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Snell-Rood EC, Ehlman SM. Developing the genotype-to-phenotype relationship in evolutionary theory: A primer of developmental features. Evol Dev 2023; 25:393-409. [PMID: 37026670 DOI: 10.1111/ede.12434] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2022] [Revised: 02/09/2023] [Accepted: 03/16/2023] [Indexed: 04/08/2023]
Abstract
For decades, there have been repeated calls for more integration across evolutionary and developmental biology. However, critiques in the literature and recent funding initiatives suggest this integration remains incomplete. We suggest one way forward is to consider how we elaborate the most basic concept of development, the relationship between genotype and phenotype, in traditional models of evolutionary processes. For some questions, when more complex features of development are accounted for, predictions of evolutionary processes shift. We present a primer on concepts of development to clarify confusion in the literature and fuel new questions and approaches. The basic features of development involve expanding a base model of genotype-to-phenotype to include the genome, space, and time. A layer of complexity is added by incorporating developmental systems, including signal-response systems and networks of interactions. The developmental emergence of function, which captures developmental feedbacks and phenotypic performance, offers further model elaborations that explicitly link fitness with developmental systems. Finally, developmental features such as plasticity and developmental niche construction conceptualize the link between a developing phenotype and the external environment, allowing for a fuller inclusion of ecology in evolutionary models. Incorporating aspects of developmental complexity into evolutionary models also accommodates a more pluralistic focus on the causal importance of developmental systems, individual organisms, or agents in generating evolutionary patterns. Thus, by laying out existing concepts of development, and considering how they are used across different fields, we can gain clarity in existing debates around the extended evolutionary synthesis and pursue new directions in evolutionary developmental biology. Finally, we consider how nesting developmental features in traditional models of evolution can highlight areas of evolutionary biology that need more theoretical attention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emilie C Snell-Rood
- Department of Ecology, Evolution and Behavior, University of Minnesota, St Paul, Minnesota, USA
| | - Sean M Ehlman
- Department of Ecology, Evolution and Behavior, University of Minnesota, St Paul, Minnesota, USA
- SCIoI Excellence Cluster, Leibniz Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries, Humboldt University, Berlin, Germany
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2
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Predator-induced transgenerational plasticity in animals: a meta-analysis. Oecologia 2022; 200:371-383. [DOI: 10.1007/s00442-022-05274-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2022] [Accepted: 10/06/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
AbstractThere is growing evidence that the environment experienced by one generation can influence phenotypes in the next generation via transgenerational plasticity (TGP). One of the best-studied examples of TGP in animals is predator-induced transgenerational plasticity, whereby exposing parents to predation risk triggers changes in offspring phenotypes. Yet, there is a lack of general consensus synthesizing the predator–prey literature with existing theory pertaining to ecology and evolution of TGP. Here, we apply a meta-analysis to the sizable literature on predator-induced TGP (441 effect sizes from 29 species and 49 studies) to explore five hypotheses about the magnitude, form and direction of predator-induced TGP. Hypothesis #1: the strength of predator-induced TGP should vary with the number of predator cues. Hypothesis #2: the strength of predator-induced TGP should vary with reproductive mode. Hypothesis #3: the strength and direction of predator-induced TGP should vary among offspring phenotypic traits because some traits are more plastic than others. Hypothesis #4: the strength of predator-induced TGP should wane over ontogeny. Hypothesis #5: predator-induced TGP should generate adaptive phenotypes that should be more evident when offspring are themselves exposed to risk. We found strong evidence for predator-induced TGP overall, but no evidence that parental predator exposure causes offspring traits to change in a particular direction. Additionally, we found little evidence in support of any of the specific hypotheses. We infer that the failure to find consistent evidence reflects the heterogeneous nature of the phenomena, and the highly diverse experimental designs used to study it. Together, these findings set an agenda for future work in this area.
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3
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Laubach ZM, Holekamp KE, Aris IM, Slopen N, Perng W. Applications of conceptual models from lifecourse epidemiology in ecology and evolutionary biology. Biol Lett 2022; 18:20220194. [PMID: 35855609 PMCID: PMC9297019 DOI: 10.1098/rsbl.2022.0194] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2022] [Accepted: 06/10/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
In ecology and evolutionary biology (EEB), the study of developmental plasticity seeks to understand ontogenetic processes underlying the phenotypes upon which natural selection acts. A central challenge to this inquiry is ascertaining a causal effect of the exposure on the manifestation of later-life phenotype due to the time elapsed between the two events. The exposure is a potential cause of the outcome-i.e. an environmental stimulus or experience. The later phenotype might be a behaviour, physiological condition, morphology or life-history trait. The latency period between the exposure and outcome complicates causal inference due to the inevitable occurrence of additional events that may affect the relationship of interest. Here, we describe six distinct but non-mutually exclusive conceptual models from the field of lifecourse epidemiology and discuss their applications to EEB research. The models include Critical Period with No Later Modifiers, Critical Period with Later Modifiers, Accumulation of Risk with Independent Risk Exposures, Accumulation of Risk with Risk Clustering, Accumulation of Risk with Chains of Risk and Accumulation of Risk with Trigger Effect. These models, which have been widely used to test causal hypotheses regarding the early origins of adult-onset disease in humans, are directly relevant to research on developmental plasticity in EEB.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zachary M. Laubach
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology (EEB), University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO, USA
- Mara Hyena Project, Karen, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Kay E. Holekamp
- Mara Hyena Project, Karen, Nairobi, Kenya
- Department of Integrative Biology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, USA
| | - Izzuddin M. Aris
- Division of Chronic Disease Research Across the Lifecourse, Department of Population Medicine, Harvard Medical School and Harvard Pilgrim Health Care Institute, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Natalie Slopen
- Department of Social and Behavioral Sciences, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Wei Perng
- Department of Epidemiology, Colorado School of Public Health, University of Colorado, Aurora, CO, USA
- Lifecourse Epidemiology of Adiposity and Diabetes (LEAD) Center, University of Colorado, Aurora, CO, USA
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4
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Rodrigues YK, van Bergen E, Alves F, Duneau D, Beldade P. Additive and non-additive effects of day and night temperatures on thermally plastic traits in a model for adaptive seasonal plasticity. Evolution 2021; 75:1805-1819. [PMID: 34097756 DOI: 10.1111/evo.14271] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2018] [Revised: 04/26/2021] [Accepted: 05/12/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Developmental plasticity can match organismal phenotypes to ecological conditions, helping populations to deal with the environmental heterogeneity of alternating seasons. In contrast to natural situations, experimental studies of plasticity often use environmental conditions that are held constant during development. To explore potential interactions between day and night temperatures, we tested effects of circadian temperature fluctuations on thermally plastic traits in a seasonally plastic butterfly, Bicyclus anynana. Comparing phenotypes for four treatments corresponding to a full-factorial analysis of cooler and warmer temperatures, we found evidence of significant interaction effects between day and night temperatures. We then focused on comparing phenotypes between individuals reared under two types of temperature fluctuations (warmer days with cooler nights, and cooler days with warmer nights) and individuals reared under a constant temperature of the same daily mean. We found evidence of additive-like effects (for body size), and different types of dominance-like effects, with one particular period of the light cycle (for development time) or one particular extreme temperature (for eyespot size) having a larger impact on phenotype. Differences between thermally plastic traits, which together underlie alternative seasonal strategies for survival and reproduction, revealed their independent responses to temperature. This study underscores the value of studying how organisms integrate complex environmental information toward a complete understanding of natural phenotypic variation and of the impact of environmental change thereon.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yara Katia Rodrigues
- Instituto Gulbenkian de Ciência, Oeiras, Portugal.,Current address: Atlantic Technical University (UTA), Mindelo, São Vicente island, Cabo Verde
| | - Erik van Bergen
- Instituto Gulbenkian de Ciência, Oeiras, Portugal.,Current address: Department of Evolutionary Biology and Environmental Studies, University of Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Filipa Alves
- Instituto Gulbenkian de Ciência, Oeiras, Portugal
| | - David Duneau
- Instituto Gulbenkian de Ciência, Oeiras, Portugal.,UMR 5174 - CNRS, Evolution et Diversité Biologique, University Paul Sabatier, Toulouse, France
| | - Patrícia Beldade
- Instituto Gulbenkian de Ciência, Oeiras, Portugal.,UMR 5174 - CNRS, Evolution et Diversité Biologique, University Paul Sabatier, Toulouse, France.,CE3C: Centre for Ecology, Evolution, and Environmental Changes, Faculty of Sciences, University of Lisbon, Portugal
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Harmon EA, Pfennig DW. Evolutionary rescue via transgenerational plasticity: Evidence and implications for conservation. Evol Dev 2021; 23:292-307. [PMID: 33522673 DOI: 10.1111/ede.12373] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2020] [Revised: 11/10/2020] [Accepted: 01/13/2021] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
When a population experiences severe stress from a changing environment, evolution by natural selection can prevent its extinction, a process dubbed "evolutionary rescue." However, evolution may be unable to track the sort of rapid environmental change being experienced by many modern-day populations. A potential solution is for organisms to respond to environmental change through phenotypic plasticity, which can buffer populations against change and thereby buy time for evolutionary rescue. In this review, we examine whether this process extends to situations in which the environmentally induced response is passed to offspring. As we describe, theoretical and empirical studies suggest that such "transgenerational plasticity" can increase population persistence. We discuss the implications of this process for conservation biology, outline potential limitations, and describe some applications. Generally, transgenerational plasticity may be effective at buying time for evolutionary rescue to occur.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emily A Harmon
- Department of Biology, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
| | - David W Pfennig
- Department of Biology, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
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Kelly PW, Pfennig DW, Pfennig KS. Adaptive Plasticity as a Fitness Benefit of Mate Choice. Trends Ecol Evol 2021; 36:294-307. [PMID: 33546877 DOI: 10.1016/j.tree.2021.01.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2020] [Revised: 12/29/2020] [Accepted: 01/06/2021] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Phenotypic plasticity and sexual selection can each promote adaptation in variable environments, but their combined influence on adaptive evolution is not well understood. We propose that sexual selection can facilitate adaptation in variable environments when individuals prefer mates that produce adaptively plastic offspring. We develop this hypothesis and review existing studies showing that diverse groups display both sexual selection and plasticity in nonsexual traits. Thus, plasticity could be a widespread but unappreciated benefit of mate choice. We describe methods and opportunities to test this hypothesis and describe how sexual selection might foster the evolution of phenotypic plasticity. Understanding this interplay between sexual selection and phenotypic plasticity might help predict which species will adapt to a rapidly changing world.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrick W Kelly
- Department of Biology, Coker Hall, CB#3280, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599-3280, USA.
| | - David W Pfennig
- Department of Biology, Coker Hall, CB#3280, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599-3280, USA
| | - Karin S Pfennig
- Department of Biology, Coker Hall, CB#3280, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599-3280, USA.
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Mouton JC, Tobalske BW, Wright NA, Martin TE. Risk of predation on offspring reduces parental provisioning, but not flight performance or survival across early life stages. Funct Ecol 2020. [DOI: 10.1111/1365-2435.13650] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- James C. Mouton
- Montana Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit University of Montana Missoula MT USA
| | - Bret W. Tobalske
- Field Research Station at Fort Missoula Division of Biological Sciences University of Montana Missoula MT USA
| | - Natalie A. Wright
- Field Research Station at Fort Missoula Division of Biological Sciences University of Montana Missoula MT USA
- Department of Biology Kenyon College Gambier OH USA
| | - Thomas E. Martin
- U.S. Geological Survey Montana Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit University of Montana Missoula MT USA
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8
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Jaumann S, Snell-Rood EC. Adult nutritional stress decreases oviposition choosiness and fecundity in female butterflies. Behav Ecol 2019. [DOI: 10.1093/beheco/arz022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Sarah Jaumann
- Department of Ecology, Evolution and Behavior, University of Minnesota, MN, USA
- Department of Biological Sciences, The George Washington University, NW, Suite, Washington, DC, USA
| | - Emilie C Snell-Rood
- Department of Ecology, Evolution and Behavior, University of Minnesota, MN, USA
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9
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Snell-Rood EC, Steck MK. Behaviour shapes environmental variation and selection on learning and plasticity: review of mechanisms and implications. Anim Behav 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2018.08.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
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10
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Corty RW, Valdar W. QTL Mapping on a Background of Variance Heterogeneity. G3 (BETHESDA, MD.) 2018; 8:3767-3782. [PMID: 30389794 DOI: 10.1101/276980] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
Standard QTL mapping procedures seek to identify genetic loci affecting the phenotypic mean while assuming that all individuals have the same residual variance. But when the residual variance differs systematically between groups, perhaps due to a genetic or environmental factor, such standard procedures can falter: in testing for QTL associations, they attribute too much weight to observations that are noisy and too little to those that are precise, resulting in reduced power and and increased susceptibility to false positives. The negative effects of such "background variance heterogeneity" (BVH) on standard QTL mapping have received little attention until now, although the subject is closely related to work on the detection of variance-controlling genes. Here we use simulation to examine how BVH affects power and false positive rate for detecting QTL affecting the mean (mQTL), the variance (vQTL), or both (mvQTL). We compare linear regression for mQTL and Levene's test for vQTL, with tests more recently developed, including tests based on the double generalized linear model (DGLM), which can model BVH explicitly. We show that, when used in conjunction with a suitable permutation procedure, the DGLM-based tests accurately control false positive rate and are more powerful than the other tests. We also find that some adverse effects of BVH can be mitigated by applying a rank inverse normal transform. We apply our novel approach, which we term "mean-variance QTL mapping", to publicly available data on a mouse backcross and, after accommodating BVH driven by sire, detect a new mQTL for bodyweight.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert W Corty
- Department of Genetics
- Bioinformatics and Computational Biology Curriculum
| | - William Valdar
- Department of Genetics
- Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC
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11
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Corty RW, Valdar W. QTL Mapping on a Background of Variance Heterogeneity. G3 (BETHESDA, MD.) 2018; 8:3767-3782. [PMID: 30389794 PMCID: PMC6288843 DOI: 10.1534/g3.118.200790] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2018] [Accepted: 10/28/2018] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Standard QTL mapping procedures seek to identify genetic loci affecting the phenotypic mean while assuming that all individuals have the same residual variance. But when the residual variance differs systematically between groups, perhaps due to a genetic or environmental factor, such standard procedures can falter: in testing for QTL associations, they attribute too much weight to observations that are noisy and too little to those that are precise, resulting in reduced power and and increased susceptibility to false positives. The negative effects of such "background variance heterogeneity" (BVH) on standard QTL mapping have received little attention until now, although the subject is closely related to work on the detection of variance-controlling genes. Here we use simulation to examine how BVH affects power and false positive rate for detecting QTL affecting the mean (mQTL), the variance (vQTL), or both (mvQTL). We compare linear regression for mQTL and Levene's test for vQTL, with tests more recently developed, including tests based on the double generalized linear model (DGLM), which can model BVH explicitly. We show that, when used in conjunction with a suitable permutation procedure, the DGLM-based tests accurately control false positive rate and are more powerful than the other tests. We also find that some adverse effects of BVH can be mitigated by applying a rank inverse normal transform. We apply our novel approach, which we term "mean-variance QTL mapping", to publicly available data on a mouse backcross and, after accommodating BVH driven by sire, detect a new mQTL for bodyweight.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert W Corty
- Department of Genetics
- Bioinformatics and Computational Biology Curriculum
| | - William Valdar
- Department of Genetics
- Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC
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12
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Snell-Rood EC, Kobiela, ME, Sikkink, KL, Shephard AM. Mechanisms of Plastic Rescue in Novel Environments. ANNUAL REVIEW OF ECOLOGY EVOLUTION AND SYSTEMATICS 2018. [DOI: 10.1146/annurev-ecolsys-110617-062622] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Adaptive phenotypic plasticity provides a mechanism of developmental rescue in novel and rapidly changing environments. Understanding the underlying mechanism of plasticity is important for predicting both the likelihood that a developmental response is adaptive and associated life-history trade-offs that could influence patterns of subsequent evolutionary rescue. Although evolved developmental switches may move organisms toward a new adaptive peak in a novel environment, such mechanisms often result in maladaptive responses. The induction of generalized physiological mechanisms in new environments is relatively more likely to result in adaptive responses to factors such as novel toxins, heat stress, or pathogens. Developmental selection forms of plasticity, which rely on within-individual selective processes, such as shaping of tissue architecture, trial-and-error learning, or acquired immunity, are particularly likely to result in adaptive plasticity in a novel environment. However, both the induction of plastic responses and the ability to be plastic through developmental selection come with significant costs, resulting in delays in reproduction, increased individual investment, and reduced fecundity. Thus, we might expect complex interactions between plastic responses that allow survival in novel environments and subsequent evolutionary responses at the population level.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emilie C. Snell-Rood
- Department of Ecology, Evolution and Behavior, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, Minnesota 55108, USA;, , ,
| | - Megan E. Kobiela,
- Department of Ecology, Evolution and Behavior, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, Minnesota 55108, USA;, , ,
| | - Kristin L. Sikkink,
- Department of Ecology, Evolution and Behavior, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, Minnesota 55108, USA;, , ,
| | - Alexander M. Shephard
- Department of Ecology, Evolution and Behavior, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, Minnesota 55108, USA;, , ,
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13
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Crookes S, DeRoy EM, Dick JTA, MacIsaac HJ. Comparative functional responses of introduced and native ladybird beetles track ecological impact through predation and competition. Biol Invasions 2018. [DOI: 10.1007/s10530-018-1843-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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14
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Jaumann S, Snell-Rood EC. Butterflies Do Not Alter Conspecific Avoidance in Response to Variation in Density. Integr Comp Biol 2017; 57:396-406. [DOI: 10.1093/icb/icx034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
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