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Peled A, Sprecher E. Proteolytic and Antiproteolytic Activity in the Skin: Gluing the Pieces Together. J Invest Dermatol 2024; 144:466-473. [PMID: 37865898 DOI: 10.1016/j.jid.2023.08.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2023] [Accepted: 08/22/2023] [Indexed: 10/23/2023]
Abstract
Epidermal differentiation is ultimately aimed at the formation of a functional barrier capable of protecting the organism from the environment while preventing loss of biologically vital elements. Epidermal differentiation entails a delicately regulated process of cell-cell junction formation and dissolution to enable upward cell migration and desquamation. Over the past two decades, the deciphering of the genetic basis of a number of inherited conditions has delineated the pivotal role played in this process by a series of proteases and protease inhibitors, including serpins, cathepsins, and cystatins, suggesting novel avenues for therapeutic intervention in both rare and common disorders of cornification.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alon Peled
- Division of Dermatology, Tel Aviv Sourasky Medical Center, Tel Aviv, Israel
| | - Eli Sprecher
- Division of Dermatology, Tel Aviv Sourasky Medical Center, Tel Aviv, Israel; Department of Human Molecular Genetics and Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel.
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2
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Yang F, Hu Y, Shi Z, Liu M, Hu K, Ye G, Pang Q, Hou R, Tang K, Zhu Y. The occurrence and development mechanisms of esophageal stricture: state of the art review. J Transl Med 2024; 22:123. [PMID: 38297325 PMCID: PMC10832115 DOI: 10.1186/s12967-024-04932-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2023] [Accepted: 01/26/2024] [Indexed: 02/02/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Esophageal strictures significantly impair patient quality of life and present a therapeutic challenge, particularly due to the high recurrence post-ESD/EMR. Current treatments manage symptoms rather than addressing the disease's etiology. This review concentrates on the mechanisms of esophageal stricture formation and recurrence, seeking to highlight areas for potential therapeutic intervention. METHODS A literature search was conducted through PUBMED using search terms: esophageal stricture, mucosal resection, submucosal dissection. Relevant articles were identified through manual review with reference lists reviewed for additional articles. RESULTS Preclinical studies and data from animal studies suggest that the mechanisms that may lead to esophageal stricture include overdifferentiation of fibroblasts, inflammatory response that is not healed in time, impaired epithelial barrier function, and multimethod factors leading to it. Dysfunction of the epithelial barrier may be the initiating mechanism for esophageal stricture. Achieving perfect in-epithelialization by tissue-engineered fabrication of cell patches has been shown to be effective in the treatment and prevention of esophageal strictures. CONCLUSION The development of esophageal stricture involves three stages: structural damage to the esophageal epithelial barrier (EEB), chronic inflammation, and severe fibrosis, in which dysfunction or damage to the EEB is the initiating mechanism leading to esophageal stricture. Re-epithelialization is essential for the treatment and prevention of esophageal stricture. This information will help clinicians or scientists to develop effective techniques to treat esophageal stricture in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fang Yang
- Health Science Center, Ningbo University, Ningbo, 315211, People's Republic of China
| | - Yiwei Hu
- Health Science Center, Ningbo University, Ningbo, 315211, People's Republic of China
| | - Zewen Shi
- Health Science Center, Ningbo University, Ningbo, 315211, People's Republic of China
- Ningbo No.2 Hospital, Ningbo, 315001, People's Republic of China
| | - Mujie Liu
- Health Science Center, Ningbo University, Ningbo, 315211, People's Republic of China
| | - Kefeng Hu
- The First Affiliated Hospital of Ningbo University, Ningbo, 315000, People's Republic of China
| | - Guoliang Ye
- The First Affiliated Hospital of Ningbo University, Ningbo, 315000, People's Republic of China
| | - Qian Pang
- Health Science Center, Ningbo University, Ningbo, 315211, People's Republic of China
| | - Ruixia Hou
- Health Science Center, Ningbo University, Ningbo, 315211, People's Republic of China
| | - Keqi Tang
- Institute of Mass Spectrometry, School of Material Science and Chemical Engineering, Ningbo University, Ningbo, 315211, People's Republic of China.
| | - Yabin Zhu
- Health Science Center, Ningbo University, Ningbo, 315211, People's Republic of China.
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3
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Wang X, Liu J, Chen J, Xu X, Zhong Y, Xu Y, Lu P, Zhou J, Lin Z, Yang B, Yang C. Loss-of-function mutations in CST6 cause dry skin, desquamation and abnormal keratosis without hypotrichosis. Clin Genet 2023; 103:301-309. [PMID: 36371786 DOI: 10.1111/cge.14265] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2022] [Revised: 11/07/2022] [Accepted: 11/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Cystatin M/E (encoded by the CST6 gene) is a cysteine protease inhibitor, that exerts regulatory and protective effects against uncontrolled proteolysis mainly by directly regulating cathepsin V, cathepsin L, and legumain activities. Previous studies have suggested that CST6 may exert a regulatory role in epidermal differentiation and hair follicle formation by inhibiting the activity of respective cognate target proteases. However, until recently, studies have revealed that loss- or gain-of-function of the CST6 gene causes dry skin with hypotrichosis in humans. Here, we reported two siblings of Chinese origin with dry skin, desquamation and abnormal keratosis without hypotrichosis. By applying whole-exome sequencing, we identified homozygous loss-of-function mutation c.251G > A (p.Gly84Asp) in the CST6 gene as the underlying genetic cause. Further fluorimetric enzyme assays demonstrated the mutant cystatin M/E protein lost its inhibitory function on the protease activity of cathepsins. Moreover, the corresponding mutation in mice resulted in excessive cornification, desquamation, impaired skin barrier function, and abnormal proliferation and differentiation of keratinocytes. In conclusion, the homozygous missense mutation c.251G > A in CST6 gene resulted in dry skin, desquamation, as well as abnormal keratosis of the skin, promoting our understanding of the role of protease-antiprotease balance in human skin disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xuan Wang
- Dermatology Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
- The First School of Clinical Medicine, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Jun Liu
- Dermatology Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Junyi Chen
- Dermatology Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
- The First School of Clinical Medicine, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Xueyan Xu
- Dermatology Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Yadan Zhong
- Dermatology Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
- The First School of Clinical Medicine, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Yingping Xu
- Dermatology Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Ping Lu
- Dermatology Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Jiajian Zhou
- Dermatology Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Zhimiao Lin
- Dermatology Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Bin Yang
- Dermatology Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Chao Yang
- Dermatology Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
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4
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Gai D, Chen JR, Stewart JP, Nookaew I, Habelhah H, Ashby C, Sun F, Cheng Y, Li C, Xu H, Peng B, Garg TK, Schinke C, Thanendrarajan S, Zangari M, Chen F, Barlogie B, van Rhee F, Tricot G, Shaughnessy JD, Zhan F. CST6 suppresses osteolytic bone disease in multiple myeloma by blocking osteoclast differentiation. J Clin Invest 2022; 132:159527. [PMID: 35881476 PMCID: PMC9479617 DOI: 10.1172/jci159527] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2022] [Accepted: 07/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Osteolytic bone disease is a hallmark of multiple myeloma (MM). A significant fraction (~20%) of MM patients do not develop osteolytic lesions (OL). The molecular basis for the absence of bone disease in MM is not understood. We combined PET-CT and gene expression profiling (GEP) of purified bone marrow (BM) CD138+ MM cells from 512 newly diagnosed MM patients to reveal that elevated expression of cystatin M/E (CST6) was significantly associated with the absence of OL in MM. An enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay revealed a strong correlation between CST6 levels in BM serum/plasma and CST6 mRNA expression. Both recombinant CST6 protein and BM serum from patients with high CST6 significantly inhibited the activity of the osteoclast-specific protease cathepsin K, and blocked osteoclast differentiation and function. Recombinant CST6 inhibited bone destruction in ex vivo and in vivo myeloma models. Single cell RNA-sequencing identified that CST6 attenuates polarization of monocytes to osteoclast precursors. Furthermore, CST6 protein blocks osteoclast differentiation by suppressing cathepsin-mediated cleavage of NF-κB/p100 and TRAF3 following RANKL stimulation. Secretion by MM cells of CST6, an inhibitor of osteoclast differentiation and function, suppresses osteolytic bone disease in MM and probably other diseases associated with osteoclast-mediated bone loss.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dongzheng Gai
- Myeloma Center, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, United States of America
| | - Jin-Ran Chen
- Arkansas Children's Nutrition Center, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, United States of America
| | - James P Stewart
- Myeloma Center, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, United States of America
| | - Intawat Nookaew
- Department of Biomedical Informatics, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, United States of America
| | - Hasem Habelhah
- Department of Pathology, University of Iowa, Iowa City, United States of America
| | - Cody Ashby
- Myeloma Center, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, United States of America
| | - Fumou Sun
- Myeloma Center, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, United States of America
| | - Yan Cheng
- Myeloma Center, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, United States of America
| | - Can Li
- Myeloma Center, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, United States of America
| | - Hongwei Xu
- Myeloma Center, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, United States of America
| | - Bailu Peng
- Myeloma Center, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, United States of America
| | - Tarun K Garg
- Myeloma Center, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, United States of America
| | - Carolina Schinke
- Myeloma Center, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, United States of America
| | - Sharmilan Thanendrarajan
- Myeloma Center, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, United States of America
| | - Maurizio Zangari
- Myeloma Center, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, United States of America
| | - Fangping Chen
- Department of Hematology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Bart Barlogie
- Myeloma Center, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, United States of America
| | - Frits van Rhee
- Myeloma Center, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, United States of America
| | - Guido Tricot
- Myeloma Center, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, United States of America
| | - John D Shaughnessy
- Myeloma Center, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, United States of America
| | - Fenghuang Zhan
- Myeloma Center, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, United States of America
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5
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Sotiropoulou G, Zingkou E, Pampalakis G. Reconstructing the epidermal proteolytic cascades in health and disease. J Pathol 2022; 257:545-560. [PMID: 35218558 DOI: 10.1002/path.5888] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2021] [Revised: 01/24/2022] [Accepted: 02/24/2022] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
The epidermis is the outer stratified epithelium of the skin, forming the physical barrier that is indispensable for homeostasis. Epidermal proteolysis, mainly but not exclusively executed by kallikrein-related peptidases (KLKs), is tightly regulated to ensure maintenance of physiological skin renewal and an intact skin barrier. Perturbation of epidermal proteolytic networks is implicated in a wide array of rare and common skin pathologies of diverse genetic backgrounds. Recent studies of monogenic human skin diseases and newly developed animal models have revealed new mechanisms of regulation of proteolytic pathways in epidermal physiology and in disease states. These new data have challenged some accepted views, for example the role of matriptase in epidermal desquamation, which turned out to be restricted to mouse skin. The significance of PAR2 signaling in skin inflammation should also be reconsidered in the face of recent findings. Cumulatively, recent studies necessitate a sophisticated redefinition of the proteolytic and signaling pathways that operate in human skin. We elaborate how epidermal proteolysis is finely regulated at multiple levels, and in a spatial manner that was not taken into consideration so far, in which specific proteases are confined to distinct epidermal sublayers. Of interest, transglutaminases have emerged as regulators of epidermal proteolysis and desquamation by spatially fixing endogenous protease inhibitors, constituting regulatory factors that were not recognized before. Furthermore, new evidence suggests a link between proteolysis and lipid metabolism. By synthesis of established notions and recent discoveries, we provide an up-to-date critical parathesis of current knowledge and the extended complexity of proteolysis regulation and signaling pathways in skin. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.
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Affiliation(s)
- Georgia Sotiropoulou
- Department of Pharmacy, School of Health Sciences, University of Patras, Rion-Patras, 265 04, Greece
| | - Eleni Zingkou
- Department of Pharmacy, School of Health Sciences, University of Patras, Rion-Patras, 265 04, Greece
| | - Georgios Pampalakis
- Department of Pharmacology-Pharmacognosy, School of Pharmacy, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, 541 24, Greece
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6
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Cystatin M/E (Cystatin 6): A Janus-Faced Cysteine Protease Inhibitor with Both Tumor-Suppressing and Tumor-Promoting Functions. Cancers (Basel) 2021; 13:cancers13081877. [PMID: 33919854 PMCID: PMC8070812 DOI: 10.3390/cancers13081877] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2021] [Revised: 04/12/2021] [Accepted: 04/12/2021] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Alongside its contribution in maintaining skin homeostasis and its probable involvement in fetal and placental development, cystatin M/E (also known as cystatin 6) was first described as a tumor suppressor of breast cancer. This review aims to provide an update on cystatin M/E with particular attention paid to its role during tumorigenesis. Cystatin M/E, which is related to type 2 cystatins, displays the unique property of being a dual tight-binding inhibitor of both legumain (also known as asparagine endopeptidase) and cysteine cathepsins L, V and B, while its expression level is epigenetically regulated via the methylation of the CST6 promoter region. The tumor-suppressing role of cystatin M/E was further reported in melanoma, cervical, brain, prostate, gastric and renal cancers, and cystatin M/E was proposed as a biomarker of prognostic significance. Contrariwise, cystatin M/E could have an antagonistic function, acting as a tumor promoter (e.g., oral, pancreatic cancer, thyroid and hepatocellular carcinoma). Taking into account these apparently divergent functions, there is an urgent need to decipher the molecular and cellular regulatory mechanisms of the expression and activity of cystatin M/E associated with the safeguarding homeostasis of the proteolytic balance as well as its imbalance in cancer.
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7
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Bai J, Gong Z, Xu Q, Chen H, Chen Q, Fang R, Zheng Y, Lai W. A Selectable Biomarker in Hair Follicle Cycles - Cathepsins: A Preliminary Study in Murine. Skin Pharmacol Physiol 2021; 34:1-7. [PMID: 33588419 DOI: 10.1159/000509943] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2019] [Accepted: 07/03/2020] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVE Hair cycle is regulated by many biological factors. Cathepsins are involved in various physiological processes in human skin. Here, we investigated the cathepsin expression and distribution changes in follicular growth cycles for better understanding the hair cycles and to explore new intervention measures. METHODS The 24 mice (C57BL/6, female, 7-week old) were selected and removed the back hair via rosin/paraffin method. At Day 8, Day 20, and Day 25, biopsy on post-plucking area was done. Immunohistochemical staining, Western blot, and Q-PCR were used to test the cathepsin B/D/L/E. RESULTS In anagen, cathepsins (B, D, L, and E) were distributed in the hair follicle matrix, inner hair root sheath, and hair. In catagen, cathepsins were mainly observed in un-apoptosis inner root sheath and outer root sheath. Expression of cathepsins B-mRNA and L-mRNA was decreased from anagen and catagen to telogen. Cathepsin D-mRNA was increased in catagen and then decreased in telogen. Cathepsin E-mRNA was decreased in catagen and slightly increased in telogen. CONCLUSIONS The distribution and expression of cathepsins B, D, L, and E in hair follicle changed with hair growth process which indicated that cathepsins might act as selectable biomarkers of hair cycle in different stages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jingzhu Bai
- Department of Dermato-Venereology, Guangzhou First People's Hospital, Guangzhou, China.,Department of Dermato-Venereology, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Zijian Gong
- Department of Dermato-Venereology, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Qingfang Xu
- Department of Dermato-Venereology, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Haiyan Chen
- Department of Dermato-Venereology, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Qiaoping Chen
- Department of Dermato-Venereology, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Ruihua Fang
- Department of Dermato-Venereology, Guangzhou First People's Hospital, Guangzhou, China
| | - Yue Zheng
- Department of Dermato-Venereology, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Wei Lai
- Department of Dermato-Venereology, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China,
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8
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van den Bogaard EHJ, van Geel M, van Vlijmen-Willems IMJJ, Jansen PAM, Peppelman M, van Erp PEJ, Atalay S, Venselaar H, Simon MEH, Joosten M, Schalkwijk J, Zeeuwen PLJM. Deficiency of the human cysteine protease inhibitor cystatin M/E causes hypotrichosis and dry skin. Genet Med 2018; 21:1559-1567. [PMID: 30425301 PMCID: PMC6752276 DOI: 10.1038/s41436-018-0355-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2018] [Accepted: 10/29/2018] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Purpose We aimed to assess the biological and clinical significance of the human cysteine protease inhibitor cystatin M/E, encoded by the CTS6 gene, in diseases of human hair and skin. Methods Exome and Sanger sequencing was performed to reveal the genetic cause in two related patients with hypotrichosis. Immunohistochemical, biophysical, and biochemical measurements were performed on patient skin and 3D-reconstructed skin from patient-derived keratinocytes. Results We identified a homozygous variant c.361C>T (p.Gln121*), resulting in a premature stop codon in exon 2 of CST6 associated with hypotrichosis, eczema, blepharitis, photophobia and impaired sweating. Enzyme assays using recombinant mutant cystatin M/E protein, generated by site-directed mutagenesis, revealed that this p.Gln121* variant was unable to inhibit any of its three target proteases (legumain and cathepsins L and V). Three-dimensional protein structure prediction confirmed the disturbance of the protease/inhibitor binding sites of legumain and cathepsins L and V in the p.Gln121* variant. Conclusion The herein characterized autosomal recessive hypotrichosis syndrome indicates an important role of human cystatin M/E in epidermal homeostasis and hair follicle morphogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ellen H J van den Bogaard
- Department of Dermatology, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences (RIMLS), Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Center (Radboudumc), Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Michel van Geel
- Department of Dermatology, Maastricht University Medical Centre, Maastricht, The Netherlands.,Department of Clinical Genetics, Maastricht University Medical Centre, Maastricht, The Netherlands.,GROW Research Institute for Oncology and Developmental Biology, Maastricht University Medical Centre, Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - Ivonne M J J van Vlijmen-Willems
- Department of Dermatology, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences (RIMLS), Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Center (Radboudumc), Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Patrick A M Jansen
- Department of Dermatology, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences (RIMLS), Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Center (Radboudumc), Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Malou Peppelman
- Department of Dermatology, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences (RIMLS), Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Center (Radboudumc), Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Piet E J van Erp
- Department of Dermatology, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences (RIMLS), Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Center (Radboudumc), Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Selma Atalay
- Department of Dermatology, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences (RIMLS), Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Center (Radboudumc), Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Hanka Venselaar
- Center for Molecular and Biomolecular Informatics, RIMLS, Radboudumc, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Marleen E H Simon
- Department of Medical Genetics, University Medical Centre Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Marieke Joosten
- Department of Clinical Genetics, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Joost Schalkwijk
- Department of Dermatology, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences (RIMLS), Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Center (Radboudumc), Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Patrick L J M Zeeuwen
- Department of Dermatology, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences (RIMLS), Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Center (Radboudumc), Nijmegen, The Netherlands.
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9
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Dall E, Hollerweger JC, Dahms SO, Cui H, Häussermann K, Brandstetter H. Structural and functional analysis of cystatin E reveals enzymologically relevant dimer and amyloid fibril states. J Biol Chem 2018; 293:13151-13165. [PMID: 29967063 PMCID: PMC6109925 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.ra118.002154] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2018] [Revised: 06/26/2018] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Protein activity is often regulated by altering the oligomerization state. One mechanism of multimerization involves domain swapping, wherein proteins exchange parts of their structures and thereby form long-lived dimers or multimers. Domain swapping has been specifically observed in amyloidogenic proteins, for example the cystatin superfamily of cysteine protease inhibitors. Cystatins are twin-headed inhibitors, simultaneously targeting the lysosomal cathepsins and legumain, with important roles in cancer progression and Alzheimer's disease. Although cystatin E is the most potent legumain inhibitor identified so far, nothing is known about its propensity to oligomerize. In this study, we show that conformational destabilization of cystatin E leads to the formation of a domain-swapped dimer with increased conformational stability. This dimer was active as a legumain inhibitor by forming a trimeric complex. By contrast, the binding sites toward papain-like proteases were buried within the cystatin E dimer. We also showed that the dimers could further convert to amyloid fibrils. Unexpectedly, cystatin E amyloid fibrils contained functional protein, which inhibited both legumain and papain-like enzymes. Fibril formation was further regulated by glycosylation. We speculate that cystatin amyloid fibrils might serve as a binding platform to stabilize the pH-sensitive legumain and cathepsins in the extracellular environment, contributing to their physiological and pathological functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elfriede Dall
- From the Department of Biosciences, University of Salzburg, A-5020 Salzburg, Austria and
| | - Julia C Hollerweger
- From the Department of Biosciences, University of Salzburg, A-5020 Salzburg, Austria and
| | - Sven O Dahms
- From the Department of Biosciences, University of Salzburg, A-5020 Salzburg, Austria and
| | - Haissi Cui
- the Center for Integrated Protein Science Munich, Technical University of Munich, D-85748 Munich, Germany
| | - Katharina Häussermann
- the Center for Integrated Protein Science Munich, Technical University of Munich, D-85748 Munich, Germany
| | - Hans Brandstetter
- From the Department of Biosciences, University of Salzburg, A-5020 Salzburg, Austria and
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10
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Pokharel K, Peippo J, Honkatukia M, Seppälä A, Rautiainen J, Ghanem N, Hamama TM, Crowe MA, Andersson M, Li MH, Kantanen J. Integrated ovarian mRNA and miRNA transcriptome profiling characterizes the genetic basis of prolificacy traits in sheep (Ovis aries). BMC Genomics 2018; 19:104. [PMID: 29378514 PMCID: PMC5789708 DOI: 10.1186/s12864-017-4400-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2016] [Accepted: 12/19/2017] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The highly prolific breeds of domestic sheep (Ovis aries) are globally valuable genetic resources for sheep industry. Genetic, nutritional and other environmental factors affect prolificacy traits in sheep. To improve our knowledge of the sheep prolificacy traits, we conducted mRNA-miRNA integrated profiling of ovarian tissues from two pure breeds with large (Finnsheep) vs. small (Texel) litter sizes and their F1 crosses, half of which were fed a flushing diet. RESULTS Among the samples, 16,402 genes (60.6% known ovine genes) were expressed, 79 novel miRNAs were found, and a cluster of miRNAs on chromosome 18 was detected. The majority of the differentially expressed genes between breeds were upregulated in the Texel with low prolificacy, owing to the flushing diet effect, whereas a similar pattern was not detected in the Finnsheep. F1 ewes responded similarly to Finnsheep rather than displaying a performance intermediate between the two pure breeds. CONCLUSIONS The identification and characterization of differentially expressed genes and miRNAs in the ovaries of sheep provided insights into genetic and environmental factors affecting prolificacy traits. The three genes (CST6, MEPE and HBB) that were differentially expressed between the group of Finnsheep and Texel ewes kept in normal diet appeared to be candidate genes of prolificacy traits and will require further validation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kisun Pokharel
- Green Technology, Natural Resources Institute of Finland (Luke), Myllytie 1, Jokioinen, Finland
| | - Jaana Peippo
- Green Technology, Natural Resources Institute of Finland (Luke), Myllytie 1, Jokioinen, Finland
| | - Mervi Honkatukia
- Green Technology, Natural Resources Institute of Finland (Luke), Myllytie 1, Jokioinen, Finland
| | - Arja Seppälä
- Eastman Chemical Company, Tammasaarenkatu 1, Helsinki, Finland
| | | | - Nasser Ghanem
- Green Technology, Natural Resources Institute of Finland (Luke), Myllytie 1, Jokioinen, Finland
- Department of Animal Production, Faculty of Agriculture, Cairo University, Giza, Egypt
| | - Tuula-Marjatta Hamama
- Green Technology, Natural Resources Institute of Finland (Luke), Myllytie 1, Jokioinen, Finland
| | - Mark A. Crowe
- School of Veterinary Medicine, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland
| | - Magnus Andersson
- Department of Production Animal Medicine, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Meng-Hua Li
- CAS Key Laboratory of Animal Ecology and Conservation Biology, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS), Beijing, China
| | - Juha Kantanen
- Green Technology, Natural Resources Institute of Finland (Luke), Myllytie 1, Jokioinen, Finland
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11
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Abstract
The growth of hairs occurs during the anagen phase of the follicle cycle. Hair growth begins with basement membrane-bound stem cells (mother cells) around the dermal papilla neck which continuously bud off daughter cells which further divide as a transient amplifying population. Division ceases as cell line differentiation begins, which entails changes in cell junctions, cell shape and position, and cell-line specific cytoplasmic expression of keratin and trichohyalin. As the differentiating cells migrate up the bulb, nuclear function ceases in cortex, cuticle and inner root sheath (IRS) layers. Past the top of the bulb, cell shape/position changes cease, and there is a period of keratin and keratin-associated protein (KAP) synthesis in fibre cell lines, with increases, in particular of KAP species. A gradual keratinization process begins in the cortex at this point and then non-keratin cell components are increasingly broken down. Terminal cornification, or hardening, is associated with water loss and precipitation of keratin. In the upper follicle, the hair, now in its mature form, detaches from the IRS, which is then extracted of material and becomes fragmented to release the fibre. Finally, the sebaceous and sudoriferous (if present) glands coat the fibre in lipid-rich material and the fibre emerges from the skin. This chapter follows the origin of the hair growth in the lower bulb and traces the development of the various cell lines.
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12
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Oortveld MAW, van Vlijmen-Willems IMJJ, Kersten FFJ, Cheng T, Verdoes M, van Erp PEJ, Verbeek S, Reinheckel T, Hendriks WJAJ, Schalkwijk J, Zeeuwen PLJM. Cathepsin B as a potential cystatin M/E target in the mouse hair follicle. FASEB J 2017; 31:4286-4294. [PMID: 28596234 PMCID: PMC5602906 DOI: 10.1096/fj.201700267r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2017] [Accepted: 05/22/2017] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Deficiency of the cysteine protease inhibitor cystatin M/E (Cst6) in mice leads to disturbed epidermal cornification, impaired barrier function, and neonatal lethality. We report the rescue of the lethal skin phenotype of ichq (Cst6-deficient; Cst6−/−) mice by transgenic, epidermis-specific, reexpression of Cst6 under control of the human involucrin (INV) promoter. Rescued Tg(INV-Cst6)Cst6ichq/ichq mice survive the neonatal phase, but display severe eye pathology and alopecia after 4 mo. We observed keratitis and squamous metaplasia of the corneal epithelium, comparable to Cst6−/−Ctsl+/− mice, as we have reported in other studies. We found the INV promoter to be active in the hair follicle infundibulum; however, we did not observe Cst6 protein expression in the lower regions of the hair follicle in Tg(INV-Cst6)Cst6ichq/ichq mice. This result suggests that unrestricted activity of proteases is involved in disturbance of hair follicle biology, eventually leading to baldness. Using quenched activity-based probes, we identified mouse cathepsin B (CtsB), which is expressed in the lower regions of the hair follicle, as an additional target of mouse Cst6. These data suggest that Cst6 is necessary to control CtsB activity in hair follicle morphogenesis and highlight Cst6-controlled proteolytic pathways as targets for preventing hair loss.—Oortveld, M. A. W., van Vlijmen-Willems, I. M. J. J., Kersten, F. F. J., Cheng, T., Verdoes, M., van Erp, P. E. J., Verbeek, S., Reinheckel, T., Hendriks, W. J. A. J., Schalkwijk, J., Zeeuwen, P. L. J. M. Cathepsin B as a potential cystatin M/E target in the mouse hair follicle.
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Affiliation(s)
- Merel A W Oortveld
- Department of Dermatology, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Center, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Ivonne M J J van Vlijmen-Willems
- Department of Dermatology, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Center, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Ferry F J Kersten
- Department of Dermatology, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Center, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Tsing Cheng
- Department of Dermatology, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Center, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Martijn Verdoes
- Department of Tumor Immunology, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Center, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Piet E J van Erp
- Department of Dermatology, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Center, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Sjef Verbeek
- Department of Human Genetics, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Thomas Reinheckel
- Institute of Molecular Medicine and Cell Research, Albert-Ludwigs-University, Freiburg, Germany.,BIOSS Centre for Biological Signaling Studies, Albert-Ludwigs-University, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Wiljan J A J Hendriks
- Department of Cell Biology, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Center, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Joost Schalkwijk
- Department of Dermatology, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Center, Nijmegen, The Netherlands;
| | - Patrick L J M Zeeuwen
- Department of Dermatology, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Center, Nijmegen, The Netherlands;
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13
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Kavčič N, Pegan K, Turk B. Lysosomes in programmed cell death pathways: from initiators to amplifiers. Biol Chem 2017; 398:289-301. [DOI: 10.1515/hsz-2016-0252] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2016] [Accepted: 09/05/2016] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Abstract
Lysosome is the central organelle for intracellular degradation of biological macromolecules and organelles. The material destined for degradation enters the lysosomes primarily via endocytosis, autophagy and phagocytosis, and is degraded through the concerted action of more than 50 lysosomal hydrolases. However, lysosomes are also linked with numerous other processes, including cell death, inflammasome activation and immune response, as well as with lysosomal secretion and cholesterol recycling. Among them programmed cell death pathways including apoptosis have received major attention. In most of these pathways, cell death was accompanied by lysosomal membrane permeabilization and release of lysosomal constituents with an involvement of lysosomal hydrolases, including the cathepsins. However, it is less clear, whether lysosomal membrane permeabilization is really critical for the initiation of cell death programme(s). Therefore, the role of lysosomal membrane permeabilization in various programmed cell death pathways is reviewed, as well as the mechanisms leading to it.
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14
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Breitenbach JS, Rinnerthaler M, Trost A, Weber M, Klausegger A, Gruber C, Bruckner D, Reitsamer HA, Bauer JW, Breitenbach M. Transcriptome and ultrastructural changes in dystrophic Epidermolysis bullosa resemble skin aging. Aging (Albany NY) 2016; 7:389-411. [PMID: 26143532 PMCID: PMC4505166 DOI: 10.18632/aging.100755] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
The aging process of skin has been investigated recently with respect to mitochondrial function and oxidative stress. We have here observed striking phenotypic and clinical similarity between skin aging and recessive dystrophic Epidermolysis bullosa (RDEB), which is caused by recessive mutations in the gene coding for collagen VII, COL7A1. Ultrastructural changes, defects in wound healing, and inflammation markers are in part shared with aged skin. We have here compared the skin transcriptomes of young adults suffering from RDEB with that of sex‐ and age‐matched healthy probands. In parallel we have compared the skin transcriptome of healthy young adults with that of elderly healthy donors. Quite surprisingly, there was a large overlap of the two gene lists that concerned a limited number of functional protein families. Most prominent among the proteins found are a number of proteins of the cornified envelope or proteins mechanistically involved in cornification and other skin proteins. Further, the overlap list contains a large number of genes with a known role in inflammation. We are documenting some of the most prominent ultrastructural and protein changes by immunofluorescence analysis of skin sections from patients, old individuals, and healthy controls.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jenny S Breitenbach
- Department of Dermatology and EB House Austria, Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Mark Rinnerthaler
- Fachbereich Zellbiologie der Universität Salzburg, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Andrea Trost
- University Clinic of Ophthalmology and Optometry, Research Program for Ophthalmology and Glaucoma Research, Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Manuela Weber
- Fachbereich Zellbiologie der Universität Salzburg, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Alfred Klausegger
- Department of Dermatology and EB House Austria, Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Christina Gruber
- Department of Dermatology and EB House Austria, Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Daniela Bruckner
- University Clinic of Ophthalmology and Optometry, Research Program for Ophthalmology and Glaucoma Research, Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Herbert A Reitsamer
- University Clinic of Ophthalmology and Optometry, Research Program for Ophthalmology and Glaucoma Research, Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Johann W Bauer
- Department of Dermatology and EB House Austria, Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria
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15
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Nandy SK, Bhuyan R, Seal A. Modelling family 2 cystatins and their interaction with papain. J Biomol Struct Dyn 2012; 31:649-64. [PMID: 22881286 DOI: 10.1080/07391102.2012.706403] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
Cystatins are extensively studied cysteine protease inhibitors, found in wide range of organisms with highly conserved structural folds. S-type of cystatins is well known for their abundance in saliva, high selectivity and poorer activity towards host cysteine proteases in comparison to their immediate ancestor cystatin C. Despite more than 90% sequence similarity, the members of this group show highly dissimilar binding affinity towards papain. Cystatin M/E is a potent inhibitor of legumain and papain like cysteine proteases and recognized for its involvement in skin barrier formation and potential role as a tumor suppressor gene. However, the structures of these proteins and their complexes with papain or legumain are still unknown. In the present study, we have employed computational methods to get insight into the interactions between papain and cystatins. Three-dimensional structures of the cystatins are generated by homology modelling, refined with molecular dynamics simulation, validated through numerous web servers and finally complexed with papain using ZDOCK algorithm in Discovery Studio. A high degree of shape complementarity is observed within the complexes, stabilized by numerous hydrogen bonds (HB) and hydrophobic interactions. Using interaction energy, HB and solvent accessible surface area analyses, we have identified a series of key residues that may be involved in papain-cystatin interaction. Differential approaches of cystatins towards papain are also noticed which are possibly responsible for diverse inhibitory activity within the group. These findings will improve our understanding of fundamental inhibitory mechanisms of cystatin and provide clues for further research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suman Kumar Nandy
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, University of Kalyani, Kalyani, 741235, India
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16
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Smith R, Johansen HT, Nilsen H, Haugen MH, Pettersen SJ, Mælandsmo GM, Abrahamson M, Solberg R. Intra- and extracellular regulation of activity and processing of legumain by cystatin E/M. Biochimie 2012; 94:2590-9. [PMID: 22902879 DOI: 10.1016/j.biochi.2012.07.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2012] [Accepted: 07/26/2012] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Legumain, an asparaginyl endopeptidase, is up-regulated in tumour and tumour-associated cells, and is linked to the processing of cathepsin B, L, and proMMP-2. Although legumain is mainly localized to the endosomal/lysosomal compartments, legumain has been reported to be localized extracellularly in the tumour microenvironment and associated with extracellular matrix and cell surfaces. The most potent endogenous inhibitor of legumain is cystatin E/M, which is a secreted protein synthesised with an export signal. Therefore, we investigated the cellular interplay between legumain and cystatin E/M. As a cell model, HEK293 cells were transfected with legumain cDNA, cystatin E/M cDNA, or both, and over-expressing monoclonal cell lines were selected (termed M38L, M4C, and M3CL, respectively). Secretion of prolegumain from M38L cells was inhibited by treatment with brefeldin A, whereas bafilomycin A1 enhanced the secretion. Cellular processing of prolegumain to the 46 and 36 kDa enzymatically active forms was reduced by treatment with either substance alone. M38L cells showed increased, but M4C cells decreased, cathepsin L processing suggesting a crucial involvement of legumain activity. Furthermore, we observed internalization of cystatin E/M and subsequently decreased intracellular legumain activity. Also, prolegumain was shown to internalize followed by increased intracellular legumain processing and activation. In addition, in M4C cells incomplete processing of the internalized prolegumain was observed, as well as nuclear localized cystatin E/M. Furthermore, auto-activation of secreted prolegumain was inhibited by cystatin E/M, which for the first time shows a regulatory role of cystatin E/M in controlling both intra- and extracellular legumain activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert Smith
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biosciences, School of Pharmacy, University of Oslo, Norway.
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17
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Jin L, Zhang Y, Li H, Yao L, Fu D, Yao X, Xu LX, Hu X, Hu G. Differential secretome analysis reveals CST6 as a suppressor of breast cancer bone metastasis. Cell Res 2012; 22:1356-73. [PMID: 22688893 DOI: 10.1038/cr.2012.90] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Bone metastasis is a frequent complication of breast cancer and a common cause of morbidity and mortality from the disease. During metastasis secreted proteins play crucial roles in the interactions between cancer cells and host stroma. To characterize the secreted proteins that are associated with breast cancer bone metastasis, we preformed a label-free proteomic analysis to compare the secretomes of four MDA-MB-231 (MDA231) derivative cell lines with varied capacities of bone metastasis. A total of 128 proteins were found to be consistently up-/down-regulated in the conditioned medium of bone-tropic cancer cells. The enriched molecular functions of the altered proteins included receptor binding and peptidase inhibition. Through additional transcriptomic analyses of breast cancer cells, we selected cystatin E/M (CST6), a cysteine protease inhibitor down-regulated in bone-metastatic cells, for further functional studies. Our results showed that CST6 suppressed the proliferation, colony formation, migration and invasion of breast cancer cells. The suppressive function against cancer cell motility was carried out by cancer cell-derived soluble CST6. More importantly, ectopic expression of CST6 in cancer cells rescued mice from overt osteolytic metastasis and deaths in the animal study, while CST6 knockdown markedly enhanced cancer cell bone metastasis and shortened animal survival. Overall, our study provided a systemic secretome analysis of breast cancer bone tropism and established secreted CST6 as a bona fide suppressor of breast cancer osteolytic metastasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lei Jin
- The Key Laboratory of Stem Cell Biology, Institute of Health Sciences, Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences & Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, 225 South Chongqing Rd, Shanghai 200025, China
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Müller AC, Breitwieser FP, Fischer H, Schuster C, Brandt O, Colinge J, Superti-Furga G, Stingl G, Elbe-Bürger A, Bennett KL. A comparative proteomic study of human skin suction blister fluid from healthy individuals using immunodepletion and iTRAQ labeling. J Proteome Res 2012; 11:3715-27. [PMID: 22578099 DOI: 10.1021/pr3002035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Aberrations in skin morphology and functionality can cause acute and chronic skin-related diseases that are the focus of dermatological research. Mechanically induced skin suction blister fluid may serve as a potential, alternative human body fluid for quantitative mass spectrometry (MS)-based proteomics in order to assist in the understanding of the mechanisms and causes underlying skin-related diseases. The combination of abundant-protein removal with iTRAQ technology and multidimensional fractionation techniques improved the number of identified protein groups. A relative comparison of a cohort of 8 healthy volunteers was thus recruited in order to assess the net variability encountered in a healthy scenario. The technology enabled the identification, to date, of the highest number of reported protein groups (739) with concomitant relative quantitative data for over 90% of all proteins with high reproducibility and accuracy. The use of iTRAQ 8-plex resulted in a 66% decrease in protein identifications but, despite this, provided valuable insight into interindividual differences of the healthy control samples. The geometric mean ratio was close to 1 with 95% of all ratios ranging between 0.45 and 2.05 and a calculated mean coefficient of variation of 15.8%, indicating a lower biological variance than that reported for plasma or urine. By applying a multistep sample processing, the obtained sensitivity and accuracy of quantitative MS analysis demonstrates the prospective value of the approach in future research into skin diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- André C Müller
- CeMM Research Center for Molecular Medicine of the Austrian Academy of Sciences, Vienna, Austria
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Psoriasis risk genes of the late cornified envelope-3 group are distinctly expressed compared with genes of other LCE groups. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PATHOLOGY 2011; 178:1470-7. [PMID: 21435436 DOI: 10.1016/j.ajpath.2010.12.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2010] [Revised: 12/02/2010] [Accepted: 12/17/2010] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Deletion of the late cornified envelope (LCE) genes LCE3B and LCE3C has recently been identified as a risk factor for psoriasis. Expression of 16 LCE genes of LCE groups 1, 2, 3, 5, and 6 was examined in vivo and in vitro. Quantitative PCR demonstrated that moderate to high LCE expression was largely confined to skin and a few oropharyngeal tissues. Genes of the LCE3 group demonstrated increased expression in lesional psoriatic epidermis and were induced after superficial injury of normal skin, whereas expression of members of other LCE groups was down-regulated under these conditions. Immunohistochemistry and immunoelectron microscopy demonstrated that LCE2 protein expression was restricted to the uppermost granular layer and the stratum corneum. Stimulation of in vitro reconstructed skin by several psoriasis-associated cytokines resulted in induction of LCE3 members. The data suggest that LCE proteins of groups 1, 2, 5, and 6 are involved in normal skin barrier function, whereas LCE3 genes encode proteins involved in barrier repair after injury or inflammation. These findings may provide clues to the mechanistic role of LCE3B/C deletion in psoriasis.
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