurons with other types of synapses. This demonstrates that our bioassay is a valid tool for screening for compounds relevant to human health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Monica Mejia
- Department of Biological Sciences, Florida Atlantic University, 777 Glades Road, Boca Raton, FL 33431, USA
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Abstract
In a genetic screen for active zone defective mutants in Caenorhabditis elegans, we isolated a loss-of-function allele of unc-7, a gene encoding an innexin/pannexin family gap junction protein. Innexin UNC-7 regulates the size and distribution of active zones at C. elegans neuromuscular junctions. Loss-of-function mutations in another innexin, UNC-9, cause similar active zone defects as unc-7 mutants. In addition to presumptive gap junction localizations, both UNC-7 and UNC-9 are also localized perisynaptically throughout development and required in presynaptic neurons to regulate active zone differentiation. Our mosaic analyses, electron microscopy, as well as expression studies suggest a novel and likely nonjunctional role of specific innexins in active zone differentiation in addition to gap junction formations.
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Starich TA, Xu J, Skerrett IM, Nicholson BJ, Shaw JE. Interactions between innexins UNC-7 and UNC-9 mediate electrical synapse specificity in the Caenorhabditis elegans locomotory nervous system. Neural Dev 2009; 4:16. [PMID: 19432959 PMCID: PMC2694797 DOI: 10.1186/1749-8104-4-16] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2008] [Accepted: 05/11/2009] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Approximately 10% of Caenorhabditis elegans nervous system synapses are electrical, that is, gap junctions composed of innexins. The locomotory nervous system consists of several pairs of interneurons and three major classes of motor neurons, all with stereotypical patterns of connectivity that include gap junctions. Mutations in the two innexin genes unc-7 and unc-9 result in identical uncoordinated movement phenotypes, and their respective gene products were investigated for their contribution to electrical synapse connectivity. Results unc-7 encodes three innexin isoforms. Two of these, UNC-7S and UNC-7SR, are functionally equivalent and play an essential role in coordinated locomotion. UNC-7S and UNC-7SR are widely expressed and co-localize extensively with green fluorescent protein-tagged innexin UNC-9 in the ventral and dorsal nerve cords. A subset of UNC-7S/SR expression visualizes gap junctions formed between the AVB forward command interneurons and their B class motor neuron partners. Experiments indicate that expression of UNC-7S/SR in AVB and expression of UNC-9 in B motor neurons is necessary for these gap junctions to form. In Xenopus oocyte pairs, both UNC-7S and UNC-9 form homomeric gap junctions, and together they form heterotypic channels. Xenopus oocyte studies and co-localization studies in C. elegans suggest that UNC-7S and UNC-9 do not heteromerize in the same hemichannel, leading to the model that hemichannels in AVB:B motor neuron gap junctions are homomeric and heterotypic. Conclusion UNC-7S and UNC-9 are widely expressed and contribute to a large number of the gap junctions identified in the locomotory nervous system. Proper AVB:B gap junction formation requires UNC-7S expression in AVB interneurons and UNC-9 expression in B motor neurons. More broadly, this illustrates that innexin identity is critical for electrical synapse specificity, but differential (compartmentalized) innexin expression cannot account for all of the specificity seen in C. elegans, and other factors must influence the determination of synaptic partners.
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Affiliation(s)
- Todd A Starich
- Department of Genetics, Cell Biology and Development, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55406, USA.
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Anava S, Rand D, Zilberstein Y, Ayali A. Innexin genes and gap junction proteins in the locust frontal ganglion. INSECT BIOCHEMISTRY AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2009; 39:224-233. [PMID: 19124078 DOI: 10.1016/j.ibmb.2008.12.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2008] [Revised: 11/13/2008] [Accepted: 12/01/2008] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Gap junctions (GJs) belong to one of the most conserved cellular structures in multicellular organisms. They probably serve similar functions in all Metazoa, providing one of the most common forms of intercellular communication. GJs are widely distributed in embryonic cells and tissues and have been attributed an important role in development, modulating cell growth and differentiation. These channels have been also implicated in mediating electrical synaptic signaling; Coupling through GJs is now accepted as a major pathway that supports network behavior and contributes to physiological rhythms. Here we focus on the physiology and molecular biology of GJs in a recently established model for the study of rhythm-generating networks and their role in behavior: the frontal ganglion (FG) of the desert locust, Schistocerca gregaria. Four novel genes of the invertebrate GJs (innexin) gene family were found to be expressed in the FG: Sg-inx1, Sg-inx2, Sg-inx3 and Sg-inx4. Immunohistochemistry revealed that some of the neurons in the FG express at least one innexin protein, INX1. We also established the presence of functional gap junction proteins in the FG and demonstrated functional electrical coupling between the neurons in the FG. This study forms the basis for further investigation of the role of GJs in network development and behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarit Anava
- Department of Zoology, Faculty of Life Sciences, Tel-Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
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Phelan P, Goulding LA, Tam JLY, Allen MJ, Dawber RJ, Davies JA, Bacon JP. Molecular mechanism of rectification at identified electrical synapses in the Drosophila giant fiber system. Curr Biol 2008; 18:1955-60. [PMID: 19084406 PMCID: PMC2663713 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2008.10.067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 96] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2008] [Accepted: 10/28/2008] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Electrical synapses are neuronal gap junctions that mediate fast transmission in many neural circuits [1–5]. The structural proteins of gap junctions are the products of two multigene families. Connexins are unique to chordates [3–5]; innexins/pannexins encode gap-junction proteins in prechordates and chordates [6–10]. A concentric array of six protein subunits constitutes a hemichannel; electrical synapses result from the docking of hemichannels in pre- and postsynaptic neurons. Some electrical synapses are bidirectional; others are rectifying junctions that preferentially transmit depolarizing current anterogradely [11, 12]. The phenomenon of rectification was first described five decades ago [1], but the molecular mechanism has not been elucidated. Here, we demonstrate that putative rectifying electrical synapses in the Drosophila Giant Fiber System [13] are assembled from two products of the innexin gene shaking-B. Shaking-B(Neural+16) [14] is required presynaptically in the Giant Fiber to couple this cell to its postsynaptic targets that express Shaking-B(Lethal) [15]. When expressed in vitro in neighboring cells, Shaking-B(Neural+16) and Shaking-B(Lethal) form heterotypic channels that are asymmetrically gated by voltage and exhibit classical rectification. These data provide the most definitive evidence to date that rectification is achieved by differential regulation of the pre- and postsynaptic elements of structurally asymmetric junctions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pauline Phelan
- Department of Biosciences, University of Kent, Canterbury, UK.
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Bohrmann J, Zimmermann J. Gap junctions in the ovary of Drosophila melanogaster: localization of innexins 1, 2, 3 and 4 and evidence for intercellular communication via innexin-2 containing channels. BMC DEVELOPMENTAL BIOLOGY 2008; 8:111. [PMID: 19038051 PMCID: PMC2631599 DOI: 10.1186/1471-213x-8-111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2008] [Accepted: 11/27/2008] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Background In the Drosophila ovary, germ-line and soma cells are interconnected via gap junctions. The main gap-junction proteins in invertebrates are members of the innexin family. In order to reveal the role that innexins play in cell-cell communication during oogenesis, we investigated the localization of innexins 1, 2, 3 and 4 using immunohistochemistry, and analyzed follicle development following channel blockade. Results We found innexin 1 predominantly localized to the baso-lateral domain of follicle cells, whereas innexin 2 is positioned apico-laterally as well as apically between follicle cells and germ-line cells. Innexin 3 was observed laterally in follicle cells and also in nurse cells, and innexin 4 was detected in the oolemma up to stage 8 and in nurse-cell membranes up to stage 12. In order to test whether innexins form channels suitable for intercellular communication, we microinjected innexin antibodies in combination with a fluorescent tracer into the oocyte of stage-10 follicles. We found that dye-coupling between oocyte and follicle cells was largely reduced by innexin-2 antibodies directed against the intracellular C-terminus as well as against the intracellular loop. Analyzing in vitro, between stages 10 and 14, the developmental capacities of follicles following microinjections of innexin-2 antibodies revealed defects in follicle-cell differentiation, nurse-cell regression, oocyte growth and choriogenesis. Conclusion Our results suggest that all analyzed innexins are involved in the formation of gap junctions in the ovary. While innexins 2 and 3 are colocalized between soma cells, innexins 2 and 4 are colocalized between soma and germ-line cells. Innexin 2 is participating in cell-cell communication via hemichannels residing in the oolemma. It is obvious that gap-junctional communication between germ-line and soma cells is essential for several processes during oogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johannes Bohrmann
- RWTH Aachen University, Institut für Biologie II, Abt. Zoologie und Humanbiologie, Kopernikusstrasse 16, 52056 Aachen, Germany.
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Abstract
In vertebrates, a family of related proteins called connexins form gap junctions (GJs), which are intercellular channels. In the central nervous system (CNS), GJs couple oligodendrocytes and astrocytes (O/A junctions) and adjacent astrocytes (A/A junctions), but not adjacent oligodendrocytes, forming a "glial syncytium." Oligodendrocytes and astrocytes each express different connexins. Mutations of these connexin genes demonstrate that the proper functioning of myelin and oligodendrocytes requires the expression of these connexins. The physiological function of O/A and A/A junctions, however, remains to be illuminated.
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Bao L, Samuels S, Locovei S, Macagno ER, Muller KJ, Dahl G. Innexins form two types of channels. FEBS Lett 2007; 581:5703-8. [PMID: 18035059 DOI: 10.1016/j.febslet.2007.11.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2007] [Revised: 11/07/2007] [Accepted: 11/09/2007] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Injury to the central nervous system triggers glial calcium waves in both vertebrates and invertebrates. In vertebrates the pannexin1 ATP-release channel appears to provide for calcium wave initiation and propagation. The innexins, which form invertebrate gap junctions and have sequence similarity with the pannexins, are candidates to form non-junctional membrane channels. Two leech innexins previously demonstrated in glia were expressed in frog oocytes. In addition to making gap junctions, innexins also formed non-junctional membrane channels with properties similar to those of pannexons. In addition, carbenoxolone reversibly blocked the loss of carboxyfluorescein dye into the bath from the giant glial cells in the connectives of the leech nerve cord, which are known to express the innexins we assayed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li Bao
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, University of Miami, School of Medicine, Miami, FL 33136, USA
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Allen MJ, Murphey RK. The chemical component of the mixed GF-TTMn synapse in Drosophila melanogaster uses acetylcholine as its neurotransmitter. Eur J Neurosci 2007; 26:439-45. [PMID: 17650116 PMCID: PMC1974813 DOI: 10.1111/j.1460-9568.2007.05686.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The largest central synapse in adult Drosophila is a mixed electro-chemical synapse whose gap junctions require the product of the shaking-B (shak-B) gene. Shak-B2 mutant flies lack gap junctions at this synapse, which is between the giant fibre (GF) and the tergotrochanteral motor neuron (TTMn), but it still exhibits a long latency response upon GF stimulation. We have targeted the expression of the light chain of tetanus toxin to the GF, to block chemical transmission, in shak-B2 flies. The long latency response in the tergotrochanteral muscle (TTM) was abolished indicating that the chemical component of the synapse mediates this response. Attenuation of GAL4-mediated labelling by a cha-GAL80 transgene, reveals the GF to be cholinergic. We have used a temperature-sensitive allele of the choline acetyltransferase gene (chats2) to block cholinergic synapses in adult flies and this also abolished the long latency response in shak-B2 flies. Taken together the data provide evidence that both components of this mixed synapse are functional and that the chemical neurotransmitter between the GF and the TTMn is acetylcholine. Our findings show that the two components of this synapse can be separated to allow further studies into the mechanisms by which mixed synapses are built and function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcus J Allen
- Department of Biosciences, University of Kent, Canterbury, Kent, UK.
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Kumar NM. Molecular Biology of the Interactions between Connexins. NOVARTIS FOUNDATION SYMPOSIUM 219 - GAP JUNCTION-MEDIATED INTERCELLULAR SIGNALLING IN HEALTH AND DISEASE 2007. [DOI: 10.1002/9780470515587.ch2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/12/2023]
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