Effects of α-glucans from Agaricus bisporus on ex vivo cytokine production by LPS and PHA-stimulated PBMCs; a placebo-controlled study in slightly hypercholesterolemic subjects

Effect of Pleurotus ostreatus Water Extract Consumption on Blood Parameters and Cytokine Values in Healthy Volunteers

OBJECTIVE

Our aim in this study is, does 29-day regular consumption of Pleurotus ostreatus water extract by volunteer individuals who meet the study criteria have an effect on blood and cytokine values?

METHOD

In accordance with the purpose of the study, volunteers were asked to consume 100 ml of the extract every morning for 29 days. Three tubes of blood samples were taken from the volunteers on the 15th and 29th days of the study. Biochemical and hematological analysis of the blood samples were performed and immunomodulatory effects through cytokines were examined. The values obtained from 3 tubes of blood obtained from volunteers before the use of mushroom extract were used as control. The chemical composition and β-glucan content of 100 ml of mushroom water extract were also analyzed.

RESULT

IL-4, IL-6, IL-10 and IL-13 could not be detected because the values were below the lowest standard value. TNF-α, IFN-γ and IL-1β 15th and 29th day values decreased compared to the 1st day (control) values (p < 0.05). However, there was no significant difference observed between the 15th and 29th day. No abnormalities were observed in biochemical and hematological values. Also, the β-glucan content of extract was found 38.12 mg/100 ml.

CONCLUSION

The frequency range of kidney and liver function test results confirmed that P. osreatus is a reliable food source. Considering the cytokine values these results indicate that P. ostreatus water extract has an anti-inflammatory effect. As no significant difference was observed in 29 days of use, it is thought that 15 days of daily consumption of the extract may be sufficient for the anti-inflammatory effect to occur. However, a large number of qualified clinical trials are needed to support the issue.

The effects of hot air-dried white button mushroom powder on glycemic indices, lipid profile, inflammatory biomarkers and total antioxidant capacity in patients with type-2 diabetes mellitus: A randomized controlled trial

Background

The inflammatory and metabolic responses to mushroom in type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) are unknown. The study aimed to evaluate the effect of Hot Air-dried White Button Mushroom (HAD-WBM) powder on glycemic status, lipid profile, inflammatory markers, and total antioxidant capacity (TAC) in T2DM patients.

Materials and Methods

This randomized controlled trial was conducted at Golestan Hospital, Ahvaz, Iran. Eligible patients were adults aged 20-50 with Type 2 diabetes. Patients were assigned to each group using a randomized block design with block randomization (n = 22, in each group). Randomization was performed by an assistant and group allocation was blinded for the investigator and participants. The intervention and control groups received 16 g/day HAD-WBM or cornstarch powder for 8 weeks. The primary outcomes of interest were fructosamine, fasting blood sugar (FBS), insulin, homeostatic model assessment for insulin resistance, and secondary outcomes were triglyceride, low-density lipoprotein (LDL), high-density lipoprotein, very-LDL, cholesterol, high-sensitivity C-reactive protein (hs-CRP), interleukin 6 (IL-6), and TAC.

Results

After 8 weeks, a significant decrease was observed in fructosamine (-0.228 ± 0.36 vs. 0.03 ± 0.38; P = 0.02) and LDL (-13.05 ± 20.67 vs. 0.81 ± 21.79; P = 0.04) in the HAD-WBM group compared to the control group. No significant changes were observed in fasting insulin and FBS between the two groups. However, a significant within-group reduction (-28.00 ± 42.46; P = 0.006) was observed for FBS in the HAD-WBM group. In the HAD-WBM group, insulin resistance reduced significantly at the end of the study (From 4.92 to 3.81; P = 0.016), but it was not significantly different between the two groups. There was no significant difference in TAC, hs-CRP, and IL-6 between the two groups.

Conclusion

Considering the results of this study about the beneficial effects of HAD-WBM on the improvement of glycemic indices and LDL in T2DM patients, it is recommended that HAD-WBM could be used to control T2DM.

Nutritional, Medicinal, and Cosmetic Value of Bioactive Compounds in Button Mushroom (Agaricus bisporus): A Review

Fungi are vital to numerous industrial and household processes, especially producing cheeses, beer, wine, and bread, and they are accountable for breaking down organic matter. The remarkable medicinal and nutritional values of the mushrooms have increased their consumption. Agaricus bisporus belongs to the Agaricaceae family, and it is a top-ranked cultivated mushroom that is well known for its edibility. A. bisporus is rich in nutrients such as carbohydrates, amino acids, fats, and minerals and has potential anticancer, antioxidant, anti-obesity, and anti-inflammation properties. The bioactive compounds extracted from this mushroom can be used for the treatment of several common human diseases including cancer, bacterial and fungal infections, diabetes, heart disorder, and skin problems. A. bisporus has opened new horizons for the world to explore mushrooms as far as their culinary and medicinal values are concerned. In recent years, tyrosinase and ergothioneine have been extracted from this mushroom, which has made this mushroom worth considering more for nutritional and medicinal purposes. To emphasize various aspects of A. bisporus, a comprehensive review highlighting the nutritional, medicinal, and cosmetic values and finding out the research gaps is presented. In this way, it would be possible to improve the quality and quantity of bioactive compounds in A. bisporus, ultimately contributing to the discovery of new drugs and the responsible mechanisms. In the present review, we summarize the latest advancements regarding the nutritional, pharmaceutical, and cosmetic properties of A. bisporus. Moreover, research gaps with future research directions are also discussed.

Risk of wild fungi treatment failure: Phallus impudicus-induced telomere damage triggers p21/p53 and p16-dependent cell cycle arrest and may contribute to male fertility reduction in vitro

The multifunctional characteristics of Phallus impudicus extract encourage to conduct research for its potential use in medical applications. Well, science is constantly seeking new evidence for the biological activity of extracts of natural origin. Drugs of natural origin should not cause any side effects on the physiological functions of the human body; however, this is not always successful. In this study, we used in vitro approach to evaluate the toxicity of alcohol Phallus impudicus extract on spermatogenic cells. We show, for the first time, cytotoxic properties of Phallus impudicus treatment associated with a decrease in cellular metabolic activity, dysregulation of redox homeostasis and impairment of selected antioxidant cell protection systems. As a consequence, p53/p21- and p16-mediated cell cycle arrest followed by p27 activation is initiated. The observed changes were associated with telomere shortening and numerous DNA damage at the chromosome ends (altered expression pattern of TRF1 and TRF2 proteins), as well as upregulation of cleaved caspase-3 with a decrease in Bcl-2 expression, suggesting induction of apoptotic death. Therefore, these results provide molecular evidence for mechanistic pathways and novel adverse outcomes linked to the Phallus impudicus treatment towards men's health and fertility reduction.

A critical review on submerged production of mushroom and their bioactive metabolites

Mushrooms are ubiquitous in nature. Even though humankind has been consuming mushrooms for ages, their medicinal and nutraceutical properties are not used to its fullest potential in the present market. Edible mushrooms are not only a cheap and nutritious option to mitigate malnutrition, but they also produce effective biomass. Submerged fermentation (SmF) is not only a cost-effective method to produce biomass along with exquisite bioactive metabolites but it also reduces the chances of contamination and the time of production. Therefore, this study unveils the bioactive metabolites being produced by mushrooms. Moreover, it also showcases the recent advances in the areas of bio-active compounds and their judicious implementations in daily life and pharmaceutical industries. Moreover, there is a distinct lack in utilizing the potential benefits of bioactive compounds from mushroom unless in vivo and in vitro studies are demonstrated.

Examining the health effects and bioactive components in Agaricus bisporus mushrooms: a scoping review

There is evidence from both in vitro and animal models that the consumption of edible mushrooms has beneficial effects on health. It is unclear whether similar effects exist in humans and which bioactive compounds are present. This review synthesises the evidence on the world's most commonly consumed mushroom, Agaricus bisporus to (i) examine its effect on human health outcomes; and (ii) determine the nutrient density of its bioactive compounds, which may explain their health effects. A systematic literature search was conducted on the consumption of A. bisporus, without date and study design limits. Bioactive compounds included ergosterol, ergothioneine, flavonoids, glucans and chitin. Two authors independently identified studies for inclusion and assessed methodological quality. Beneficial effects of A. bisporus on metabolic syndrome, immune function, gastrointestinal health and cancer, with the strongest evidence for the improvement in Vitamin D status in humans, were found. Ultraviolet B (UVB) exposed mushrooms may increase and maintain serum 25(OH)D levels to a similar degree as vitamin D supplements. A. bisporus contain beta-glucans, ergosterol, ergothioneine, vitamin D and an antioxidant compound usually reported as flavonoids; with varying concentrations depending on the type of mushroom, cooking method and duration, and UVB exposure. Further research is required to fully elucidate the bioactive compounds in mushrooms using vigorous analytical methods and expand the immunological markers being tested. To enable findings to be adopted into clinical practice and public health initiatives, replication of existing studies in different population groups is required to confirm the impact of A. bisporus on human health.

Historical and current perspectives on therapeutic potential of higher basidiomycetes: an overview

Mushrooms are macroscopic fungi which can be either epigeous or hypogeous and is estimated to be 140,000 on earth, yet only 10% are known. Since ancient time, it played a diverse role in human history for mycolatry, mycophagy and as medicine in folklore and religion. Many Asian and western countries consider mushrooms as panacea for a large number of diseases and utilized for consumption as a gourmet food for its taste as well as flavor. In recent years, scientific research fraternities have confirmed that various extracts and metabolites of mushrooms used traditionally are able to treat a wide range of diseases due to their balanced modulation of multiple targets thereby providing a greater therapeutic effect or equivalent curative effect to that of modern medicine. Medicinal mushrooms especially those belonging to higher basidiomycete groups are reservoir of bioactive compounds with multiple therapeutic properties. The present review provides historical importance as well as an updated information on pharmacologically relevant higher basidiomycetes belong to the genus Agaricus, Auricularia, Phellinus, Ganoderma, Pleurotus, Trametes and Lentinus and their biologically active secondary metabolites. This will help the researchers to understand various type of secondary metabolites, their therapeutic role and related in vivo or in vitro work at a glance. The mounting evidences from several scientific community across the globe, regarding various therapeutic applications of mushroom extracts, unarguably make it an advance research area worth mass attention.

Protective Effects of Pleurotus tuber-regium on Carbon- Tetrachloride Induced Testicular Injury in Sprague Dawley Rats

The high rate of male infertility and the meager resources to manage same in sub Saharan Africa have necessitated the search for cost effective and available alternatives. Mushrooms have been used traditionally in folk medicine and as nutraceuticals. This study has investigated the effect of the wild mushroom Pleurotus tuber-regium on carbon tetrachloride (CCl4) deleterious effects on the reproductive system of male rats. Thirty six rats were divided into six groups of six animals each. Group I (negative control) received 10 ml/kg olive oil intraperitoneal weekly in addition to feed and water ad libitum. Group II (positive control) received CCl4 10 ml/kg (30% in Olive oil) weekly. Group III, IV, and V received 100 mg, 20 0mg, and 500 mg P. tuber-regium (33.3% in feed) daily in addition to 10 ml/kg CCl4 weekly. Group VI received 500 mg P. tuber-regium (33.3% in feed) daily. After 4 weeks, sperm motility, epididymal count and vitality were determined. Serum malondialdehyde (MDA), testosterone, Luteinizing hormone (LH), Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH), prolactin and oestradiol were estimated using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) kits. Histopathologic examinations of the testis were carried out. Carbon tetrachloride significantly reduced the sperm motility (54.33 ± 3.79%), epididymal count (28.73 ± 2.86 × 106/ml, vitality (4.96 ± 0.62), LH (0.88 ± 0.14), FSH (2.04 ± 0.33), and Testosterone (2.02 ± 0.24) when compared with control (89.33 ± 9.01), 91.91 ± 1.92 × 106/ml, 13.12 ± 0.19, 2.74 ± 0.32, 3.64 ± 0.62, and 4.16 ± 0.23, respectively, which were reversed by P. tuber-regium administration. Co-administration of P. tuber-regium plus CCl4 significantly reduced MDA level. P. tuber-regium showed dose dependent ameliorative activity against CCl4 deleterious action on the testis and may be beneficial in the management of male infertility.

Physical Interaction of T Cells with Dendritic Cells Is Not Required for the Immunomodulatory Effects of the Edible Mushroom Agaricus subrufescens

Mushrooms are well known for their immunomodulating capacities. However, little is known about how mushroom-stimulated dendritic cells (DCs) affect T cells. Therefore, we investigated the effect of mushroom compounds derived from seven edible mushroom species on DCs, their fate in DCs, and the effect of the mushroom-stimulated DCs on T cells. Each mushroom species stimulated DCs in a different manner as was revealed from the DC’s cytokine response. Assessing DC maturation revealed that only one mushroom species, Agaricus subrufescens, induced complete DC maturation. The other six mushroom species upregulated MHC-II and CD86 expression, but did not significantly affect the expression of CD40 and CD11c. Nevertheless, mushroom compounds of all investigated mushroom species are endocytosed by DCs. Endocytosis is most likely mediated by C-type lectin receptors (CLRs) because CLR binding is Ca²⁺ dependent, and EGTA reduces TNF-α secretion with more than 90%. Laminarin partly inhibited TNF-α secretion indicating that the CLR dectin-1, among other CLRs, is involved in binding mushroom compounds. Stimulated DCs were shown to stimulate T cells; however, physical contact of DCs and T cells is not required. Because CLRs seem to play a prominent role in DC stimulation, mushrooms may function as a carbohydrate containing adjuvant to be used in conjunction with anti-fungal vaccines.

The structure of mushroom polysaccharides and their beneficial role in health

Mushroom is a kind of fungus that has been popular for its special flavour and renowned biological values. The polysaccharide contained in mushroom is regarded as one of the primary bioactive constituents and is beneficial for health. The structural features and bioactivities of mushroom polysaccharides have been studied extensively. It is believed that the diverse biological bioactivities of polysaccharides are closely related to their structure or conformation properties. In this review, the structural characteristics, conformational features and bioactivities of several mushroom polysaccharides are summarized, and their beneficial mechanisms and the relationships between their structure and bioactivities are also discussed.

Structural characterization and immunomodulatory activity of Grifola frondosa polysaccharide via toll-like receptor 4–mitogen-activated protein kinases–nuclear factor κB pathways

We isolated a neutral polysaccharide from the fruiting body of a mushroom Grifola frondosa (GFP-A).

Nutritional composition, antioxidant properties, and toxicology evaluation of the sclerotium of Tiger Milk Mushroom Lignosus tigris cultivar E

The Tiger Milk Mushroom (Lignosus spp.) is an important medicinal mushroom in Southeast Asia and has been consumed frequently by the natives as a cure for a variety of illnesses. In this study, we hypothesized that Lignosus tigris (cultivar E) sclerotium may contain high nutritional value and antioxidant properties, is nontoxic and a potential candidate as a dietary supplement. The chemical and amino acid compositions of the sclerotium were evaluated and antioxidant activities of the sclerotial extracts were assessed using ferric reducing antioxidant power; 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl; and superoxide anion radical scavenging assays. Acute toxicity of the L. tigris E sclerotium was assessed using a rat model study. The sclerotium was found to be rich in carbohydrate, protein, and dietary fibers with small amounts of fat, calories, and sugar. The amino acid composition of the protein contains all essential amino acids, with a protein score of 47. The sclerotial extracts contain phenolics, terpenoids, and glucan. The ferric reducing antioxidant power values of the various sclerotial extracts (hot water, cold water, and methanol) ranged from 0.008 to 0.015 mmol min(-1) g(-1) extract, while the 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl and superoxide anion radical scavenging activities ranged from 0.11 to 0.13, and -2.81 to 9.613 mmol Trolox equivalents g(-1) extract, respectively. Acute toxicity assessment indicated that L. tigris E sclerotial powder was not toxic at the dose of 2000 mg kg(-1). In conclusion, L. tigris E sclerotium has the potential to be developed into a functional food and nutraceutical.

Structure-function relationships of immunostimulatory polysaccharides: A review

Immunostimulatory polysaccharides are compounds capable of interacting with the immune system and enhance specific mechanisms of the host response. Glucans, mannans, pectic polysaccharides, arabinogalactans, fucoidans, galactans, hyaluronans, fructans, and xylans are polysaccharides with reported immunostimulatory activity. The structural features that have been related with such activity are the monosaccharide and glycosidic-linkage composition, conformation, molecular weight, functional groups, and branching characteristics. However, the establishment of structure-function relationships is possible only if purified and characterized polysaccharides are used and selective structural modifications performed. Aiming at contributing to the definition of the structure-function relationships necessary to design immunostimulatory polysaccharides with potential for preventive or therapeutical purposes or to be recognized as health-improving ingredients in functional foods, this review introduces basic immunological concepts required to understand the mechanisms that rule the potential claimed immunostimulatory activity of polysaccharides and critically presents a literature survey on the structural features of the polysaccharides and reported immunostimulatory activity.

Xylo-oligosaccharide (XOS) in combination with inulin modulates both the intestinal environment and immune status in healthy subjects, while XOS alone only shows prebiotic properties

The purpose of the present study was to establish the prebiotic effect of a new xylo-oligosaccharide (XOS) and of an inulin-and-XOS mixture (INU–XOS) and to determine their effect on endotoxaemia (lipopolysaccharides (LPS)) and immune parameters. In this randomised, parallel, placebo-controlled, double-blind study, sixty healthy volunteers were randomly assigned to three groups, receiving either 5 g XOS, INU–XOS (3 g inulin +1 g XOS) or an equivalent weight of wheat maltodextrin (placebo) during 4 weeks. Faecal samples were collected to assess the effects of these products on microbiota, as well as SCFA composition, enzymatic activities and secretory IgA production. Circulating LPS was measured in plasma samples, and whole blood was incubated with LPS to measure cytokine expression. Consumption of XOS alone increased the faecal concentrations of Bifidobacterium and butyrate and activities of α-glucosidase and β-glucuronidase, while decreasing the concentrations of acetate and p-cresol. Consumption of XOS in combination with inulin did not decrease the concentrations of acetate and p-cresol, but increased in addition the faecal concentrations of total SCFA and propionate. Furthermore, consumption of XOS in combination with inulin decreased LPS concentrations in blood and attenuated LPS-induced increases in gene expression in IL-1β and LPS-induced decreases in gene expression in IL-13 in blood. In conclusion, consumption of XOS alone or in combination with inulin results in beneficial albeit different changes in the intestinal microbiome on a high-fat diet. In addition, consumption of XOS in combination with inulin attenuates the proinflammatory effects of a high-fat diet in the blood of healthy subjects.

Age-dependent alterations of HLA-DR expression and effect of lipopolysaccharide on cytokine secretion of peripheral blood mononuclear cells in the elderly population

HLA-DR, a major histocompatibility complex, MHC class II, is involved in several autoimmune conditions, disease susceptibility and disease resistance. Here, we investigate the impact of different age individuals on HLA-DR expression on peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) induced by lipopolysaccharide (LPS). The results indicate that HLA-DR expression on PBMCs in the population aged above 70 years significantly increased as compared with that in the lower-age groups by flow cytometry analysis (B-D; r = 0.690, P = 0.000265). In addition, followed by LPS stimulation, the levels of cytokine TNF-α, IL-6 and IL-10 secretion by allogeneic T lymphocytes from different age groups (A-D) were significantly increased (P < 0.05). Notably, levels of TNF-α and IL-6 were significantly reduced in groups B, C and D as compared with group A (P < 0.05), whereas levels of IL-10 increased (P = 0.012). However, no significant difference in PBMC-secreted TNF-α, IL-6 and IL-10 levels was observed among groups A, B, C and D (P > 0.05) before LPS stimulation. We firstly present data showing an age-dependent increase in HLA-DR expression in the population aged above 70 years and the individual with aged above 70 years has reduced the secretion of inflammatory mediators (TNF-α and IL-6) by PBMCs and increased the secretion of anti-inflammatory cytokine (IL-10) after LPS stimulation in vitro. The better understanding of HLR-DR expression on human PBMCs in aged individuals and its relation to the host cellular immunity would provide important insights into the immunity of aged individuals and particularly, in elderly patients with sepsis.

Leishmanicidal activity of the Agaricus blazei Murill in different Leishmania species

Leishmaniasis is a major public health problem, and the alarming spread of parasite resistance underlines the importance of discovering new therapeutic products. The present study aims to investigate the in vitro leishmanicidal activity of an Agaricus blazei Murill mushroom extract as compared to different Leishmania species and stages. The water extract proved to be effective against promastigote and amastigote-like stages of Leishmania amazonensis, L. chagasi, and L. major, with IC(50) (50% inhibitory concentration) values of 67.5, 65.8, and 56.8 μg/mL for promastigotes, and 115.4, 112.3, and 108.4 μg/mL for amastigotes-like respectively. The infectivity of the three Leishmania species before and after treatment with the water extract was analyzed, and it could be observed that 82%, 57%, and 73% of the macrophages were infected with L. amazonensis, L. major, and L. chagasi, respectively. However, when parasites were pre-incubated with the water extract, and later used to infect macrophages, they were able to infect only 12.7%, 24.5%, and 19.7% of the phagocytic cells for L. amazonensis, L. chagasi, and L. major, respectively. In other experiments, macrophages were infected with L. amazonensis, L. chagasi, or L. major, and later treated with the aforementioned extract, presented reductions of 84.4%, 79.6%, and 85.3% in the parasite burden after treatment. A confocal microscopy revealed the loss of the viability of the parasites within the infected macrophages after treatment with the water extract. The applied extract presented a low cytotoxicity in murine macrophages and a null hemolytic activity in type O(+) human red blood cells. No nitric oxide (NO) production, nor inducible nitric oxide syntase expression, could be observed in macrophages after stimulation with the water extract, suggesting that biological activity may be due to direct mechanisms other than macrophage activation by means of NO production. In conclusion, the results demonstrate that the A. blazei Murill water extract can potentially be used as a therapeutic alternative on its own, or in association with other drugs, to treat Visceral and Cutaneous Leishmaniasis.

High molecular weight glucan of the culinary medicinal mushroom Agaricus bisporus is an alpha-glucan that forms complexes with low molecular weight galactan

An alpha-glucan was isolated from the culinary medicinal mushroom A. bisporus by hot water extraction, ethanol precipitation and DEAE-cellulose chromatography. The resulting material showed a single HMW peak excluded from a Sephadex G50 column that could completely be degraded by alpha-amylase treatment. After heating in 1% SDS a small additional peak of low MW eluted from the G50 column. The monosaccharide composition of the main peak was evaluated by HPLC, and was found to consist of a majority of glucose (97.6%), and a minor proportion of galactose (2.4%). Methylation analysis and degradation by alpha-amylase indicated the presence of an alpha-glucan with a main chain consisting of (1(R)4)-linked units, substituted at O-6 by alpha-D-glucopyranose single-units in the relation 1:8. Mono- (13C-, 1H-NMR) and bidimensional [1H (obs.),13C-HSQC] spectroscopy analysis confirmed the alpha-configuration of the Glcp residues by low frequency resonances of C-1 at delta 100.6, 100.2, and 98.8 ppm and H-1 high field ones at delta 5.06, 5.11, and 4.74 ppm. The DEPT-13C-NMR allowed assigning the non-substituted and O-substituted -CH(2) signals at delta 60.3/60.8 and 66.2 ppm, respectively. Other assignments were attributed to C-2, C-3, C-4, C-5 and C-6 of the non-reducing ends at delta 71.8; 72.8; 70.0; 71.3 and 60.3/60.8 ppm, respectively. The minor proportion of galactose that was demonstrated was probably derived from a complex between the alpha-glucan and a low molecular weight galactan.