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West M, Brown S, Noth E, Domitrovich J, Navarro DuBose K. A review of occupational exposures to carcinogens among wildland firefighters. JOURNAL OF OCCUPATIONAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL HYGIENE 2024:1-24. [PMID: 39357032 DOI: 10.1080/15459624.2024.2388532] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/04/2024]
Abstract
Wildfires can negatively impact the health and well-being of wildland firefighters through a variety of exposure pathways. Many studies have measured acute health effects from occupational exposure to pollutants in wildfire smoke; however, research specifically examining cancer risks from exposure to carcinogens is limited. This review aimed to better understand cancer risk in this occupation by assessing the existing evidence of exposures and summarizing measured concentrations of carcinogens among wildland firefighters. A systematic search was conducted to identify scientific papers using the following databases: Medline(OVID), Embase(OVID), PsycINFO(OVID), Cochrane Library, CINAHL(EBSCOHost), EconLit(EBSCOHost), Scopus, Agricultural and Environmental Science Collect(ProQuest), and NIOSHTIC-2. Forty-nine papers were identified that met eligibility criteria. Across the papers, 31 carcinogens were identified and quantified using a variety of assessment methods. Papers measured particulate matter (N = 26), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (N = 12), volatile organic compounds (N = 14), crystalline silica (N = 5), black carbon (N = 4), asbestos (N = 3), radionuclides (N = 7), and metals (N = 2). Most papers measured inhalation exposures through traditional air sampling methods, but a subset of exposures to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (N = 8), as well as heavy metals (N = 1), were measured through urinary biomarkers and naphthalene was measured using dermal wipe samples (N = 2). Although the heterogeneity of exposure assessment methods made direct comparison of concentrations difficult, the papers provide consistent evidence that wildland firefighters are regularly exposed to carcinogens. All wildland fire personnel should continue to implement recommended mitigation strategies and support new mitigations to reduce exposure to carcinogens on the job.
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Affiliation(s)
- Molly West
- National Technology and Development Program, USDA Forest Service, Missoula, Montana
| | - Skylar Brown
- National Technology and Development Program, USDA Forest Service, Missoula, Montana
| | - Elizabeth Noth
- Center for Occupational and Environmental Health Berkeley, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, California
| | - Joseph Domitrovich
- National Technology and Development Program, USDA Forest Service, Missoula, Montana
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Zadunayski T, Broznitsky N, Lichty D, Cherry N. Perceptions of Exposure and Mask Use in Wildland Firefighters. TOXICS 2024; 12:576. [PMID: 39195678 PMCID: PMC11360241 DOI: 10.3390/toxics12080576] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2024] [Revised: 07/19/2024] [Accepted: 08/02/2024] [Indexed: 08/29/2024]
Abstract
Wildland firefighters are exposed to airborne particulates, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and other hazardous substances. Respiratory protection is indicated, but information is lacking on the tasks and conditions for which mask wearing should be advised. Studies to assess respiratory protection in wildland firefighters were carried out in western Canada in 2021 and 2023. Sampling pumps measured airborne exposures and urinary 1-hydroxypyrene (1-HP) was assayed to indicate PAH absorption. Participants in 2021 reported the time for which they wore the mask during each task. In 2023, the use of masks was reported, and firefighters rated the smoke intensity. In 2021, 72 firefighters were monitored over 164 shifts and, in 2023, 89 firefighters were monitored for 263 shifts. In 2021, mask wearing was highest for those engaged in initial attack and hot spotting. Urinary 1-HP at the end of rotation was highest for those reporting initial attack, working on a prescribed fire and mop-up. In 2023, firefighter ratings of smoke intensity were strongly associated with measured particulate mass and with urinary 1-HP, but masks were not worn more often when there was higher smoke intensity. The data from the literature did not provide a clear indication of high-exposure tasks. Better task/exposure information is needed for firefighters to make informed decisions about mask wearing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tanis Zadunayski
- Division of Preventive Medicine, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2T4, Canada
| | | | - Drew Lichty
- Canada Wildfire, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2H1, Canada
| | - Nicola Cherry
- Division of Preventive Medicine, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2T4, Canada
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Teixeira J, Sousa G, Azevedo R, Almeida A, Delerue-Matos C, Wang X, Santos-Silva A, Rodrigues F, Oliveira M. Characterization of Wildland Firefighters' Exposure to Coarse, Fine, and Ultrafine Particles; Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons; and Metal(loid)s, and Estimation of Associated Health Risks. TOXICS 2024; 12:422. [PMID: 38922102 PMCID: PMC11209316 DOI: 10.3390/toxics12060422] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2024] [Revised: 06/06/2024] [Accepted: 06/07/2024] [Indexed: 06/27/2024]
Abstract
Firefighters' occupational activity causes cancer, and the characterization of exposure during firefighting activities remains limited. This work characterizes, for the first time, firefighters' exposure to (coarse/fine/ultrafine) particulate matter (PM) bound polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and metal(loid)s during prescribed fires, Fire 1 and Fire 2 (210 min). An impactor collected 14 PM fractions, the PM levels were determined by gravimetry, and the PM-bound PAHs and metal(loid)s were determined by chromatographic and spectroscopic methodologies, respectively. Firefighters were exposed to a total PM level of 1408.3 and 342.5 µg/m3 in Fire 1 and Fire 2, respectively; fine/ultrafine PM represented more than 90% of total PM. Total PM-bound PAHs (3260.2 ng/m3 in Fire 1; 412.1 ng/m3 in Fire 2) and metal(loid)s (660.8 ng/m3 versus 262.2 ng/m3), distributed between fine/ultrafine PM, contained 4.57-24.5% and 11.7-12.6% of (possible/probable) carcinogenic PAHs and metal(loid)s, respectively. Firefighters' exposure to PM, PAHs, and metal(loid)s were below available occupational limits. The estimated carcinogenic risks associated with the inhalation of PM-bound PAHs (3.78 × 10-9 - 1.74 × 10-6) and metal(loid)s (1.50 × 10-2 - 2.37 × 10-2) were, respectively, below and 150-237 times higher than the acceptable risk level defined by the USEPA during 210 min of firefighting activity and assuming a 40-year career as a firefighter. Additional studies need to (1) explore exposure to (coarse/fine/ultrafine) PM, (2) assess health risks, (3) identify intervention needs, and (4) support regulatory agencies recommending mitigation procedures to reduce the impact of fire effluents on firefighters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joana Teixeira
- REQUIMTE/LAQV, Instituto Superior de Engenharia do Porto, Instituto Politécnico do Porto, R. Dr. António Bernardino de Almeida 431, 4249-015 Porto, Portugal
- REQUIMTE/UCIBIO, Unidade de Ciências Biomoleculares Aplicadas, Departamento de Ciências Biológicas, Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade do Porto, R. Jorge de Viterbo Ferreira 228, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal
| | - Gabriel Sousa
- REQUIMTE/LAQV, Instituto Superior de Engenharia do Porto, Instituto Politécnico do Porto, R. Dr. António Bernardino de Almeida 431, 4249-015 Porto, Portugal
| | - Rui Azevedo
- REQUIMTE/LAQV, Departamento de Ciências Químicas, Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade do Porto, R. Jorge Viterbo Ferreira, 228, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal
| | - Agostinho Almeida
- REQUIMTE/LAQV, Departamento de Ciências Químicas, Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade do Porto, R. Jorge Viterbo Ferreira, 228, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal
| | - Cristina Delerue-Matos
- REQUIMTE/LAQV, Instituto Superior de Engenharia do Porto, Instituto Politécnico do Porto, R. Dr. António Bernardino de Almeida 431, 4249-015 Porto, Portugal
| | - Xianyu Wang
- QAEHS, Queensland Alliance for Environmental Health Sciences, The University of Queensland, 20 Cornwall Street, Woolloongabba, QLD 4102, Australia
| | - Alice Santos-Silva
- REQUIMTE/UCIBIO, Unidade de Ciências Biomoleculares Aplicadas, Departamento de Ciências Biológicas, Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade do Porto, R. Jorge de Viterbo Ferreira 228, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal
- Laboratório Associado i4HB, Instituto para a Saúde e a Bioeconomia, Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade do Porto, R. Jorge de Viterbo Ferreira 228, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal
| | - Francisca Rodrigues
- REQUIMTE/LAQV, Instituto Superior de Engenharia do Porto, Instituto Politécnico do Porto, R. Dr. António Bernardino de Almeida 431, 4249-015 Porto, Portugal
| | - Marta Oliveira
- REQUIMTE/LAQV, Instituto Superior de Engenharia do Porto, Instituto Politécnico do Porto, R. Dr. António Bernardino de Almeida 431, 4249-015 Porto, Portugal
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Abstract
Firefighters are the professional force at high risk of suffering potential health consequences due to their chronic exposure to numerous hazardous pollutants during firefighting activities. Unfortunately, determination of fire emission exposure is very challenging. As such, the identification and development of appropriate biomarkers is critical in meeting this need. This chapter presents a critical review of current information related with the use of different urinary biomarkers of effect and exposure in occupationally exposed firefighters over the last 25 years. Evidence suggests that urinary isoprostanes and mutagenicity testing are promising biomarkers of early oxidative stress. Data indicate that firefighters participating in firefighting activities present with increased urinary biomarkers of exposure. These include polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, heavy metals and metalloids, organo-chlorine and -phosphorus compounds, environmental phenols, phthalates, benzene and toluene. More studies are urgently needed to better evaluate firefighter occupational safety and health and to support the implementation of preventive measures and mitigation strategies to promote the protection of this chronically exposed group of workers.
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Navarro K. Working in Smoke:: Wildfire Impacts on the Health of Firefighters and Outdoor Workers and Mitigation Strategies. Clin Chest Med 2021; 41:763-769. [PMID: 33153693 DOI: 10.1016/j.ccm.2020.08.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Wildland firefighters work on wildfire incidents all over the United States and perform arduous work under extreme work conditions, including exposure to smoke. Wildland fire smoke is a mixture of hazardous air pollutants. For assessing wildland firefighter exposure to smoke, most studies measured carbon monoixde (CO) and particulate matter and reported changes in lung health by measured lung function, airway responsiveness, and respiratory symptoms across individual work shifts and single fire seasons. All fire personnel should understand the hazards of smoke and develop ways to mitigate exposure to smoke.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kathleen Navarro
- National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1090 Tusculum Avenue MS 13, Cincinnati, OH, USA.
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Poutasse CM, Poston WSC, Jahnke SA, Haddock CK, Tidwell LG, Hoffman PD, Anderson KA. Discovery of firefighter chemical exposures using military-style silicone dog tags. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2020; 142:105818. [PMID: 32521346 PMCID: PMC9985454 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2020.105818] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2020] [Revised: 05/13/2020] [Accepted: 05/14/2020] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
Occupational chemical hazards in the fire service are hypothesized to play a role in increased cancer risk, and reliable sampling technologies are necessary for conducting firefighter chemical exposure assessments. This study presents the military-style dog tag as a new configuration of silicone passive sampling device to sample individual firefighters' exposures at one high and one low fire call volume department in the Kansas City, Missouri metropolitan area. The recruited firefighters (n = 56) wore separate dog tags to assess on- and off-duty exposures (ndogtags = 110), for a total of 30 24 h shifts. Using a 63 PAH method (GC-MS/MS), the tags detected 45 unique PAHs, of which 18 have not been previously reported as firefighting exposures. PAH concentrations were higher for on- compared to off-duty tags (0.25 < Cohen's d ≤ 0.80) and for the high compared to the low fire call volume department (0.25 ≤ d < 0.70). Using a 1530 analyte screening method (GC-MS), di-n-butyl phthalate, diisobutyl phthalate, guaiacol, and DEET were commonly detected analytes. The number of fire attacks a firefighter participated in was more strongly correlated with PAH concentrations than firefighter rank or years in the fire service. This suggested that quantitative data should be employed for firefighter exposure assessments, rather than surrogate measures. Because several detected analytes are listed as possible carcinogens, future firefighter exposure studies should consider evaluating complex mixtures to assess individual health risks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carolyn M Poutasse
- Department of Toxicology, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331, USA
| | - Walker S C Poston
- Center for Fire, Rescue, and EMS Health Research, NDRI-USA, Leawood, KS 66224, USA
| | - Sara A Jahnke
- Center for Fire, Rescue, and EMS Health Research, NDRI-USA, Leawood, KS 66224, USA
| | | | - Lane G Tidwell
- Department of Toxicology, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331, USA
| | - Peter D Hoffman
- Department of Toxicology, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331, USA
| | - Kim A Anderson
- Department of Toxicology, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331, USA.
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Engelsman M, Toms LML, Banks APW, Wang X, Mueller JF. Biomonitoring in firefighters for volatile organic compounds, semivolatile organic compounds, persistent organic pollutants, and metals: A systematic review. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2020; 188:109562. [PMID: 32526498 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2020.109562] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2020] [Revised: 04/15/2020] [Accepted: 04/19/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Firefighters are exposed to a wide range of toxic chemicals due to combustion, with numerous biomonitoring studies completed that have assessed exposure. Many of these studies focus on individual classes of chemicals, with a few considering a broad range of systemic exposures. As yet, no review process has been undertaken to comprehensively examine these studies. The aims of this review are to: (1) ascertain whether biomonitoring studies pertaining to firefighters demonstrate occupational exposure to volatile organic compounds, semivolatile organic compounds, and metals; (2) determine and present results of biomonitoring studies; (3) provide any recommendations presented from the literature that may support exposure mitigation; and (4) suggest future study parameters that may assist in providing a greater understanding surrounding the occupational exposure of firefighters. A systematic review was undertaken with regards to firefighters and biomonitoring studies utilising the matrices of blood, urine, semen and breast milk. This yielded 5690 results. Following duplicate removal, inclusion and exclusion criteria screening and full text screening, 34 studies remained for review. Results of over 80% of studies analysed determined firefighters to experience occupational exposure. Results also show firefighters to be exposed to a wide range of toxic chemicals due to fire smoke; potentially exceeding the range of exposure of other occupations. As firefighters may face increased risk of health effects due to the additive, synergistic, and/or antagonistic effects of chemical exposure, all care must be taken to reduce exposure. This may be achieved by considering tactical decisions, increased personal hygiene, and thorough decontamination procedures. Future biomonitoring studies recognising and assessing the range of chemical exposure firefighters face would be beneficial.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michelle Engelsman
- Fire and Rescue NSW, 1 Amarina Avenue, Greenacre, NSW, 2190, Australia; QAEHS, Queensland Alliance for Environmental Health Sciences, The University of Queensland, 20 Cornwall Street, Woolloongabba, Queensland, 4102, Australia.
| | - Leisa-Maree L Toms
- School of Public Health and Social Work and Institute of Biomedical Health and Innovation, Faculty of Health, Queensland University of Technology, Kelvin Grove, Australia
| | - Andrew P W Banks
- QAEHS, Queensland Alliance for Environmental Health Sciences, The University of Queensland, 20 Cornwall Street, Woolloongabba, Queensland, 4102, Australia
| | - Xianyu Wang
- QAEHS, Queensland Alliance for Environmental Health Sciences, The University of Queensland, 20 Cornwall Street, Woolloongabba, Queensland, 4102, Australia
| | - Jochen F Mueller
- QAEHS, Queensland Alliance for Environmental Health Sciences, The University of Queensland, 20 Cornwall Street, Woolloongabba, Queensland, 4102, Australia
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Exposure to Wood Smoke and Associated Health Effects in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Systematic Review. Ann Glob Health 2020; 86:32. [PMID: 32211302 PMCID: PMC7082829 DOI: 10.5334/aogh.2725] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Observational studies suggest that exposure to wood smoke is associated with a variety of adverse health effects in humans. Objective We aimed to summarise evidence from sub-Saharan Africa on levels of exposure to pollutants in wood smoke and the association between such exposures and adverse health outcomes. Methods PubMed and Google scholar databases were searched for original articles reporting personal exposure levels to pollutants or health outcomes associated with wood smoke exposure in Sub-Saharan African population. Results Mean personal PM2.5 and carbon monoxide levels in the studies ranged from 26.3 ± 1.48 μg/m3 to 1574 ± 287μg/m3 and from 0.64 ± 2.12 ppm to 22 ± 2.4 ppm, respectively. All the reported personal PM2.5 exposure levels were higher than the World Health Organization's Air Quality Guideline (AQG) for 24-hour mean exposure. Use of wood fuels in domestic cooking is the major source of wood smoke exposure in this population. Occupational exposure to wood smoke included the use of wood fuels in bakery, fish drying, cassava processing and charcoal production. Females were exposed to higher levels of these pollutants than males of the same age range. Major determinants for higher exposure to wood smoke in SSA included use of unprocessed firewood, female gender and occupational exposure. We recorded strong and consistent associations between exposure to wood smoke and respiratory diseases including acute respiratory illness and impaired lung function. Positive associations were reported for increased blood pressure, low birth weight, oesophageal cancer, sick building syndrome, non-syndromic cleft lip and/or cleft palate and under-five mortality. Conclusion There is high level of exposure to wood smoke in SSA and this exposure is associated with a number of adverse health effects. There is urgent need for aggressive programs to reduce wood smoke exposure in this population.
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Sood A, Assad NA, Barnes PJ, Churg A, Gordon SB, Harrod KS, Irshad H, Kurmi OP, Martin WJ, Meek P, Mortimer K, Noonan CW, Perez-Padilla R, Smith KR, Tesfaigzi Y, Ward T, Balmes J. ERS/ATS workshop report on respiratory health effects of household air pollution. Eur Respir J 2018; 51:51/1/1700698. [PMID: 29301918 DOI: 10.1183/13993003.00698-2017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2017] [Accepted: 08/08/2017] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Exposure to household air pollution (HAP) from solid fuel combustion affects almost half of the world population. Adverse respiratory outcomes such as respiratory infections, impaired lung growth and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease have been linked to HAP exposure. Solid fuel smoke is a heterogeneous mixture of various gases and particulates. Cell culture and animal studies with controlled exposure conditions and genetic homogeneity provide important insights into HAP mechanisms. Impaired bacterial phagocytosis in exposed human alveolar macrophages possibly mediates several HAP-related health effects. Lung pathological findings in HAP-exposed individuals demonstrate greater small airways fibrosis and less emphysema compared with cigarette smokers. Field studies using questionnaires, air pollution monitoring and/or biomarkers are needed to better establish human risks. Some, but not all, studies suggest that improving cookstove efficiency or venting emissions may be associated with reduced respiratory symptoms, lung function decline in women and severe pneumonia in children. Current studies focus on fuel switching, stove technology replacements or upgrades and air filter devices. Several governments have initiated major programmes to accelerate the upgrade from solid fuels to clean fuels, particularly liquid petroleum gas, which provides research opportunities for the respiratory health community.
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Affiliation(s)
- Akshay Sood
- University of New Mexico School of Medicine, Albuquerque, NM, USA
| | - Nour A Assad
- University of New Mexico School of Medicine, Albuquerque, NM, USA
| | - Peter J Barnes
- National Heart and Lung Institute, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - Andrew Churg
- University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | | | - Kevin S Harrod
- University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, USA
| | - Hammad Irshad
- Lovelace Respiratory Research Institute, Albuquerque, NM, USA
| | | | | | - Paula Meek
- University of Colorado at Denver, Denver, CO, USA
| | | | | | | | - Kirk R Smith
- University of California School of Public Health, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | | | - Tony Ward
- University of Montana, Missoula, MT, USA
| | - John Balmes
- University of California School of Public Health, Berkeley, CA, USA.,University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA
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Adetona O, Simpson CD, Li Z, Sjodin A, Calafat AM, Naeher LP. Hydroxylated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons as biomarkers of exposure to wood smoke in wildland firefighters. JOURNAL OF EXPOSURE SCIENCE & ENVIRONMENTAL EPIDEMIOLOGY 2017; 27:78-83. [PMID: 26555473 PMCID: PMC5140750 DOI: 10.1038/jes.2015.75] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2015] [Revised: 10/13/2015] [Accepted: 10/17/2015] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
Wildland firefighter's exposure to wildland fire or vegetative biomass smoke has mostly been assessed by personal monitoring to airborne pollutants. However, the use of biomarkers may accurately reflect the internal (systemic) dose received by the firefighter. In this study, we assessed occupational exposure to wildland fire smoke in 14 wildland firefighters working at prescribed burns at the Savannah River Site, South Carolina by measuring the urinary concentrations of nine hydroxylated metabolites of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (OH-PAHs). Except for 1-hydroxynaphthalene, preshift median concentrations of the OH-PAHs were higher compared with the median concentrations reported among the US general population, indicating elevated exposures to PAHs among the wildland firefighters during the prescribed burn season. The postshift concentrations of OH-PAHs were 83-323% (P<0.0001) higher compared with the preshift concentrations. Higher postshift concentrations of individual OH-PAHs were observed in 49 (87.5%) to 53 (94.6%) of all the 56 pre-post sample pairs. Additionally, the cross-shift (pre- to postshift) increase in 4-hydroxy-phenanthrene urinary concentration was marginally associated (P<0.1) with work shift exposure to PM2.5 and significantly associated (P<0.05) with levoglucosan, which is a marker of wildland fire or vegetative biomass smoke. These results suggest that OH-PAHs, especially 4PHE, may be useful biomarkers of wildland fire smoke exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olorunfemi Adetona
- Department of Environmental Health Science, The University of Georgia, College of Public Health, Athens, Georgia, USA
- Division of Environmental Health Sciences, The Ohio State University, College of Public Health, Columbus, Ohio, USA
| | - Christopher D. Simpson
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences, University of Washington, School of Public Health, Seattle, Washington, USA
| | - Zheng Li
- The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Environmental Health, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Andreas Sjodin
- The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Environmental Health, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Antonia M. Calafat
- The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Environmental Health, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Luke P. Naeher
- Department of Environmental Health Science, The University of Georgia, College of Public Health, Athens, Georgia, USA
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11
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Fernando S, Shaw L, Shaw D, Gallea M, VandenEnden L, House R, Verma DK, Britz-McKibbin P, McCarry BE. Evaluation of Firefighter Exposure to Wood Smoke during Training Exercises at Burn Houses. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2016; 50:1536-1543. [PMID: 26726952 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.5b04752] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Smoke from wood-fueled fires is one of the most common hazards encountered by firefighters worldwide. Wood smoke is complex in nature and contains numerous compounds, including methoxyphenols (MPs) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), some of which are carcinogenic. Chronic exposure to wood smoke can lead to adverse health outcomes, including respiratory infections, impaired lung function, cardiac infarctions, and cancers. At training exercises held in burn houses at four fire departments across Ontario, air samples, skin wipes, and urine specimens from a cohort of firefighters (n = 28) were collected prior to and after exposure. Wood was the primary fuel used in these training exercises. Air samples showed that MP concentrations were on average 5-fold greater than those of PAHs. Skin wipe samples acquired from multiple body sites of firefighters indicated whole-body smoke exposure. A suite of MPs (methyl-, ethyl-, and propylsyringol) and deconjugated PAH metabolites (hydroxynaphthalene, hydroxyfluorene, hydroxyphenanthrene, and their isomers) were found to be sensitive markers of smoke exposure in urine. Creatinine-normalized levels of these markers were significantly elevated (p < 0.05) in 24 h postexposure urine despite large between-subject variations that were dependent on the specific operational roles of firefighters while using personal protective equipment. This work offers deeper insight into potential health risk from smoke exposure that is needed for translation of better mitigation policies, including improved equipment to reduce direct skin absorption and standardized hygiene practices implemented at different regional fire services.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sujan Fernando
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, McMaster University , 1280 Main Street West, Hamilton, ON L8S 4M1, Canada
| | - Lorraine Shaw
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, McMaster University , 1280 Main Street West, Hamilton, ON L8S 4M1, Canada
| | - Don Shaw
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, McMaster University , 1280 Main Street West, Hamilton, ON L8S 4M1, Canada
| | - Michael Gallea
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, McMaster University , 1280 Main Street West, Hamilton, ON L8S 4M1, Canada
| | - Lori VandenEnden
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, McMaster University , 1280 Main Street West, Hamilton, ON L8S 4M1, Canada
| | - Ron House
- University of Toronto , 80 St. George Street, Toronto, ON M5S 3H6, Canada
| | - Dave K Verma
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, McMaster University , 1280 Main Street West, Hamilton, ON L8S 4M1, Canada
| | - Philip Britz-McKibbin
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, McMaster University , 1280 Main Street West, Hamilton, ON L8S 4M1, Canada
| | - Brian E McCarry
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, McMaster University , 1280 Main Street West, Hamilton, ON L8S 4M1, Canada
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12
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Toxicity of wood smoke particles in human A549 lung epithelial cells: the role of PAHs, soot and zinc. Arch Toxicol 2016; 90:3029-3044. [DOI: 10.1007/s00204-016-1659-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2015] [Accepted: 01/04/2016] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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13
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Naeher LP, Barr DB, Adetona O, Simpson CD. Urinary levoglucosan as a biomarker for woodsmoke exposure in wildland firefighters. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF OCCUPATIONAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH 2013; 19:304-10. [DOI: 10.1179/2049396713y.0000000037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/31/2022]
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14
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Wagenstaller M, Buettner A. Quantitative determination of common urinary odorants and their glucuronide conjugates in human urine. Metabolites 2013; 3:637-57. [PMID: 24958143 PMCID: PMC3901281 DOI: 10.3390/metabo3030637] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2013] [Revised: 07/24/2013] [Accepted: 07/26/2013] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Our previous study on the identification of common odorants and their conjugates in human urine demonstrated that this substance fraction is a little-understood but nonetheless a promising medium for analysis and diagnostics in this easily accessible physiological medium. Smell as an indicator for diseases, or volatile excretion in the course of dietary processes bares high potential for a series of physiological insights. Still, little is known today about the quantitative composition of odorous or volatile targets, as well as their non-volatile conjugates, both with regard to their common occurrence in urine of healthy subjects, as well as in that of individuals suffering from diseases or other physiological misbalancing. Accordingly, the aim of our study was to develop a highly sensitive and selective approach to determine the common quantitative composition of selected odorant markers in healthy human subjects, as well as their corresponding glucuronide conjugates. We used one- and two-dimensional high resolution gas chromatography-mass spectrometry in combination with stable isotope dilution assays to quantify commonly occurring and potent odorants in human urine. The studies were carried out on both native urine and on urine that had been treated by glucuronidase assays, with analysis of the liberated odor-active compounds using the same techniques. Analytical data are discussed with regard to their potential translation as future diagnostic tool.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Wagenstaller
- Department for Chemistry and Pharmacy, University of Erlangen-Nuremberg, Emil Fischer Center, Schuhstr. 19, Erlangen 91052, Germany.
| | - Andrea Buettner
- Department for Chemistry and Pharmacy, University of Erlangen-Nuremberg, Emil Fischer Center, Schuhstr. 19, Erlangen 91052, Germany.
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Wallner P, Kundi M, Moshammer H, Scharf S, Schmutzer M, Weiss S, Hohenblum P, Hutter HP. Urinary levoglucosan levels in Austrian communities differing in agrarian quota. Int J Hyg Environ Health 2013; 216:280-3. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijheh.2012.05.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2011] [Revised: 04/07/2012] [Accepted: 05/01/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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Rylance J, Gordon SB, Naeher LP, Patel A, Balmes JR, Adetona O, Rogalsky DK, Martin WJ. Household air pollution: a call for studies into biomarkers of exposure and predictors of respiratory disease. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol 2013; 304:L571-8. [PMID: 23457186 DOI: 10.1152/ajplung.00416.2012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Household air pollution (HAP) from indoor burning of biomass or coal is a leading global cause of morbidity and mortality, mostly due to its association with acute respiratory infection in children and chronic respiratory and cardiovascular diseases in adults. Interventions that have significantly reduced exposure to HAP improve health outcomes and may reduce mortality. However, we lack robust, specific, and field-ready biomarkers to identify populations at greatest risk and to monitor the effectiveness of interventions. New scientific approaches are urgently needed to develop biomarkers of human exposure that accurately reflect exposure or effect. In this Perspective, we describe the global need for such biomarkers, the aims of biomarker development, and the state of development of tests that have the potential for rapid transition from laboratory bench to field use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jamie Rylance
- Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool, United Kingdom
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Britton C, Lynch CF, Torner J, Peek-Asa C. Fire characteristics associated with firefighter injury on large federal wildland fires. Ann Epidemiol 2012; 23:37-42. [PMID: 23212031 DOI: 10.1016/j.annepidem.2012.11.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2012] [Revised: 11/02/2012] [Accepted: 11/09/2012] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE Wildland fires present many injury hazards to firefighters. We estimate injury rates and identify fire-related factors associated with injury. METHODS Data from the National Interagency Fire Center from 2003 to 2007 provided the number of injuries in which the firefighter could not return to his or her job assignment, person-days worked, and fire characteristics (year, region, season, cause, fuel type, resistance to control, and structures destroyed). We assessed fire-level risk factors of having at least one reported injury using logistic regression. Negative binomial regression was used to examine incidence rate ratios associated with fire-level risk factors. RESULTS Of 867 fires, 9.5% required the most complex management and 24.7% required the next-highest level of management. Fires most often occurred in the western United States (82.8%), during the summer (69.6%), caused by lightening (54.9%). Timber was the most frequent fuel source (40.2%). Peak incident management level, person-days of exposure, and the fire's resistance to control were significantly related to the odds of a fire having at least one reported injury. However, the most complex fires had a lower injury incidence rate than less complex fires. CONCLUSIONS Although fire complexity and the number of firefighters were associated with the risk for at least one reported injury, the more experienced and specialized firefighting teams had lower injury incidence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carla Britton
- Department of Epidemiology, University of Iowa, IA 52242, USA
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Britton C, Lynch CF, Ramirez M, Torner J, Buresh C, Peek-Asa C. Epidemiology of injuries to wildland firefighters. Am J Emerg Med 2012; 31:339-45. [PMID: 23158597 DOI: 10.1016/j.ajem.2012.08.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2012] [Accepted: 08/24/2012] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Wildland fires have significant ecologic and economic impact in the United States. Despite the number of firefighters involved in controlling them, little is known about the injuries that they sustain. We hypothesized that the mechanism of injury would predict injury characteristics and severity of fire-related injuries. METHODS We examined firefighter injuries reported to the US Department of the Interior from the years 2003 to 2007. Associations between the injury mechanism and the injury diagnosis and body part were assessed. A logistic regression model was used to evaluate the odds of disabling injury associated with mechanism of injury after controlling for demographic and temporal variables. RESULTS A total of 1301 nonfatal injuries to wildland firefighters were reported during the 5-year period. Mechanism of injury was significantly associated with the type of injury and injured body part (P ≤ .001). The most common injury mechanism was slips/trips/falls followed by equipment/tools/machinery. Injuries from poisoning or environmental exposure were less likely to lead to severe injury than slips, trips, or falls (odds ratio, 0.45; 95% confidence interval, 0.21-0.95). Compared with injuries in the early and peak season, those in the late season had more than twice the odds of being severe (odds ratio, 2.24; 95% confidence interval, 1.23-4.10). DISCUSSION This study contributes important knowledge for implementing evidence-based injury prevention programs, for planning emergency medical responses on fire incidents and for provoking further inquiry into occupational risk factors affecting this high-risk occupational group.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carla Britton
- Department of Epidemiology, College of Public Health, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, USA
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Woodsmoke marker levoglucosan: kinetics in a self-experiment. Int J Occup Med Environ Health 2012; 25:122-5. [PMID: 22528541 DOI: 10.2478/s13382-012-0023-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2011] [Accepted: 01/03/2012] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Concerns on climate change are leading to the renaissance of wood burning and particulate exposures. Levoglucosan is used as a marker of woodsmoke in air and urine. OBJECTIVES Contribution of data on urinary excretion of levoglucosan, to improve biomonitoring and source apportionment of woodsmoke. MATERIALS AND METHODS 1, 3, 5, and 7 hours after 5 mg of levoglucosan had been administered orally, urinary excretion was measured by HPLC and mass spectrometry. RESULTS After oral intake, urine concentrations increased rapidly, reached highest values after 3 hours, and after 7 hours approximately 70% of the administered dose was excreted. CONCLUSIONS Urinary levoglucosan may be used for biomonitoring of woodsmoke exposure on the same day.
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Lim D, Ikeda A, Vu KKT, Yamaguchi KT, Tyner TR, Hasson AS. Method development for the measurement of quinone levels in urine. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2011; 879:3592-8. [PMID: 22024390 DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2011.09.051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2011] [Revised: 09/20/2011] [Accepted: 09/28/2011] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
A method was developed for the quantification of 1-4 ring quinones in urine samples using liquid-liquid extraction followed by analysis with gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Detection limits for the ten quinones analyzed are in the range 1-2 nmol dm(-3). The potential use of this approach to monitor urinary quinone levels was then evaluated in urine samples from both Sprague-Dawley rats and human subjects. Rats were exposed to 9,10-phenanthraquinone (PQ) by both injection and ingestion (mixed with solid food and dissolved in drinking water). Urinary levels of PQ were found to increase by up to a factor of ten compared to control samples, and the levels were found to depend on both the dose and duration of exposure. Samples were also collected and analyzed periodically from human subjects over the course of six months. Eight quinones were detected in the samples, with levels varying from below the detection limit up to 3 μmol dm(-3).
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Affiliation(s)
- Dianne Lim
- Department of Chemistry, California State University, Fresno, CA 93740, USA
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Abstract
Research in burn care for the calendar year 2009 was robust and diverse with >1400 research articles published on a wide range of topics. In this review, the authors highlight some innovative and potentially impactful research related to the overall care of burn- injured patients. The authors grouped articles according to the following categories: critical care, infection, inhalation injury, epidemiology, psychology, wound characterization and treatment, nutrition and metabolism, pain and itch management, burn reconstruction, and rehabilitation. They found that the holistic nature of burn care is reflected in the diverse research performed in 2009 throughout the world and that this research has provided important evidence that has improved or will improve burn care overall.
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Bieniek G, Stepien K. Occupational exposure to phenolic compounds at coke plants--urinary excretion of methoxyphenols as an indicator of exposure to methoxyphenols. J Occup Health 2011; 53:110-4. [PMID: 21245652 DOI: 10.1539/joh.o10005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES This study describes the exposure of coke plant workers to methoxyphenols. The relationship between exposure to methoxyphenols and urinary excretion of metabolites was examined. METHODS We determined concentrations of 2-methoxyphenol, 2-methoxy-4-methylphenol and 1-(4-hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl)ethanone in the breathing-zone air and in the urine of workers, collected after the workshift. Urine metabolites were extracted after enzymatic hydrolysis by solid-phase extraction. Concentrations of methoxyphenols in air and urine were determined by gas chromatography with flame-ionization. RESULTS The time-weighted average concentrations (median) of methoxyphenols in the breathing zone air were as follows: 9.9 ng/m(3), 15.4 ng/m(3) and 92.5 ng/m(3) for 2-methoxyphenol, 2-methoxy-4-methylphenol and 1-(4-hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl)ethanone, respectively. The median values of urinary concentrations were as follows: 582.5, 190.1, 235.0 and 21.8 µmol/mol creatinine for 2-methoxyphenol, 2-methoxy-4 methylphenol, 1-(4-hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl)ethanone and 2,6-dimethoxyphenol, respectively. A statistically significant correlation between the exposure level and the urinary level was found for 2-methoxyphenol (r=0.573, p<0.01). CONCLUSION We found that the presence of 2-methoxyphenol in urine can be used as a biomarker for 2-methoxyphenol exposure. The analysis performed at the coke plant showed that the workers were exposed to relatively low concentrations of methoxyphenols.
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Affiliation(s)
- Grazyna Bieniek
- Department of Instrumental Analysis, Faculty of Pharmacy, Medical University of Silesia, Sosnowiec, Poland.
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Kumar P, Deb U, Gautam A, Vijayaraghavan R, Ratna D, Chakraborty B. Comparative effects of pyrolytic products of fiber reinforced plastic and wood shavings on the respiratory variables in mice. Inhal Toxicol 2010; 22:778-84. [DOI: 10.3109/08958371003798043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
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Bergauff MA, Ward TJ, Noonan CW, Migliaccio CT, Simpson CD, Evanoski AR, Palmer CP. Urinary levoglucosan as a biomarker of wood smoke: results of human exposure studies. JOURNAL OF EXPOSURE SCIENCE & ENVIRONMENTAL EPIDEMIOLOGY 2010; 20:385-92. [PMID: 19707249 PMCID: PMC2874078 DOI: 10.1038/jes.2009.46] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
Urinary levoglucosan was investigated as a potential biomarker of wood smoke exposure in two different controlled experimental settings. Nine subjects were exposed to smoke from a campfire in a controlled setting, and four were exposed to smoke from an older-model wood stove. All subjects were asked to provide urine samples before and after exposure, and to wear personal particulate matter with a diameter of < or =2.5 microm (PM(2.5)) monitors during exposure. Urinary levoglucosan measurements from both studies showed no consistent response to the smoke exposure. A third experiment was conducted to assess the contribution of dietary factors to urinary levoglucosan levels. Nine subjects were asked to consume caramel and provide urine samples before and after consumption. Urinary levoglucosan levels increased within 2 h of caramel consumption and returned to pre-exposure levels within 24 h. These studies suggest that diet is a major factor in determining urinary levoglucosan levels and that recent dietary history needs to be taken into account for future work involving levoglucosan as a biomarker of wood smoke exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Tony J. Ward
- Center for Environmental Health Sciences, Department of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, The University of Montana
| | - Curtis W. Noonan
- Center for Environmental Health Sciences, Department of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, The University of Montana
| | - Christopher T. Migliaccio
- Center for Environmental Health Sciences, Department of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, The University of Montana
| | - Christopher D. Simpson
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences, School of Public Health, University of Washington
| | - Ashley R. Evanoski
- Department of Chemistry, The University of Montana
- Department of Chemistry, Susquehanna University
| | - Christopher P. Palmer
- Department of Chemistry, The University of Montana
- Corresponding author. Fax: (406) 243-4227. Tel: (406) 243-4079 32 Campus Drive Missoula, MT 59801
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Abstract
It has been clearly established that exposure to wood smoke is associated with a variety of adverse health effects in humans. However, we still have much to learn about the relationship between wood-smoke exposure and disease, including determination of what should be considered a "safe" level of exposure, and whether wood smoke should be regulated separately from other sources of air pollution. To help answer these questions, improved measures of exposure in populations exposed to wood smoke are required. In this mini-review we discuss how biomarkers of exposure can be used to complement the current suite of methods used to assess wood-smoke exposures. We critically review the compounds that are currently being evaluated as biomarkers of exposure to wood smoke, and we identify the strengths and weaknesses of these compounds. We find that, in general, these compounds show promise in situations where wood-smoke exposures are high, but where exposures are low non-wood-smoke sources are likely to be the major determinants of biomarker levels. We also outline a research framework that will move this field forward and maximize the potential for wood-smoke biomarkers to add value to epidemiological studies of wood-smoke health effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher D Simpson
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences, School of Public Health, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195-7234, USA.
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