Imaging techniques: new avenues in cancer gene and cell therapy

CRISPR Technology in Cancer Diagnosis and Treatment: Opportunities and Challenges

A novel gene editing tool, the Cas system, associated with the CRISPR system, is emerging as a potential method for genome modification. This simple method, based on the adaptive immune defense system of prokaryotes, has been developed and used in human cancer research. These technologies have tremendous therapeutic potential, especially in gene therapy, where a patient-specific mutation is genetically corrected to cure diseases that cannot be cured with conventional treatments. However, translating CRISPR/Cas9 into the clinic will be challenging, as we still need to improve the efficiency, specificity, and application of the technology. In this review, we will explain how CRISPR-Cas9 technology can treat cancer at the molecular level, focusing on ordination and the epigenome. We will also focus on the promise and shortcomings of this system to ensure its application in the treatment and prevention of cancer.

Application of Genetically Encoded Molecular Imaging Probes in Tumor Imaging

In recent years, imaging technology has made rapid progress to improve the sensitivity of tumor diagnostic. With the development of genetic engineering and synthetic biology, various genetically encoded molecular imaging probes have also been extensively developed. As a biomedical imaging method with excellent detectable sensitivity and spatial resolution, genetically encoded molecular imaging has great application potential in the visualization of cellular and molecular functions during tumor development. Compared to chemosynthetic dyes and nanoparticles with an imaging function, genetically encoded molecular imaging probes can more easily label specific cells or proteins of interest in tumor tissues and have higher stability and tissue contrast in vivo. Therefore, genetically encoded molecular imaging probes have attracted increasing attention from researchers in engineering and biomedicine. In this review, we aimed to introduce the genetically encoded molecular imaging probes and further explained their applications in tumor imaging.

Mistic: An open-source multiplexed image t-SNE viewer

Understanding the complex ecology of a tumor tissue and the spatiotemporal relationships between its cellular and microenvironment components is becoming a key component of translational research, especially in immuno-oncology. The generation and analysis of multiplexed images from patient samples is of paramount importance to facilitate this understanding. Here, we present Mistic, an open-source multiplexed image t-SNE viewer that enables the simultaneous viewing of multiple 2D images rendered using multiple layout options to provide an overall visual preview of the entire dataset. In particular, the positions of the images can be t-SNE or UMAP coordinates. This grouped view of all images allows an exploratory understanding of the specific expression pattern of a given biomarker or collection of biomarkers across all images, helps to identify images expressing a particular phenotype, and can help select images for subsequent downstream analysis. Currently, there is no freely available tool to generate such image t-SNEs.

AIE active polymers for biological applications

The discovery of aggregation-induced emission (AIE) phenomenon, significantly altered the understanding of the scientific world about the luminophore aggregation. Polymers with AIE features have recently emerged as promising materials with wide range of applications in optoelectronics devices, chemosensors, bioimaging, cancer theranostics and drug delivery. By introducing the AIE active molecule into the polymer structure, novel materials encompassing the characteristics properties of both the functional materials such as excellent brightness, versatile structure modification, high biocompatibility, exceptional stability and facile processability are achieved. This chapter presents the advances in synthetic design as well as potential biological applications of AIE active polymers, beginning with a brief introduction to the AIE phenomenon. The versatile synthetic route, easier functionalization, and light up feature of the AIE active polymers offer direct visualization of the physiological processes within or outside the living organisms. This chapter also precisely describes the photodynamic therapy/photothermal therapy (PDT/PTT) with up-to-date advancement of AIE active polymer and their emerging applications in biomedical field. The AIE active Photosensitizers (PSs) are much more efficient in singlet oxygen (¹O₂) production than their small molecule AIE active PSs due to their enhanced inter system crossing (ISC) process and improved light-harvesting ability. Additionally, the present chapter aims to focus on all recent AIE active polymers for drug screening and drug delivery. The AIE active polymer often shows decent drug loading capacity, high stability and good biocompatibility comprising image guided drug monitoring features. Lastly, the concluding discussion reveals the future prospective of the AIE active polymers.

The Role of MicroRNAs in Lung Cancer: Implications for Diagnosis and Therapy

Lung cancer is the first cause of cancer death in the world due to its high prevalence, aggressiveness, late diagnosis, lack of effective treatment and poor prognosis. It also shows high rate of recurrence, metastasis and drug resistance. All these problems highlight the urgent needs for developing new strategies using noninvasive biomarkers for early detection, metastasis and recurrence of disease. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are a class of small noncoding RNAs that regulate gene expression post-transcriptionally. These molecules found to be abnormally expressed in increasing number of human disease conditions including cancer. miRNAs could be detected in body fluids such as blood, serum, urine and sputum, which leads us towards the idea of using them as non-invasive biomarker for cancer detection and monitoring cancer treatment and recurrence. miRNAs are found to be deregulated in lung cancer initiation and progression and could regulate lung cancer cell proliferation and invasion. In this review, we summarized recent progress and discoveries in microRNAs regulatory role in lung cancer initiation and progression. In addition, the role of microRNAs in EGFR signaling pathway regulation is discussed briefly.

Cervical Cancer Diagnosis: Insights into Biochemical Biomarkers and Imaging Techniques

Cervical malignancy is known as one of the important cancers which is originated from cervix. This malignancy has been observed in women infected with papillomavirus who had regular oral contraceptives, multiple pregnancies, and sexual relations. Early and fast cervical cancer diagnosis is known as two important aspects of cervical cancer therapy. Several investigations indicated that early and fast detection of cervical cancer could be associated with better treatment process and increasing survival rate of patients with this malignancy. Imaging techniques are very important diagnosis tools that could be employed for diagnosis and following responses to therapy in various cervical cancer stages. Multiple lines of evidence indicated that utilization of imaging techniques is related to some limitations (i.e. high cost, and invasive effects). Hence, it seems that along with using imaging techniques, finding and developing new biomarkers could be useful in the diagnosis and treatment of subjects with cervical cancer. Taken together, many studies showed that a variety of biomarkers including, several proteins, mRNAs, microRNAs, exosomes and polymorphisms might be introduced as prognostic, diagnostic and therapeutic biomarkers in cervical cancer therapy. In this review article, we highlighted imaging techniques as well as novel biomarkers for the diagnosis of cervical cancer.

Bacteriocins: New Potential Therapeutic Candidates in Cancer Therapy

Cancer is one of the most important disorders which is associated with high mortality and high costs of treatment for patients. Despite several efforts, finding, designing and developing, new therapeutic platforms in the treatment of cancer patients are still required. Utilization of microorganisms, particularly bacteria has emerged as new therapeutic approaches in the treatment of various cancers. Increasing data indicated that bacteria could be used in the production of a wide range of anti-cancer agents, including bacteriocins, antibiotics, peptides, enzymes, and toxins. Among these anti-cancer agents, bacteriocins have attractive properties, which make them powerful anti-cancer drugs. Multiple lines evidence indicated that several bacteriocins (i.e., colcins, nisins, pediocins, pyocins, and bovocins) via activation/inhibition different cellular and molecular signaling pathways are able to suppress tumor growth in various stages. Hence, identification and using various bacteriocins could lead to improve and introduce them to clinical practices. Here, we summarized various bacteriocins which could be employed as anti-cancer agents in the treatment of many cancers.

Vitamin D and Non-coding RNAs: New Insights into the Regulation of Breast Cancer

Breast cancer, a life-threatening serious disease with a high incident rate among women, is responsible for thousands of cancer-associated death worldwide. Numerous investigations have evaluated the possible mechanisms related to this malignancy. Among them, non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs), i.e., microRNAs (miRNAs), long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs), and circular RNAs have recently attracted attention of researchers. In addition to recent studies for evaluating the role of ncRNAs in breast cancer etiology, some investigations have revealed that vitamin D has regulatory and therapeutic roles in breast cancer. Moreover, an important link between vitamin D and ncRNAs in cancer therapy has been highlighted. Herein, the aim of this study was to discuss the available data on the mentioned link in breast cancer.

The Effectiveness of Health Belief Model Initiative in Breast Cancer Screening Behaviors among Women Health Volunteers

Knowledge of screening methods and regular diagnostic tests play an important role in reducing the incidence of cancers and their mortality. We investigated the effectiveness of health belief model initiative in breast cancer screening behaviors among women health volunteers. A quasi-experimental design and non-probability sampling technique was conducted during 2019 in Abhar, Iran. Two out of six health centers were approached and each was recruited in either experimental or control group. Based on the Iranian and standardized version of the Champion's Health Belief Model Scale, the different domains of the scale and breast cancer screening behaviors of eligible women health volunteers (n = 72) were evaluated. Then, seven training sessions were designed and implemented for the intervention group using local language and different educational approaches. The participants were reevaluated according to the same questionnaire three months after the intervention. There was a meaningful difference regarding breast self-exam, knowledge, perceived susceptibility, perceived severity, perceived benefits, and perceived barriers among both the control and intervention groups before and after the intervention. Training programs using health belief model are crucial in developing breast cancer screening behaviors for women health volunteers. Thus, it is recommended that training programs should be conducted using individual behavioral models.

Role of Resveratrol in Modulating microRNAs in Human Diseases: From Cancer to Inflammatory Disorder

Cancer and inflammatory disorders are two important public health issues worldwide with significant socio.economic impacts. Despite several efforts, the current therapeutic platforms are associated with severe limitations. Therefore, developing new therapeutic strategies for the treatment of these diseases is a top priority. Besides current therapies, the utilization of natural compounds has emerged as a new horizon for the treatment of cancer and inflammatory disorders as well. Such natural compounds could be used either alone or in combination with the standard cancer therapeutic modalities such as chemotherapy, radiotherapy, and immunotherapy. Resveratrol is a polyphenolic compound that is found in grapes as well as other foods. It has been found that this medicinal agent displays a wide pharmacological spectrum, including anti-cancer, anti-inflammatory, anti-microbial, and antioxidant activities. Recently, clinical and pre-clinical studies have highlighted the anti-cancer and anti-inflammatory effects of resveratrol. Increasing evidence revealed that resveratrol exerts its therapeutic effects by targeting various cellular and molecular mechanisms. Among cellular and molecular targets that are modulated by resveratrol, microRNAs (miRNAs) have appeared as key targets. MiRNAs are short non-coding RNAs that act as epigenetic regulators. These molecules are involved in many processes that are involved in the initiation and progression of cancer and inflammatory disorders. Herein, we summarized various miRNAs that are directly/indirectly influenced by resveratrol in cancer and inflammatory disorders.

Bioluminescence Imaging Applications in Cancer: A Comprehensive Review

Bioluminescence imaging (BLI), an optical preclinical imaging modality, is an invaluable imaging modality due to its low-cost, high throughput, fast acquisition times, and functional imaging capabilities. BLI is being extensively used in the field of cancer imaging, especially with the recent developments in genetic-engineering, stem cell, and gene therapy treatments. The purpose of this paper is to provide a comprehensive review of the principles, developments, and current status of BLI in cancer research. This paper covers the fundamental BLI concepts including BLI reporters and enzyme-substrate systems, data acquisition, and image characteristics. It reviews the studies discussing the use of BLI in cancer research such as imaging tumor-characteristic phenomena including tumorigenesis, metastasis, cancer metabolism, apoptosis, hypoxia, and angiogenesis, and response to cancer therapy treatments including chemotherapy, radiotherapy, immunotherapy, gene therapy, and stem cell therapy. The key advantages and disadvantages of BLI compared to other common imaging modalities are also discussed.

Identification of MicroRNAs as Diagnostic Biomarkers for Breast Cancer Based on the Cancer Genome Atlas

Breast cancer is the most common cancer among women worldwide. MicroRNAs (miRNAs or miRs) play an important role in tumorigenesis, and thus, they have been identified as potential targets for translational research with diagnostic, prognostic, and therapeutic markers. This study aimed to identify differentially expressed (DE) miRNAs in breast cancer using the Cancer Genome Atlas. The miRNA profiles of 755 breast cancer tissues and 86 adjacent non-cancerous breast tissues were analyzed using Multi Experiment Viewer; miRNA–mRNA network analyses and constructed KEGG pathways with the predicted target genes were performed. The clinical relevance of miRNAs was investigated using area under the receiver operating characteristic curve (AUC) analysis, sensitivity, and specificity. The analysis identified 28 DE miRNAs in breast cancer tissues, including nine upregulated and 19 downregulated miRNAs, compared to non-cancerous breast tissues (p < 0.001). The AUC for each DE miRNA, miR-10b, miR-21, miR-96, miR-99a, miR-100, miR-125b-1, miR-125b-2, miR-139, miR-141, miR-145, miR-182, miR-183, miR-195, miR-200a, miR-337, miR-429, and let-7c, exceeded 0.9, indicating excellent diagnostic performance in breast cancer. Moreover, 1381 potential target genes were predicted using the prediction database tool, miRNet. These genes are related to PD-L1 expression and PD-1 checkpoint in cancer, MAPK signaling, apoptosis, and TNF pathways; hence, they regulate the development, progression, and immune escape of cancer. Thus, these 28 miRNAs can serve as prospective biomarkers for the diagnosis of breast cancer. Taken together, these results provide insight into the pathogenic mechanisms and potential therapies for breast cancer.

Spermidine as a target for cancer therapy

Spermidine, as a natural component from polyamine members, is originally isolated from semen and also existed in many natural plants, and can be responsible for cell growth and development in eukaryotes. The supplementation of spermidine can extend health and lifespan across species. Although the elevated levels of polyamines and the regulation of rate-limiting enzymes for polyamine metabolism have been identified as the biomarkers in many cancers, recent epidemiological data support that an increased uptake of spermidine as a caloric restriction mimic can reduce overall mortality associated with cancers. The possible mechanisms between spermidine and cancer development may be related to the precise regulation of polyamine metabolism, anti-cancer immunosurveillance, autophagy, and apoptosis. Increased intake of polyamine seems to suppress tumorigenesis, but appears to accelerate the growth of established tumors. Based on these observations and the absolute requirement for polyamines in tumor growth, spermidine could be a rational target for chemoprevention and clinical therapeutics of cancers.

Cancer stem cells and oral cancer: insights into molecular mechanisms and therapeutic approaches

Cancer stem cells (CSCs) have been identified as a little population of cancer cells, which have features as the same as the cells normal stem cells. There is enough knowledge of the CSCs responsibility for metastasis, medicine resistance, and cancer outbreak. Therefore, CSCs control possibly provides an efficient treatment intervention inhibiting tumor growth and invasion. In spite of the significance of targeting CSCs in treating cancer, few study comprehensively explored the nature of oral CSCs. It has been showed that oral CSCs are able to contribute to oral cancer progression though activation/inhibition a sequences of cellular and molecular pathways (microRNA network, histone modifications and calcium regulation). Hence, more understanding about the properties of oral cancers and their behaviors will help us to develop new therapeutic platforms. Head and neck CSCs remain a viable and intriguing option for targeted therapy. Multiple investigations suggested the major contribution of the CSCs to the metastasis, tumorigenesis, and resistance to the new therapeutic regimes. Therefore, experts in the field are examining the encouraging targeted therapeutic choices. In spite of the advancements, there are not enough information in this area and thus a magic bullet for targeting and eliminating the CSCs deviated us. Hence, additional investigations on the combined therapies against the head and neck CSCs could offer considerable achievements. The present research is a review of the recent information on oral CSCs, and focused on current advancements in new signaling pathways contributed to their stemness regulation. Moreover, we highlighted various therapeutic approaches against oral CSCs.

Cancer stem cells as therapeutic targets of pancreatic cancer

The discovery of stem cells and their potential abilities in self-renewal and differentiation has opened a new horizon in medicine. Scientists have found a small population of stem cells in some types of cancers with the same functions as normal stem cells. There are two models for tumor progression: clonal (stochastic) and cancer stem cell (CSCs) models. According to the first model, all transformed cells in the tumor have carcinogenic potential and are able to proliferate and produce the same cells. The latter model, which has received more attention recently, considers the role of CSCs in drug resistance and tumor metastasis. Following the model, researchers have found that targeting CSCs may be a promising way in cancer therapy. This review describes CSC characteristics in general, while also focusing on CSC properties in the context of pancreatic cancer.

Exosomes and cancer: From oncogenic roles to therapeutic applications

Exosomes belong to extracellular vehicles that were produced and secreted from most eukaryotic cells and are involved in cell-to-cell communications. They are an effective delivery system for biological compounds such as mRNAs, microRNAs (miRNAs), proteins, lipids, saccharides, and other physiological compounds to target cells. In this way, they could influence on cellular pathways and mediate their physiological behaviors including cell proliferation, tumorigenesis, differentiation, and so on. Many research studies focused on their role in cancers and also on potentially therapeutic and biomarker applications. In the current study, we reviewed the exosomes' effects on cancer progression based on their cargoes including miRNAs, long noncoding RNAs, circular RNAs, DNAs, mRNAs, proteins, and lipids. Moreover, their therapeutic roles in cancer were considered. In this regard, we have given a brief overview of challenges and obstacles in using exosomes as therapeutic agents.

Leukemia-derived exosomes: Bringing oncogenic signals to blood cells

Leukemia is a cancer, which is derived from leukocytes and precursors of leukocytes in the bone marrow. A large number of pivotal biological processes are linked to leukemia pathogenesis. More insights into these mechanisms can provide a better developing pharmacological platform for patients with leukemia. Among the different players in leukemia pathogenesis, exosomes have appeared as a new biological vehicle, which can transfer oncogenic signals to blood cells. Exosomes are nano-carriers, which enable transferring numerous cargos such as DNA fragments, RNAs, messenger RNAs, microRNAs, long noncoding RNA, and proteins. Targeting the contents of exosomes leads to the alteration of host cell behavior. Increasing evidence has indicated that leukemia-derived exosomes could be utilized as prognostic, diagnostic, and therapeutic biomarkers for individuals suffering from leukemia. In this regard, the importance of exosomes in terms of initiation and progression of leukemia was underlined in this study.

MicroRNAs and response to therapy in leukemia

A variety of epigenetic factors involved in leukemia pathogenesis. Among various epigenetic factors, microRNAs (miRNAs) have emerged as important players, which affect a sequence of cellular and molecular signaling pathways. Leukemia is known as progressive cancer, which is related to many health problems in the world. It has been shown that the destruction of the blood-forming organs could lead to abnormal effects on the proliferation and development of leukocytes and their precursors. Despite many attempts for approved effective and powerful therapies for patients with leukemia, finding and developing new therapeutic approaches are required. One of the important aspects of leukemia therapy, identification of underlying cellular and molecular mechanisms involved in the pathogenesis of leukemia. Several miRNAs (ie, miR-103, miR-101, mit-7, let-7i, miR-424, miR-27a, and miR-29c) and play major roles in response to therapy in patients with leukemia. miRNAs exert their effects by targeting a variety of targets, which are associated with response to therapy in patients with leukemia. It seems that more understanding about the roles of miRNAs in response to therapy in patients with leukemia could contribute to better treatment of patients with leukemia. Here, for the first time, we summarized various miRNAs, which are involved in response to therapy in the treatment patients with leukemia.

Circulating microRNA-133, microRNA-17 and microRNA-25 in serum and its potential diagnostic value in gastric cancer

Gastric cancer is one of the most common malignancies in the world and is considered as the most lethal gastrointestinal cancer. microRNAs (miRNAs) can be very important in detecting a disease at an early stage. The aim of this study was to investigate the microRNA-17 (miR-17), miR-25, and miR-133b in the serum of gastric cancer subjects. Serum samples were obtained from 120 gastric cancers and 102 healthy subjects. We evaluated expression levels of miR-17, miR-25 and miR-133b by quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction. Our results showed that in the patients with gastric cancer, the expression level of miR-17 and miR-25 were significantly increased compared with the control group (P < 0.5), while the expression level of miR-133b was significantly decreased in patient groups compared with control cases (P < 0.5). It seems that expression of miRNAs in Iranian patients with gastric cancer is similar to other patients in other populations. These findings suggested that miR-17, miR-25 and miR-133b could be introduced as potential diagnostic candidates for the detection in gastric cancer patients in the early stage.

Triple-modal imaging of stem-cells labeled with multimodal nanoparticles, applied in a stroke model

BACKGROUND

Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) have been widely tested for their therapeutic efficacy in the ischemic brain and have been shown to provide several benefits. A major obstacle to the clinical translation of these therapies has been the inability to noninvasively monitor the best route, cell doses, and collateral effects while ensuring the survival and effective biological functioning of the transplanted stem cells. Technological advances in multimodal imaging have allowed in vivo monitoring of the biodistribution and viability of transplanted stem cells due to a combination of imaging technologies associated with multimodal nanoparticles (MNPs) using new labels and covers to achieve low toxicity and longtime residence in cells.

AIM

To evaluate the sensitivity of triple-modal imaging of stem cells labeled with MNPs and applied in a stroke model.

METHODS

After the isolation and immunophenotypic characterization of human bone marrow MSCs (hBM-MSCs), our team carried out lentiviral transduction of these cells for the evaluation of bioluminescent images (BLIs) in vitro and in vivo. In addition, MNPs that were previously characterized (regarding hydrodynamic size, zeta potential, and optical properties), and were used to label these cells, analyze cell viability via the 3-[4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl]-2,5 diphenyl tetrazolium bromide assay and BLI analysis, and quantify the internalization process and iron load in different concentrations of MNPs via magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), near-infrared fluorescence (NIRF), and inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). In in vivo analyses, the same labeled cells were implanted in a sham group and a stroke group at different times and under different MNP concentrations (after 4 h or 6 d of cell implantation) to evaluate the sensitivity of triple-modal images.

RESULTS

hBM-MSC collection and isolation after immunophenotypic characterization were demonstrated to be adequate in hBM samples. After transduction of these cells with luciferase (hBM-MSC_Luc), we detected a maximum BLI intensity of 2.0 x 10⁸ photons/s in samples of 10⁶ hBM-MSCs. Analysis of the physicochemical characteristics of the MNPs showed an average hydrodynamic diameter of 38.2 ± 0.5 nm, zeta potential of 29.2 ± 1.9 mV and adequate colloidal stability without agglomeration over 18 h. The signal of iron load internalization in hBM-MSC_Luc showed a close relationship with the corresponding MNP-labeling concentrations based on MRI, ICP-MS and NIRF. Under the highest MNP concentration, cellular viability showed a reduction of less than 10% compared to the control. Correlation analysis of the MNP load internalized into hBM-MSC_Luc determined via the MRI, ICP-MS and NIRF techniques showed the same correlation coefficient of 0.99. Evaluation of the BLI, NIRF, and MRI signals in vivo and ex vivo after labeled hBM-MSC_Luc were implanted into animals showed differences between different MNP concentrations and signals associated with different techniques (MRI and NIRF; 5 and 20 µg Fe/mL; P < 0.05) in the sham groups at 4 h as well as a time effect (4 h and 6 d; P < 0.001) and differences between the sham and stroke groups in all images signals (P < 0.001).

CONCLUSION

This study highlighted the importance of quantifying MNPs internalized into cells and the efficacy of signal detection under the triple-image modality in a stroke model.

Knockdown of sal-like 4 expression by small interfering RNA induces apoptosis in breast cancer cells

Breast cancer is the most prevalent cancers worldwide and causes a significant amount of deaths annually. Spalt-like transcription factor 4 is known as a transcription factor, which has an important role in the proliferation of cancerous cells. Small interfering RNA (siRNA) is a short-chain molecule of 20 to 25 nucleotides that protrude on two sides of the 3', two nucleotides. In this study, using a specific sequence of siRNA against the sequence of this gene, its activity is investigated in the cell line of breast cancer. The breast cancer cells (MCF-7) were cultured and then, using a specific anti-sal-like 4 (SALL4) siRNA, their toxic doses were determined. Then, the gene is transfected into the cell. Proliferation and expression of the SALL4 and BCL-2 gene were measured using the real-time polymerase chain reaction method. The specific concentration of siRNA IC₅₀ of the SALL4 gene was 40.35 nmole. Gene expression results indicated that the expression of the Bcl-2 gene in the siRNA group was significantly reduced ( P < 0.05). SiRNA can increase the apoptosis of breast cancer cells by reducing the gene expression of SALL4 gene and Bcl-2; it can be used as a novel targeted therapy. This strategy, in addition to increasing the specificity of the drug, also reduces the side effects when compared with conventional chemotherapy.

Hematoxylin and eosin staining of intact tissues via delipidation and ultrasound

Acquiring information on the precise distribution of a tumor is essential to evaluate intratumoral heterogeneity. Conventional hematoxylin and eosin staining, which has been used by pathologists for more than 100 years, is the gold standard of tumor diagnosis. However, it is difficult to stain entire tumor tissues with hematoxylin and eosin and then acquire the three-dimensional distribution of cells in solid tumors due to difficulties in the staining and rinsing. In this paper, we propose a modified hematoxylin and eosin staining method, in which delipidation and ultrasound waves were applied to enhance tissue permeability and accelerate dye diffusion. This improved hematoxylin and eosin staining method is termed iHE (intact tissue hematoxylin and eosin staining). We applied the iHE method to stain intact organs of mice, which were then sectioned and imaged sequentially. The results showed that the whole tissue was stained homogeneously. Combined with micro-optical sectioning tomography (MOST), the iHE method can be used for 3D volume imaging and to evaluate the intratumoral heterogeneity of the entire tumor tissue spatially. Therefore, this method may help to accurately diagnose the invasion stage of tumors and guide clinical treatments.

Breast cancer diagnosis: Imaging techniques and biochemical markers

Breast cancer is a complex disease which is found as the second cause of cancer-associated death among women. Accumulating of evidence indicated that various factors (i.e., gentical and envirmental factors) could be associated with initiation and progression of breast cancer. Diagnosis of breast cancer patients in early stages is one of important aspects of breast cancer treatment. Among of various diagnosis platforms, imaging techniques are main diagnosis approaches which could provide valuable data on patients with breast cancer. It has been showed that various imaging techniques such as mammography, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), positron-emission tomography (PET), Computed tomography (CT), and single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) could be used for diagnosis and monitoring patients with breast cancer in various stages. Beside, imaging techniques, utilization of biochemical biomarkers such as proteins, DNAs, mRNAs, and microRNAs could be employed as new diagnosis and therapeutic tools for patients with breast cancer. Here, we summarized various imaging techniques and biochemical biomarkers could be utilized as diagnosis of patients with breast cancer. Moreover, we highlighted microRNAs and exosomes as new diagnosis and therapeutic biomarkers for monitoring patients with breast cancer.

MiR-21: A key player in glioblastoma pathogenesis

Glioblastoma multiform (GBM) is one of common cancers worldwide which has high rate among various populations. Despite serious efforts worldwide, GBM remains a deadly disease which is associated with poor prognosis. Multiple lines evidence indicated that deregulation of a variety of cellular and molecular pathways are related with GBM pathogenesis. Among of various targets involved in GBM pathogenesis, microRNAs (miRNAs) have been emerged as targets which deregulation of them are related with various stages of GBM. These molecules are small non-coding RNAs which could affect on a variety of cellular and molecular pathways involved in GBM. It has been showed that deregulation of them are associated with initiation and progression of GBM. MiR-21 is one of important miRNAs involved in GBM pathogenesis. A large number studies indicated that this miRNA could affect on a variety of cellular and molecular pathways such as insulin-like growth factor (IGF)-binding protein-3 (IGFBP3), RECK, and TIMP3. Exosomes are one of important players in GBM pathogenesis. Among of various exosomes, exosomal miR-21 may has key roles in GBM pathogenesis. These findings indicated that miR-21 has critical roles in GBM pathogenesis and could be used as diagnostic and therapeutic biomarkers for GBM patients. Here, we summarized the roles of miR-21 and exosomal miR-21 in GBM pathogenesis. Moreover, we highlighted utilization of miR-21 as diagnostic and therapeutic biomarker for GBM patients.

Future trends and emerging issues for nanodelivery systems in oral and oropharyngeal cancer

Oral cancer is a prevalent cancer type on a global scale, whose traditional treatment strategies have several drawbacks that could in the near future be overcome through the development of novel therapeutic and prognostic strategies. Nanotechnology provides an alternative to traditional therapy that leads to enhanced efficiency and less toxicity. Various nanosystems have been developed for the treatment of oral cancer, including polymeric, metallic, and lipid-based formulations that incorporate chemotherapeutics, natural compounds, siRNA, or other molecules. This review summarizes the main benefits of using these nanosystems, in parallel with a particular focus on the issues encountered in medical practice. These novel strategies have provided encouraging results in both in vitro and in vivo studies, but few have entered clinical trials. The use of nanosystems in oral cancer has the potential of becoming a valid therapeutic option for patients suffering from this malignancy, considering that clinical trials have already been completed and others are currently being developed.

Therapeutic application of multipotent stem cells

Cell therapy is an emerging fields in the treatment of various diseases such as cardiovascular, pulmonary, hepatic, and neoplastic diseases. Stem cells are an integral tool for cell therapy. Multipotent stem cells are an important class of stem cells which have the ability to self-renew through dividing and developing into multiple specific cell types in a specific tissue or organ. These cells are capable to activate or inhibit a sequence of cellular and molecular pathways leading to anti-inflammatory and anti-apoptotic effects which might contribute to the treatment of various diseases. It has been showed that multipotent stem cells exert their therapeutic effects via inhibition/activation of a sequence of cellular and molecular pathways. Although the advantages of multipotent stem cells are numerous, further investigation is still necessary to clarify the biology and safety of these cells before they could be considered as a potential treatment for different types of diseases. This review summarizes different features of multipotent stem cells including isolation, differentiation, and therapeutic applications.

State of the art in microRNA as diagnostic and therapeutic biomarkers in chronic lymphocytic leukemia

Early diagnostic is one of the most important steps in cancer therapy which helps to design and choose a better therapeutic approach. The finding of biomarkers in various levels including genomics, transcriptomics, and proteomics levels could provide better treatment for various cancers such as chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL). The CLL is the one of main lymphoid malignancies which is specified by aggregation of mature B lymphocytes. Among different biomarkers (e.g., CD38, chromosomes abnormalities, ZAP-70, TP53, and microRNA [miRNA]), miRNAs have appeared as new diagnostic and therapeutic biomarkers in patients with the CLL disease. Multiple lines of evidence indicated that deregulation of miRNAs could be associated with pathological events which are present in the CLL. These molecules have an effect on a variety of targets such as Bcl2, c-fos, c-Myc, TP53, TCL1, and STAT3 which play critical roles in the CLL pathogenesis. It has been shown that expression of miRNAs could lead to the activation of B cells and B cell antigen receptor (BCR). Moreover, exosomes containing miRNAs are one of the other molecules which could contribute to BCR stimulation and progression of CLL cells. Hence, miRNAs and exosomes released from CLL cells could be used as potential diagnostic and therapeutic biomarkers for CLL. This critical review focuses on a very important aspect of CLL based on biomarker discovery covers the pros and cons of using miRNAs as important diagnostics and therapeutics biomarkers for this deadly disease.

Apoptin Gene Delivery by the Functionalized Polyamidoamine (PAMAM) Dendrimer Modified with Ornithine Induces Cell Death of HepG2 Cells

The use of tumor-specific therapeutic agents is a promising option for efficient and safe nonviral gene transfer in gene therapy. In this study, we describe the efficacy of polyamidoamine (PAMAM)-based nonviral gene delivery carriers, namely, an ornithine conjugated PAMAM (PAMAM-O) dendrimer in delivering apoptin, a tumor-specific killer gene, into human hepatocellular carcinoma (HepG2 cells) and dermal fibroblasts. We analyzed the transfection efficiency by the luciferase assay and assessed cell viability in both cell types. The transfection efficiency of the PAMAM-O dendrimer was found to be higher than that of the PAMAM dendrimer. Moreover, the cytotoxicity of the PAMAM-O dendrimer was very low. We treated both cell types with a polyplex of PAMAM-O dendrimer with apoptin, and analyzed its cellular uptake and localization by confocal microscopy. Cell cycle distribution, tetramethylrhodamine, ethyl ester (TMRE) analysis, and transmission electron microscopy imaging showed that apoptin induced cell death in HepG2 cells. We therefore demonstrated that a PAMAM-O/apoptin polyplex can be used as an effective therapeutic strategy in cancer owing to its effectiveness as a suitable nonviral gene vector for gene therapy.

Molecular Imaging and Oral Cancer Diagnosis and Therapy

Oral cancer is known as one of relatively common type of cancer worldwide. Despite the easy access of the oral cavity to examination, oral tumors are diagnosed in more advanced stages of the disease. Imaging techniques have been recently emerged as non-invasive approaches to detect molecular and cellular changes in living cells and organisms. These techniques such as computed tomography (CT), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and positron emission tomography (PET) could help physicians to screen patients with oral tumors particularly oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) in early stage of the disease. In this review, we discuss that early detection and diagnosis of oral tumors through using more robust and precise imaging techniques and a variety of cellular/molecular biomarkers not only could lead to more effective and less aggressive form of treatment for the disease but also could improve survival rates and lower treatment costs. J. Cell. Biochem. 118: 3055-3060, 2017. © 2017 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.