1
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Navarrete-Miguel M, Giussani A, Rubio M, Boggio-Pasqua M, Borin AC, Roca-Sanjuán D. Quantum-Chemistry Study of the Photophysical Properties of 4-Thiouracil and Comparisons with 2-Thiouracil. J Phys Chem A 2024; 128:2273-2285. [PMID: 38504122 PMCID: PMC10982997 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpca.3c06310] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2023] [Revised: 02/16/2024] [Accepted: 03/03/2024] [Indexed: 03/21/2024]
Abstract
DNA in living beings is constantly damaged by exogenous and endogenous agents. However, in some cases, DNA photodamage can have interesting applications, as it happens in photodynamic therapy. In this work, the current knowledge on the photophysics of 4-thiouracil has been extended by further quantum-chemistry studies to improve the agreement between theory and experiments, to better understand the differences with 2-thiouracil, and, last but not least, to verify its usefulness as a photosensitizer for photodynamic therapy. This study has been carried out by determining the most favorable deactivation paths of UV-vis photoexcited 4-thiouracil by means of the photochemical reaction path approach and an efficient combination of the complete-active-space second-order perturbation theory//complete-active-space self-consistent field (CASPT2//CASSCF), (CASPT2//CASPT2), time-dependent density functional theory (TDDFT), and spin-flip TDDFT (SF-TDDFT) methodologies. By comparing the data computed herein for both 4-thiouracil and 2-thiouracil, a rationale is provided on the relatively higher yields of intersystem crossing, triplet lifetime and singlet oxygen production of 4-thiouracil, and the relatively higher yield of phosphorescence of 2-thiouracil.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miriam Navarrete-Miguel
- Instituto
de Ciencia Molecular, Universitat de València, P.O. Box 22085, ES-46071 Valencia, Spain
| | - Angelo Giussani
- Instituto
de Ciencia Molecular, Universitat de València, P.O. Box 22085, ES-46071 Valencia, Spain
| | - Mercedes Rubio
- Departament
de Química Física, Universitat
de València, 46100 Burjassot, Spain
| | - Martial Boggio-Pasqua
- Laboratoire
de Chimie et Physique Quantiques, IRSAMC,
CNRS et Université Toulouse 3, 118 route de Narbonne, 31062 Toulouse, France
| | - Antonio Carlos Borin
- Department
of Fundamental Chemistry, Institute of Chemistry,
University of São Paulo, Av. Prof. Lineu Prestes, 748, São Paulo CEP 05508-000, Brazil
| | - Daniel Roca-Sanjuán
- Instituto
de Ciencia Molecular, Universitat de València, P.O. Box 22085, ES-46071 Valencia, Spain
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2
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Bunea MC, Diculescu VC, Enculescu M, Oprea D, Enache TA. Influence of the Photodegradation of Azathioprine on DNA and Cells. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms232214438. [PMID: 36430909 PMCID: PMC9692341 DOI: 10.3390/ijms232214438] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2022] [Revised: 11/17/2022] [Accepted: 11/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Azathioprine (AZA) is a pharmacologic immunosuppressive agent administrated in various conditions such as autoimmune disease or to prevent the rejection of organ transplantation. The mechanism of action is based on its biologically active metabolite 6-mercaptopurine (6-MP), which is converted, among others, into thioguanine nucleotides capable of incorporating into replicating DNA, which may act as a strong UV chromophore and trigger DNA oxidation. The interaction between azathioprine and DNA, before and after exposure to solar simulator radiation, was investigated using UV-vis spectrometry and differential pulse voltammetry at a glassy carbon electrode. The results indicated that the interaction of AZA with UV radiation was pH-dependent and occurred with the formation of several metabolites, which induced oxidative damage in DNA, and the formation of DNA-metabolite adducts. Moreover, the viability assays obtained for the L929 cell culture showed that both azathioprine and degraded azathioprine induced a decrease in cell proliferation.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Monica Enculescu
- National Institute of Materials Physics, Atomistilor 405A, 077125 Magurele, Romania
| | - Daniela Oprea
- National Institute of Materials Physics, Atomistilor 405A, 077125 Magurele, Romania
- Faculty of Physics, University of Bucharest, Atomistilor 405, 077125 Magurele, Romania
| | - Teodor Adrian Enache
- National Institute of Materials Physics, Atomistilor 405A, 077125 Magurele, Romania
- Correspondence:
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3
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Tsunenaga M, Xu W, Myojin T, Nakamura T, Kon T, Nakamura Y, Ueda O. Modulating effects of oral administration of Lycii Fructus extracts on UVB‑induced skin erythema: A Randomized, placebo‑controlled study. Biomed Rep 2022; 17:62. [PMID: 35719836 PMCID: PMC9198991 DOI: 10.3892/br.2022.1545] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2022] [Accepted: 05/10/2022] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Severe UV exposure induces skin inflammation, causing erythema. Lycii Fructus (Lycium barbarum and Lycium chinense) is a potential antioxidant agent with a high content of polyphenols, including rutin and chlorogenic acid. This study examined the effects of Lycii Fructus extract (LFE) on UVB-induced skin erythema in humans. Healthy volunteers were randomly assigned to one of two groups and received UVB irradiation at 1.5 minimal erythemal dose (MED) on day 0 at three designated sites on their backs, and the skin color was measured until day 7. After an 8-week treatment with LFE (900 mg/day) or placebo, UVB irradiation (l.5 MED) was applied again at different sites on day 63. Skin color was continuously measured in each group until day 69. LFE tablet administration for 8 weeks significantly inhibited UVB-induced erythema formation and increased the MED by 13%. Erythema formation peaked on the first day after UVB irradiation, but gradually dissipated over the next several days. LFE tended to accelerate erythema disappearance. To determine the polyphenol responsible for the protection against UVB-induced skin damage, the effects of LFE-derived polyphenols and their metabolites on UVB-induced cytotoxicity were examined in vitro. The major intestinal metabolite of rutin and LFE significantly attenuated phototoxicity and in human keratinocyte HaCaT cells. Quercetin enhanced intracellular glutathione levels in HaCaT cells, even though LFE did not increase it. Together, the results showed that LFE inhibited erythema formation and accelerated erythema dissipation, possibly through its direct antioxidative action.
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Affiliation(s)
- Makoto Tsunenaga
- Shiseido Co., Ltd. MIRAI Technology Institute, Frontier Business Research and Development Center, Yokohama, Kanagawa 220‑0011, Japan
| | - Wensi Xu
- Graduate School of Environmental and Life Science, Okayama University, Okayama 700‑8530 Japan
| | - Takumi Myojin
- Graduate School of Environmental and Life Science, Okayama University, Okayama 700‑8530 Japan
| | - Toshiyuki Nakamura
- Graduate School of Environmental and Life Science, Okayama University, Okayama 700‑8530 Japan
| | - Tatsuya Kon
- Shiseido Co., Ltd. MIRAI Technology Institute, Frontier Business Research and Development Center, Yokohama, Kanagawa 220‑0011, Japan
| | - Yoshimasa Nakamura
- Graduate School of Environmental and Life Science, Okayama University, Okayama 700‑8530 Japan
| | - Osamu Ueda
- Shiseido Co., Ltd. MIRAI Technology Institute, Frontier Business Research and Development Center, Yokohama, Kanagawa 220‑0011, Japan
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4
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Lawrence KP, Delinasios GJ, Premi S, Young AR, Cooke MS. Perspectives on Cyclobutane Pyrimidine Dimers-Rise of the Dark Dimers †. Photochem Photobiol 2021; 98:609-616. [PMID: 34706095 DOI: 10.1111/php.13551] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2021] [Accepted: 10/14/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Some early reports demonstrate that levels of cyclobutane pyrimidine dimers (CPD) may increase after UVR exposure had ended, although these observations were treated as artifacts. More recently, it has been shown unequivocally that CPD formation does occur post-irradiation, with maximal levels occurring after about 2-3 h. These lesions have been termed "dark CPD" (dCPD). Subsequent studies have confirmed their presence in vitro, in mouse models and in human skin in vivo. Melanin carbonyls have a role in the formation of dCPD, but they have also been observed in amelanotic systems, indicating other, unknown process(es) exist. In both cases, the formation of dCPD can be prevented by the presence of certain antioxidants. We lack data on the spectral dependence of dCPD, but it is unlikely to be the same as for incident CPD (iCPD), which are formed only during irradiation. There is evidence that iCPD and dCPD may have different repair kinetics, although this remains to be elucidated. It is also unknown whether iCPD and dCPD have different biological properties. The formation of dCPD in human skin in vivo has implications for post solar exposure photoprotection, and skin carcinogenesis, with a need for this to be investigated further.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karl P Lawrence
- St. John's Institute of Dermatology, King's College London, London, UK
| | | | - Sanjay Premi
- Tumor Biology Department, H. Lee Moffitt Cancer Center and Research Institute, Tampa, FL, USA
| | - Antony R Young
- St. John's Institute of Dermatology, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Marcus S Cooke
- Oxidative Stress Group, Department of Cell Biology, Microbiology and Molecular Biology, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, USA
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5
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Ortiz-Rodríguez LA, Ortiz-Zayas G, Pollum M, Hoehn SJ, Jockusch S, Crespo-Hernández CE. Intramolecular Charge Transfer in the Azathioprine Prodrug Quenches Intersystem Crossing to the Reactive Triplet State in 6-Mercaptopurine †. Photochem Photobiol 2021; 98:617-632. [PMID: 34480764 DOI: 10.1111/php.13513] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2021] [Accepted: 08/30/2021] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
The thiopurine prodrugs 6-mercaptopurine and azathioprine are among the world's essential medications for acute lymphoblastic leukemia, immunosuppression and several autoimmune conditions. Thiopurine prodrugs are efficient UVA absorbers and singlet oxygen generators and the long-term treatment with these prodrugs correlates with a high incidence of sunlight-induced skin cancer in patients. In this contribution, we show that the electronic relaxation mechanisms and photochemical properties of azathioprine are remarkably different from those of 6-mercaptopurine upon absorption of UVA radiation. UVA excitation of 6-mercaptopurine results in nearly 100% triplet yield and up to 30% singlet oxygen generation, whereas excitation of azathioprine with UVA leads to triplet yields of 15-3% depending on pH of the aqueous solution and <1% singlet oxygen generation. While photoexcitation of 6-mercaptopurine and other thiopurine prodrugs can facilitate oxidatively generated cell damage, azathioprine's poor photosensitization ability reveals the use of interchromophoric charge-transfer interactions for the molecular design of photostable prodrugs exhibiting a remarkable reduction in photocytotoxic side effects before drug metabolization.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Marvin Pollum
- Department of Chemistry, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, USA
| | - Sean J Hoehn
- Department of Chemistry, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, USA
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6
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Bigagli E, Cinci L, D'Ambrosio M, Nardini P, Portelli F, Colucci R, Lodovici M, Mugelli A, Luceri C. Hydrochlorothiazide Use and Risk of Nonmelanoma Skin Cancers: A Biological Plausibility Study. OXIDATIVE MEDICINE AND CELLULAR LONGEVITY 2021; 2021:6655542. [PMID: 34434485 PMCID: PMC8382532 DOI: 10.1155/2021/6655542] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/26/2020] [Revised: 07/09/2021] [Accepted: 07/23/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Recent studies reported the association between increased risk of nonmelanoma skin cancers (NMSCs) and the use of hydrochlorothiazide (HCTZ), one of the most commonly prescribed diuretic, antihypertensive drug, over the world. Although HCTZ is known to be photosensitizing, the mechanisms involved in its potential prophotocarcinogenic effects remain unclear. Under acute exposure, therapeutically relevant concentrations of HCTZ (70, 140, and 370 ng/mL) amplified UVA-induced double-strand breaks, oxidative DNA, and protein damage in HaCaT human keratinocytes, and this effect was associated to a defective activity of the DNA repair enzyme, OGG1. Oxidative damage to DNA, but not that to proteins, was reversible within few hours. After chronic, combined exposure to HCTZ (70 ng/mL) and UVA (10 J/cm2), for 9 weeks, keratinocytes acquired a dysplastic-like phenotype characterized by a multilayered morphology and alterations in cell size, shape, and contacts. At the ultrastructural level, several atypical and enlarged nuclei and evident nucleoli were also observed. These transformed keratinocytes were apoptosis resistant, exhibited enhanced clonogenicity capacity, increased DNA damage and inflammation, defective DNA repair ability, and increased expression of the oncogene ΔNp63α and intranuclear β-catenin accumulation (a hallmark of Wnt pathway activation), compared to those treated with UVA alone. None of these molecular, morphological, or functional effects were observed in cells treated with HCTZ alone. All these features resemble in part those of preneoplastic lesions and NMSCs and provide evidence of a biological plausibility for the association among exposure to UVA, use of HCTZ, and increased risk of NMSCs. These results are of translational relevance since we used environmentally relevant UVA doses and tested HCTZ at concentrations that reflect the plasma levels of doses used in clinical practice. This study also highlights that drug safety data should be followed by experimental evaluations to clarify the mechanistic aspects of adverse events.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elisabetta Bigagli
- Department of Neuroscience, Psychology, Drug Research and Child Health (NEUROFARBA), Section of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Florence, Florence, Italy
| | - Lorenzo Cinci
- Department of Neuroscience, Psychology, Drug Research and Child Health (NEUROFARBA), Section of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Florence, Florence, Italy
| | - Mario D'Ambrosio
- Department of Neuroscience, Psychology, Drug Research and Child Health (NEUROFARBA), Section of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Florence, Florence, Italy
| | - Patrizia Nardini
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Section of Histology, University of Florence, Florence, Italy
| | - Francesca Portelli
- Department of Health Sciences, Section of Anatomical Pathology, Careggi University Hospital, Florence, Italy
| | - Roberta Colucci
- Department of Health Sciences, Section of Dermatology, University of Florence, Florence, Italy
| | - Maura Lodovici
- Department of Neuroscience, Psychology, Drug Research and Child Health (NEUROFARBA), Section of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Florence, Florence, Italy
| | - Alessandro Mugelli
- Department of Neuroscience, Psychology, Drug Research and Child Health (NEUROFARBA), Section of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Florence, Florence, Italy
| | - Cristina Luceri
- Department of Neuroscience, Psychology, Drug Research and Child Health (NEUROFARBA), Section of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Florence, Florence, Italy
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7
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Lopes AR, Figueiredo C, Sampaio E, Diniz M, Rosa R, Grilo TF. Impaired antioxidant defenses and DNA damage in the European glass eel (Anguilla anguilla) exposed to ocean warming and acidification. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2021; 774:145499. [PMID: 33610990 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.145499] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2020] [Revised: 01/05/2021] [Accepted: 01/25/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
The European eel (Anguilla anguilla) has attracted scientific inquiry for centuries due to its singular biological traits. Within the European Union, glass eel fisheries have declined sharply since 1980, from up to 2000 t (t) to 62.2 t in 2018, placing wild populations under higher risk of extinction. Among the major causes of glass eels collapse, climate change has become a growing worldwide issue, specifically ocean warming and acidification, but, to our knowledge, data on physiological and biochemical responses of glass eels to these stressors is limited. Within this context, we selected some representative biomarkers [e.g. glutathione peroxidase (GPx), catalase (CAT), total antioxidant capacity (TAC), heat shock proteins (HSP70), ubiquitin (Ub) and DNA damage] to study physiological responses of the European glass eel under distinct laboratory-climate change scenarios, such as increased water temperature (+ 4 °C) and pH reduction (- 0.4 units), for 12 weeks. Overall, the antioxidant enzymatic machinery was impaired, both in the muscle and viscera, manifested by significant changes in CAT, GPx and TAC. Heat shock response varied differently between tissues, increasing with temperature in the muscle, but not in the viscera, and decreasing in both tissues under acidification. The inability of HSP to maintain functional protein conformation was responsible for boosting the production of Ub, particularly under warming and acidification, as sole stressors. The overproduction of reactive oxygen species (ROS), either elicited by warming - due to increased metabolic demand - or acidification - through H+ interaction with O2-, generating H2O2 - overwhelmed defense mechanisms, causing oxidative stress and consequently leading to protein and DNA damage. Our results emphasize the vulnerability of eels' early life stages to climate change, with potential cascading consequences to adult stocks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Rita Lopes
- MARE - Marine and Environmental Sciences Centre, Faculdade de Ciências da Universidade de Lisboa, Campo Grande, 1749-016 Lisboa, Portugal; MARE - Marine and Environmental Sciences Centre, ISPA - Instituto Universitário, Rua Jardim Do Tabaco 34, 1149-041 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Cátia Figueiredo
- MARE - Marine and Environmental Sciences Centre, Faculdade de Ciências da Universidade de Lisboa, Campo Grande, 1749-016 Lisboa, Portugal; Division of Environmental Oceanography and Bioprospection, IPMA - Portuguese Institute for Sea and Atmosphere, Av. Brasília, 1449-006 Lisboa, Portugal; UCIBIO, REQUIMTE, Departamento de Química, Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Quinta da Torre, 2829-516 Caparica, Portugal
| | - Eduardo Sampaio
- MARE - Marine and Environmental Sciences Centre, Laboratório Marítimo da Guia, Faculdade de Ciências da Universidade de Lisboa, Avenida Nossa Senhora do Cabo 939, 2750-374 Cascais, Portugal
| | - Mário Diniz
- UCIBIO, REQUIMTE, Departamento de Química, Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Quinta da Torre, 2829-516 Caparica, Portugal
| | - Rui Rosa
- MARE - Marine and Environmental Sciences Centre, Laboratório Marítimo da Guia, Faculdade de Ciências da Universidade de Lisboa, Avenida Nossa Senhora do Cabo 939, 2750-374 Cascais, Portugal
| | - Tiago F Grilo
- MARE - Marine and Environmental Sciences Centre, Faculdade de Ciências da Universidade de Lisboa, Campo Grande, 1749-016 Lisboa, Portugal.
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8
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Saitoh T, Oda T. DNA Damage Response in Multiple Myeloma: The Role of the Tumor Microenvironment. Cancers (Basel) 2021; 13:504. [PMID: 33525741 PMCID: PMC7865954 DOI: 10.3390/cancers13030504] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2020] [Revised: 01/21/2021] [Accepted: 01/26/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Multiple myeloma (MM) is an incurable plasma cell malignancy characterized by genomic instability. MM cells present various forms of genetic instability, including chromosomal instability, microsatellite instability, and base-pair alterations, as well as changes in chromosome number. The tumor microenvironment and an abnormal DNA repair function affect genetic instability in this disease. In addition, states of the tumor microenvironment itself, such as inflammation and hypoxia, influence the DNA damage response, which includes DNA repair mechanisms, cell cycle checkpoints, and apoptotic pathways. Unrepaired DNA damage in tumor cells has been shown to exacerbate genomic instability and aberrant features that enable MM progression and drug resistance. This review provides an overview of the DNA repair pathways, with a special focus on their function in MM, and discusses the role of the tumor microenvironment in governing DNA repair mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takayuki Saitoh
- Department of Laboratory Sciences, Graduate School of Health Sciences, Gunma University, 3-39-22 Showa-machi, Maebashi, Gunma 371-8511, Japan
| | - Tsukasa Oda
- Laboratory of Molecular Genetics, Institute for Molecular and Cellular Regulation, Gunma University, 3-39-15 Showa-machi, Maebashi, Gunma 371-8512, Japan;
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9
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Figueiredo C, Raimundo J, Lopes AR, Lopes C, Rosa N, Brito P, Diniz M, Caetano M, Grilo TF. Warming enhances lanthanum accumulation and toxicity promoting cellular damage in glass eels (Anguilla anguilla). ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2020; 191:110051. [PMID: 32818498 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2020.110051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2020] [Revised: 07/19/2020] [Accepted: 08/05/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Cumulative and continuing human emissions of greenhouse gases to the atmosphere are causing ocean warming. Rising temperature is a major threat to aquatic organisms and may affect physiological responses, such as acid-base balance, often compromising species fitness and survival. It is also expected that warming may influence the availability and toxicological effects of pollutants, including Rare Earth Elements. These are contaminants of environmental emerging concern with great economic interest. This group comprises yttrium, scandium and lanthanides, being Lanthanum (La) one of the most common. The European eel (Anguilla anguilla) is critically endangered and constitutes a delicacy in South East Asia and Europe, being subject to an increasing demand on a global scale. Considering the vulnerability of early life stages to contaminants, we exposed glass eels to 1.5 μg L-1 of La for five days, plus five days of depuration, under a present-day temperature and warming scenarios (△T = +4 °C). The aim of this study was to assess the bioaccumulation, elimination and specific biochemical enzymatic endpoints in glass eels (Anguilla anguilla) tissues, under warming and La. Overall, our results showed that the accumulation and toxicity of La were enhanced with increasing temperature. The accumulation was higher in the viscera, followed by the head, and ultimately the body. Elimination was less effective under warming. Exposure to La did not impact acetylcholinesterase activity. Moreover, lipid peroxidation peaked after five days under the combined exposure of La and warming. The expression of heat shock proteins was majorly suppressed in glass eels exposed to La, at both tested temperatures. This result suggests that, when exposed to La, glass eels were unable to efficiently prevent cellular damage, with a particularly dramatic setup in a near-future scenario. Further studies are needed towards a better understanding of the effects of lanthanum in a changing world.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cátia Figueiredo
- MARE - Marine and Environmental Sciences Centre, Faculdade de Ciências da Universidade de Lisboa, Campo Grande, 1749-016, Lisboa, Portugal; Division of Oceanography and Marine Environment, IPMA - Portuguese Institute for Sea and Atmosphere, Av. Alfredo Magalhães Ramalho, 6, 1495-165, Algés, Portugal; UCIBIO, REQUIMTE, Departamento de Química, Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia, Universidade NOVA de Lisboa, 2829-516, Caparica, Portugal.
| | - Joana Raimundo
- MARE - Marine and Environmental Sciences Centre, Faculdade de Ciências da Universidade de Lisboa, Campo Grande, 1749-016, Lisboa, Portugal; CIIMAR, Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine and Environmental Research, Avenida General Norton de Matos S/N, 4450-208, Matosinhos, Portugal
| | - Ana Rita Lopes
- MARE - Marine and Environmental Sciences Centre, Faculdade de Ciências da Universidade de Lisboa, Campo Grande, 1749-016, Lisboa, Portugal; MARE - Marine and Environmental Science Centre, ISPA - Instituto Universitário, R. Jardim Do Tabaco 34, 1100-304, Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Clara Lopes
- Division of Oceanography and Marine Environment, IPMA - Portuguese Institute for Sea and Atmosphere, Av. Alfredo Magalhães Ramalho, 6, 1495-165, Algés, Portugal; CIIMAR, Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine and Environmental Research, Avenida General Norton de Matos S/N, 4450-208, Matosinhos, Portugal
| | - Nuno Rosa
- Division of Oceanography and Marine Environment, IPMA - Portuguese Institute for Sea and Atmosphere, Av. Alfredo Magalhães Ramalho, 6, 1495-165, Algés, Portugal
| | - Pedro Brito
- Division of Oceanography and Marine Environment, IPMA - Portuguese Institute for Sea and Atmosphere, Av. Alfredo Magalhães Ramalho, 6, 1495-165, Algés, Portugal
| | - Mário Diniz
- UCIBIO, REQUIMTE, Departamento de Química, Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia, Universidade NOVA de Lisboa, 2829-516, Caparica, Portugal
| | - Miguel Caetano
- Division of Oceanography and Marine Environment, IPMA - Portuguese Institute for Sea and Atmosphere, Av. Alfredo Magalhães Ramalho, 6, 1495-165, Algés, Portugal; CIIMAR, Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine and Environmental Research, Avenida General Norton de Matos S/N, 4450-208, Matosinhos, Portugal
| | - Tiago F Grilo
- MARE - Marine and Environmental Sciences Centre, Faculdade de Ciências da Universidade de Lisboa, Campo Grande, 1749-016, Lisboa, Portugal
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10
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Douki T. Oxidative Stress and Genotoxicity in Melanoma Induction: Impact on Repair Rather Than Formation of DNA Damage? Photochem Photobiol 2020; 96:962-972. [PMID: 32367509 DOI: 10.1111/php.13278] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2020] [Accepted: 04/21/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Keratinocytes and melanocytes, two cutaneous cell types located within the epidermis, are the origin of most skin cancers, namely carcinomas and melanomas. These two types of tumors differ in many ways. First, carcinomas are almost 10 times more frequent than melanomas. In addition, the affected cellular pathways, the mutated genes and the metastatic properties of the tumors are not the same. This review addresses another specificity of melanomas: the role of photo-oxidative stress. UVA efficiently produces reactive oxygen species in melanocytes, which results in more frequent oxidatively generated DNA lesions than in other cell types. The question of the respective contribution of UVB-induced pyrimidine dimers and UVA-mediated oxidatively generated lesions to mutagenesis in melanoma remains open. Recent results based on next-generation sequencing techniques strongly suggest that the mutational signature associated with pyrimidine dimers is overwhelming in melanomas like in skin carcinomas. UVA-induced oxidative stress may yet be indirectly linked to the genotoxic pathways involved in melanoma through its ability to hamper DNA repair activities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thierry Douki
- Université Grenoble Alpes, CEA, CNRS, IRIG, SyMMES, Grenoble, France
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11
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Kumar N, Moreno NC, Feltes BC, Menck CF, Houten BV. Cooperation and interplay between base and nucleotide excision repair pathways: From DNA lesions to proteins. Genet Mol Biol 2020; 43:e20190104. [PMID: 32141475 PMCID: PMC7198027 DOI: 10.1590/1678-4685-gmb-2019-0104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2019] [Accepted: 08/25/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Base and nucleotide excision repair (BER and NER) pathways are normally associated with removal of specific types of DNA damage: small base modifications (such as those induced by DNA oxidation) and bulky DNA lesions (such as those induced by ultraviolet or chemical carcinogens), respectively. However, growing evidence indicates that this scenario is much more complex and these pathways exchange proteins and cooperate with each other in the repair of specific lesions. In this review, we highlight studies discussing the involvement of NER in the repair of DNA damage induced by oxidative stress, and BER participating in the removal of bulky adducts on DNA. Adding to this complexity, UVA light experiments revealed that oxidative stress also causes protein oxidation, directly affecting proteins involved in both NER and BER. This reduces the cell’s ability to repair DNA damage with deleterious implications to the cells, such as mutagenesis and cell death, and to the organisms, such as cancer and aging. Finally, an interactome of NER and BER proteins is presented, showing the strong connection between these pathways, indicating that further investigation may reveal new functions shared by them, and their cooperation in maintaining genome stability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Namrata Kumar
- University of Pittsburgh, School of Medicine, Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, Pittsburgh, PA, USA.,University of Pittsburgh, UPMC Hillman Cancer Center, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Natália C Moreno
- Universidade de São Paulo, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Departamento de Microbiologia, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Bruno C Feltes
- Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Instituto de Informática, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Carlos Fm Menck
- Universidade de São Paulo, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Departamento de Microbiologia, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Bennett Van Houten
- University of Pittsburgh, School of Medicine, Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, Pittsburgh, PA, USA.,University of Pittsburgh, UPMC Hillman Cancer Center, Pittsburgh, PA, USA.,University of Pittsburgh, School of Medicine, Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
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12
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Protein Oxidative Damage in UV-Related Skin Cancer and Dysplastic Lesions Contributes to Neoplastic Promotion and Progression. Cancers (Basel) 2020; 12:cancers12010110. [PMID: 31906275 PMCID: PMC7017152 DOI: 10.3390/cancers12010110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2019] [Revised: 12/18/2019] [Accepted: 12/28/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The ultraviolet (UV) component of solar radiation is the major driving force of skin carcinogenesis. Most of studies on UV carcinogenesis actually focus on DNA damage while their proteome-damaging ability and its contribution to skin carcinogenesis have remained largely underexplored. A redox proteomic analysis of oxidized proteins in solar-induced neoplastic skin lesion and perilesional areas has been conducted showing that the protein oxidative burden mostly concerns a selected number of proteins participating to a defined set of functions, namely: chaperoning and stress response; protein folding/refolding and protein quality control; proteasomal function; DNA damage repair; protein- and vesicle-trafficking; cell architecture, adhesion/extra-cellular matrix (ECM) interaction; proliferation/oncosuppression; apoptosis/survival, all of them ultimately concurring either to structural damage repair or to damage detoxication and stress response. In peri-neoplastic areas the oxidative alterations are conducive to the persistence of genetic alterations, dysfunctional apoptosis surveillance, and a disrupted extracellular environment, thus creating the condition for transformant clones to establish, expand and progress. A comparatively lower burden of oxidative damage is observed in neoplastic areas. Such a finding can reflect an adaptive selection of best fitting clones to the sharply pro-oxidant neoplastic environment. In this context the DNA damage response appears severely perturbed, thus sustaining an increased genomic instability and an accelerated rate of neoplastic evolution. In conclusion UV radiation, in addition to being a cancer-initiating agent, can act, through protein oxidation, as a cancer-promoting agent and as an inducer of genomic instability concurring with the neoplastic progression of established lesions.
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13
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Lopes AR, Borges FO, Figueiredo C, Sampaio E, Diniz M, Rosa R, Grilo TF. Transgenerational exposure to ocean acidification induces biochemical distress in a keystone amphipod species (Gammarus locusta). ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2019; 170:168-177. [PMID: 30583126 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2018.12.040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2018] [Revised: 12/14/2018] [Accepted: 12/18/2018] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) levels are increasing at the fastest rate ever recorded, causing higher CO2 dissolution in the ocean, leading to a process known as ocean acidification (OA). Unless anthropogenic CO2 emissions are reduced, they are expected to reach ~900 ppm by the century's end, resulting in a 0.13-0.42 drop in the seawater pH levels. Since the transgenerational effects of high CO2 in marine organisms are still poorly understood at lower levels of biological organization (namely at the biochemical level), here we reared a key ecological relevant marine amphipod, Gammarus locusta, under control and high CO2 conditions for two generations. We measured several stress-related biochemical endpoints: i) oxidative damage [lipid peroxidation (LPO) and DNA damage]; ii) protein repair and removal mechanisms [heat shock proteins (HSPs) and ubiquitin (Ub)]; as well as iii) antioxidant responses [superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), glutathione peroxidase (GPx) and glutathione s-transferase (GST)] and total antioxidant capacity (TAC). The present results support the premise that exposure to high CO2 is expected to decrease survival rates in this species and cause within- and transgenerational oxidative damage. More specifically, the predicted upsurge of reactive oxygen and nitrogen species seemed to overwhelm the stimulated amphipod antioxidant machinery, which proved insufficient in circumventing protein damage within the parents. Additionally, negative effects of OA are potentially being inherited by the offspring, since the oxidative stress imposed in the parent's proteome appears to be restricting DNA repair mechanisms efficiency within the offspring's. Thus, we argue that a transgenerational exposure of G. locusta could further increase vulnerability to OA and may endanger the fitness and sustainability of natural populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Rita Lopes
- MARE - Marine and Environmental Sciences Centre, Laboratório Marítimo da Guia, Faculdade de Ciências da Universidade de Lisboa, Avenida Nossa Senhora do Cabo 939, 2750-374 Cascais, Portugal; UCIBIO, REQUIMTE, Departamento de Química, Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Quinta da Torre, 2829-516 Caparica, Portugal.
| | - Francisco Oliveira Borges
- MARE - Marine and Environmental Sciences Centre, Laboratório Marítimo da Guia, Faculdade de Ciências da Universidade de Lisboa, Avenida Nossa Senhora do Cabo 939, 2750-374 Cascais, Portugal
| | - Cátia Figueiredo
- MARE - Marine and Environmental Sciences Centre, Laboratório Marítimo da Guia, Faculdade de Ciências da Universidade de Lisboa, Avenida Nossa Senhora do Cabo 939, 2750-374 Cascais, Portugal
| | - Eduardo Sampaio
- MARE - Marine and Environmental Sciences Centre, Laboratório Marítimo da Guia, Faculdade de Ciências da Universidade de Lisboa, Avenida Nossa Senhora do Cabo 939, 2750-374 Cascais, Portugal
| | - Mário Diniz
- UCIBIO, REQUIMTE, Departamento de Química, Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Quinta da Torre, 2829-516 Caparica, Portugal
| | - Rui Rosa
- MARE - Marine and Environmental Sciences Centre, Laboratório Marítimo da Guia, Faculdade de Ciências da Universidade de Lisboa, Avenida Nossa Senhora do Cabo 939, 2750-374 Cascais, Portugal
| | - Tiago Fernandes Grilo
- MARE - Marine and Environmental Sciences Centre, Laboratório Marítimo da Guia, Faculdade de Ciências da Universidade de Lisboa, Avenida Nossa Senhora do Cabo 939, 2750-374 Cascais, Portugal
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14
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Alnajjar KS, Sweasy JB. A new perspective on oxidation of DNA repair proteins and cancer. DNA Repair (Amst) 2019; 76:60-69. [PMID: 30818170 DOI: 10.1016/j.dnarep.2019.02.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2018] [Revised: 02/07/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Reactive oxygen and nitrogen species (RONS) are formed as byproducts of many endogenous cellular processes, in response to infections, and upon exposure to various environmental factors. An increase in RONS can saturate the antioxidation system and leads to oxidative stress. Consequently, macromolecules are targeted for oxidative modifications, including DNA and protein. The oxidation of DNA, which leads to base modification and formation of abasic sites along with single and double strand breaks, has been extensively investigated. Protein oxidation is often neglected and is only recently being recognized as an important regulatory mechanism of various DNA repair proteins. This is a review of the current state of research on the regulation of DNA repair by protein oxidation with emphasis on the correlation between inflammation and cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Khadijeh S Alnajjar
- Department of Therapeutic Radiology and Department of Genetics, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, 06520, United States.
| | - Joann B Sweasy
- Department of Therapeutic Radiology and Department of Genetics, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, 06520, United States
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15
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Di Mascio P, Martinez GR, Miyamoto S, Ronsein GE, Medeiros MHG, Cadet J. Singlet Molecular Oxygen Reactions with Nucleic Acids, Lipids, and Proteins. Chem Rev 2019; 119:2043-2086. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.8b00554] [Citation(s) in RCA: 253] [Impact Index Per Article: 50.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Paolo Di Mascio
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Instituto de Química, Universidade de São Paulo, CP 26077, CEP 05508-000, São Paulo, SP Brazil
| | - Glaucia R. Martinez
- Departamento de Bioquímica e Biologia Molecular, Setor de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal do Paraná, 81531-990 Curitiba, PR, Brazil
| | - Sayuri Miyamoto
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Instituto de Química, Universidade de São Paulo, CP 26077, CEP 05508-000, São Paulo, SP Brazil
| | - Graziella E. Ronsein
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Instituto de Química, Universidade de São Paulo, CP 26077, CEP 05508-000, São Paulo, SP Brazil
| | - Marisa H. G. Medeiros
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Instituto de Química, Universidade de São Paulo, CP 26077, CEP 05508-000, São Paulo, SP Brazil
| | - Jean Cadet
- Département de Médecine Nucléaire et Radiobiologie, Faculté de Médecine des Sciences de la Santé, Université de Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, J1H 5N4 Québec, Canada
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16
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Moreno NC, Garcia CCM, Rocha CRR, Munford V, Menck CFM. ATR/Chk1 Pathway is Activated by Oxidative Stress in Response to UVA Light in Human Xeroderma Pigmentosum Variant Cells. Photochem Photobiol 2018; 95:345-354. [PMID: 30362123 DOI: 10.1111/php.13041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2018] [Accepted: 10/03/2018] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
The crucial role of DNA polymerase eta in protecting against sunlight-induced tumors is evidenced in Xeroderma Pigmentosum Variant (XP-V) patients, who carry mutations in this protein and present increased frequency of skin cancer. XP-V cellular phenotypes may be aggravated if proteins of DNA damage response (DDR) pathway are blocked, as widely demonstrated by experiments with UVC light and caffeine. However, little is known about the participation of DDR in XP-V cells exposed to UVA light, the wavelengths patients are mostly exposed. Here, we demonstrate the participation of ATR kinase in protecting XP-V cells after receiving low UVA doses using a specific inhibitor, with a remarkable increase in sensitivity and γH2AX signaling. Corroborating ATR participation in UVA-DDR, a significant increase in Chk1 protein phosphorylation, as well as S-phase cell cycle arrest, is also observed. Moreover, the participation of oxidative stress is supported by the antioxidant action of N-acetylcysteine (NAC), which significantly protects XP-V cells from UVA light, even in the presence of the ATR inhibitor. These findings indicate that the ATR/Chk1 pathway is activated to control UVA-induced oxidatively generated DNA damage and emphasizes the role of ATR kinase as a mediator of genomic stability in pol eta defective cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natália Cestari Moreno
- Department of Microbiology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | | | | | - Veridiana Munford
- Department of Microbiology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo, SP, Brazil
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17
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Aldehyde-mediated protein degradation is responsible for the inhibition of nucleotide excision repair by cigarette sidestream smoke. MUTATION RESEARCH-GENETIC TOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL MUTAGENESIS 2018; 834:42-50. [DOI: 10.1016/j.mrgentox.2018.08.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2018] [Revised: 08/10/2018] [Accepted: 08/10/2018] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
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18
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Ashwood B, Pollum M, Crespo-Hernández CE. Photochemical and Photodynamical Properties of Sulfur-Substituted Nucleic Acid Bases. Photochem Photobiol 2018; 95:33-58. [PMID: 29978490 DOI: 10.1111/php.12975] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2018] [Accepted: 06/28/2018] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Sulfur-substituted nucleobases (a.k.a., thiobases) are among the world's leading prescriptions for chemotherapy and immunosuppression. Long-term treatment with azathioprine, 6-mercaptopurine and 6-thioguanine has been correlated with the photoinduced formation of carcinomas. Establishing an in-depth understanding of the photochemical properties of these prodrugs may provide a route to overcoming these carcinogenic side effects, or, alternatively, a basis for developing effective compounds for targeted phototherapy. In this review, a broad examination is undertaken, surveying the basic photochemical properties and excited-state dynamics of sulfur-substituted analogs of the canonical DNA and RNA nucleobases. A molecular-level understanding of how sulfur substitution so remarkably perturbs the photochemical properties of the nucleobases is presented by combining experimental results with quantum-chemical calculations. Structure-property relationships demonstrate the impact of site-specific sulfur substitution on the photochemical properties, particularly on the population of the reactive triplet state. The value of fundamental photochemical investigations for driving the development of ultraviolet-A chemotherapeutics is showcased. The most promising photodynamic agents identified thus far have been investigated in various carcinoma cell lines and shown to decrease cell proliferation upon exposure to ultraviolet-A radiation. Overarching principles have been elucidated for the impact that sulfur substitution of the carbonyl oxygen has on the photochemical properties of the nucleobases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brennan Ashwood
- Department of Chemistry, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH
| | - Marvin Pollum
- Department of Chemistry, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH
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19
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Zhang S, Chen H, Wang A, Liu Y, Hou H, Hu Q. Combined effects of co-exposure to formaldehyde and acrolein mixtures on cytotoxicity and genotoxicity in vitro. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2018; 25:25306-25314. [PMID: 29946839 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-018-2584-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2018] [Accepted: 06/18/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
FA (formaldehyde) and ACR (acrolein) are common pollutants in environment, which often occur together in air. So, adverse health effects may not only result from their individual toxicity but also from the combined toxicity. While often studied alone, combination effects of these pollutants are inconclusive. Here, we examined the combined cytotoxicity and genotoxicity of FA and ACR on A549 cells based on CCK-8 assay, comet assay, and cytokinesis-block micronuclei assay. FA and ACR mixtures showed significant cytotoxicity and genotoxicity even at NOECs (no observed effect concentrations). Moreover, FA and ACR administrated jointly at doses from NOECs to sub-cytotoxic concentrations demonstrated significant interactions in cytotoxicity, DNA strand breaks, and chromosome damage. Co-exposure to FA and ACR significantly showed a lower responses on DNA strand break and chromosome damage than those expected for additivity, while an opposite result was obtained on cytotoxicity. Taken together, these results indicated that there was significant interactions on cytotoxicity and genotoxicity for FA and ACR, and prolonged exposure to mixtures of FA and ACR below sub-cytotoxic concentrations can produce a serious threat in human's health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sen Zhang
- Institute of Applied Technology, Hefei Institutes of physical Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei, 230031, People's Republic of China
- University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, 230026, People's Republic of China
- China National Tobacco Quality Supervision & Test Center, Zhengzhou, 450001, People's Republic of China
| | - Huan Chen
- China National Tobacco Quality Supervision & Test Center, Zhengzhou, 450001, People's Republic of China
| | - An Wang
- Institute of Applied Technology, Hefei Institutes of physical Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei, 230031, People's Republic of China
| | - Yong Liu
- Institute of Applied Technology, Hefei Institutes of physical Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei, 230031, People's Republic of China
| | - Hongwei Hou
- China National Tobacco Quality Supervision & Test Center, Zhengzhou, 450001, People's Republic of China.
| | - Qingyuan Hu
- China National Tobacco Quality Supervision & Test Center, Zhengzhou, 450001, People's Republic of China.
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20
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Khan AQ, Travers JB, Kemp MG. Roles of UVA radiation and DNA damage responses in melanoma pathogenesis. ENVIRONMENTAL AND MOLECULAR MUTAGENESIS 2018; 59:438-460. [PMID: 29466611 PMCID: PMC6031472 DOI: 10.1002/em.22176] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2017] [Revised: 01/18/2018] [Accepted: 01/22/2018] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
The growing incidence of melanoma is a serious public health issue that merits a thorough understanding of potential causative risk factors, which includes exposure to ultraviolet radiation (UVR). Though UVR has been classified as a complete carcinogen and has long been recognized for its ability to damage genomic DNA through both direct and indirect means, the precise mechanisms by which the UVA and UVB components of UVR contribute to the pathogenesis of melanoma have not been clearly defined. In this review, we therefore highlight recent studies that have addressed roles for UVA radiation in the generation of DNA damage and in modulating the subsequent cellular responses to DNA damage in melanocytes, which are the cell type that gives rise to melanoma. Recent research suggests that UVA not only contributes to the direct formation of DNA lesions but also impairs the removal of UV photoproducts from genomic DNA through oxidation and damage to DNA repair proteins. Moreover, the melanocyte microenvironment within the epidermis of the skin is also expected to impact melanomagenesis, and we therefore discuss several paracrine signaling pathways that have been shown to impact the DNA damage response in UV-irradiated melanocytes. Lastly, we examine how alterations to the immune microenvironment by UVA-associated DNA damage responses may contribute to melanoma development. Thus, there appear to be multiple avenues by which UVA may elevate the risk of melanoma. Protective strategies against excess exposure to UVA wavelengths of light therefore have the potential to decrease the incidence of melanoma. Environ. Mol. Mutagen. 59:438-460, 2018. © 2018 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aiman Q Khan
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Wright State University Boonshoft School of Medicine, Dayton, Ohio
| | - Jeffrey B Travers
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Wright State University Boonshoft School of Medicine, Dayton, Ohio
- Dayton Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Dayton, Ohio
| | - Michael G Kemp
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Wright State University Boonshoft School of Medicine, Dayton, Ohio
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21
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Ashwood B, Ortiz-Rodríguez LA, Crespo-Hernández CE. Photochemical relaxation pathways of S 6-methylthioinosine and O 6-methylguanosine in solution. Faraday Discuss 2018; 207:351-374. [PMID: 29372193 DOI: 10.1039/c7fd00193b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
S6-Methylthioinosine and O6-methylguanosine are byproducts resulting from the enzymatic reactions of sulfur-substituted prodrugs in cells and from the interaction of alkylating agents with cellular DNA, respectively. Their photochemistry has not been investigated, and it is currently unknown whether light absorption by these byproducts may pose any threat to the cell. In this contribution, their photoinduced processes upon absorption of UVB radiation are reported using broadband transient absorption spectroscopy. Plausible electronic relaxation mechanisms are proposed for both biological molecules, which are supported by steady-state absorption and emission measurements, and by singlet and triplet vertical excitation energies performed on a large subset of ground-state optimized conformational isomers in solution. The results are compared to the body of knowledge gathered in the scientific literature about the light-induced processes in the sulfur-substituted and canonical purine monomers. In particular, it is shown that S6-methylation decreases the rate to populate the lowest-energy triplet state and blueshifts the ground-state absorption spectrum compared to those for the sulfur-substituted prodrugs and for the 6-thioguanosine metabolite. Similarly, O6-methylation decreases the rate of internal conversion to the ground state observed in the guanine monomers by more than 10-fold in acetonitrile and 40-fold in aqueous solution, while it redshifts the ground-state absorption spectrum. Collectively, this investigation provides relevant new insights about the relationship between structural modifications of the purine chromophore and the electronic relaxation mechanisms in this important group of biological molecules.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brennan Ashwood
- Department of Chemistry, Center for Chemical Dynamics, Case Western Reserve University, 10900 Euclid Avenue, Cleveland, Ohio 44106, USA.
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22
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Yang G, Ibuki Y. α,β-Unsaturated Aldehyde-Induced Delays in Nucleotide Excision Repair and the Contribution of Reactive Oxygen Species. Chem Res Toxicol 2018; 31:145-155. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrestox.7b00304] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Guang Yang
- Graduate Division of Nutritional
and Environmental Sciences, University of Shizuoka, 52-1 Yada, Shizuoka 422-8526, Japan
| | - Yuko Ibuki
- Graduate Division of Nutritional
and Environmental Sciences, University of Shizuoka, 52-1 Yada, Shizuoka 422-8526, Japan
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23
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Metral E, Rachidi W, Damour O, Demarne F, Bechetoille N. Long-term Genoprotection Effect of Sechium edule
Fruit Extract Against UVA Irradiation in Keratinocytes. Photochem Photobiol 2017; 94:343-350. [DOI: 10.1111/php.12854] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2017] [Accepted: 10/05/2017] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Elodie Metral
- R&D Department; Gattefossé; Saint-Priest France
- CEA/INAC/SyMMES/CIBEST; University of Grenoble Alpes; Grenoble France
- BTC/LSC HCL de Lyon; Lyon France
| | - Walid Rachidi
- CEA/INAC/SyMMES/CIBEST; University of Grenoble Alpes; Grenoble France
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24
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Moore EA, Xu YZ. The effect of S-substitution at the O6-guanine site on the structure and dynamics of a DNA oligomer containing a G:T mismatch. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0184801. [PMID: 28910418 PMCID: PMC5599020 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0184801] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2017] [Accepted: 08/31/2017] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The effect of S-substitution on the O6 guanine site of a 13-mer DNA duplex containing a G:T mismatch is studied using molecular dynamics. The structure, dynamic evolution and hydration of the S-substituted duplex are compared with those of a normal duplex, a duplex with S-substitution on guanine, but no mismatch and a duplex with just a G:T mismatch. The S-substituted mismatch leads to cell death rather than repair. One suggestion is that the G:T mismatch recognition protein recognises the S-substituted mismatch (GS:T) as G:T. This leads to a cycle of futile repair ending in DNA breakage and cell death. We find that some structural features of the helix are similar for the duplex with the G:T mismatch and that with the S-substituted mismatch, but differ from the normal duplex, notably the helical twist. These differences arise from the change in the hydrogen-bonding pattern of the base pair. However a marked feature of the S-substituted G:T mismatch duplex is a very large opening. This showed considerable variability. It is suggested that this enlarged opening would lend support to an alternative model of cell death in which the mismatch protein attaches to thioguanine and activates downstream damage-response pathways. Attack on the sulphur by reactive oxygen species, also leading to cell death, would also be aided by the large, variable opening.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elaine Ann Moore
- School of Life, Health and Chemical Sciences, STEM Faculty, The Open University, Milton Keynes, Buckinghamshire, United Kingdom
- * E-mail:
| | - Yao-Zhong Xu
- School of Life, Health and Chemical Sciences, STEM Faculty, The Open University, Milton Keynes, Buckinghamshire, United Kingdom
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25
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Sample A, He YY. Autophagy in UV Damage Response. Photochem Photobiol 2017; 93:943-955. [PMID: 27935061 PMCID: PMC5466513 DOI: 10.1111/php.12691] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2016] [Accepted: 10/22/2016] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
UV radiation exposure from sunlight and artificial tanning beds is the major risk factor for the development of skin cancer and skin photoaging. UV-induced skin damage can trigger a cascade of DNA damage response signaling pathways, including cell cycle arrest, DNA repair and, if damage is irreparable, apoptosis. Compensatory proliferation replaces the apoptotic cells to maintain skin barrier integrity. Disruption of these processes can be exploited to promote carcinogenesis by allowing the survival and proliferation of damaged cells. UV radiation also induces autophagy, a catabolic process that clears unwanted or damaged proteins, lipids and organelles. The mechanisms by which autophagy is activated following UV exposure, and the functions of autophagy in UV response, are only now being clarified. Here, we summarize the current understanding of the mechanisms governing autophagy regulation by UV, the roles of autophagy in regulating cellular response to UV-induced photodamage and the implications of autophagy modulation in the treatment and prevention of photoaging and skin cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ashley Sample
- Department of Medicine, Section of Dermatology, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL
- Committee on Cancer Biology, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL
| | - Yu-Ying He
- Department of Medicine, Section of Dermatology, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL
- Committee on Cancer Biology, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL
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26
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Brem R, Macpherson P, Guven M, Karran P. Oxidative stress induced by UVA photoactivation of the tryptophan UVB photoproduct 6-formylindolo[3,2-b]carbazole (FICZ) inhibits nucleotide excision repair in human cells. Sci Rep 2017; 7:4310. [PMID: 28655934 PMCID: PMC5487344 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-04614-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2017] [Accepted: 05/17/2017] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Potentially mutagenic DNA lesions induced by UVB (wavelengths 280–320 nm) are important risk factors for solar ultraviolet (UV) radiation-induced skin cancer. The carcinogenicity of the more abundant UVA (320–400 nm) is less well understood but is generally regarded to reflect its interaction with cellular chromophores that act as photosensitisers. The arylhydrocarbon receptor agonist 6-formylindolo[3,2-b] carbazole (FICZ), is a UVB photoproduct of tryptophan and a powerful UVA chromophore. Combined with UVA, FICZ generates reactive oxygen species (ROS) and induces oxidative DNA damage. Here we demonstrate that ROS generated by FICZ/UVA combinations also cause extensive protein damage in HaCaT human keratinocytes. We show that FICZ/UVA-induced oxidation significantly inhibits the removal of potentially mutagenic UVB-induced DNA photolesions by nucleotide excision repair (NER). DNA repair inhibition is due to FICZ/UVA-induced oxidation damage to the NER proteome and DNA excision repair is impaired in extracts prepared from FICZ/UVA-treated cells. NER protects against skin cancer. As a likely UVB photoproduct of intracellular tryptophan, FICZ represents a de facto endogenous UVA photosensitiser in sun-exposed skin. FICZ formation may increase the risk of solar UV-induced skin cancer by promoting photochemical damage to the NER proteome and thereby preventing the removal of UVB-induced DNA lesions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Reto Brem
- The Francis Crick Institute, Midland Road, London, NW1 1AT, UK
| | | | - Melisa Guven
- The Francis Crick Institute, Midland Road, London, NW1 1AT, UK
| | - Peter Karran
- The Francis Crick Institute, Midland Road, London, NW1 1AT, UK.
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27
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Brem R, Guven M, Karran P. Oxidatively-generated damage to DNA and proteins mediated by photosensitized UVA. Free Radic Biol Med 2017; 107:101-109. [PMID: 27989755 PMCID: PMC5462485 DOI: 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2016.10.488] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2016] [Revised: 10/19/2016] [Accepted: 10/21/2016] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
UVA accounts for about 95% of the solar ultraviolet (UV) radiation that reaches Earth and most likely contributes to human skin cancer risk. In contrast to UVB, which comprises the remaining 5% and is absorbed by DNA nucleobases to cause direct photodamage, UVA damages DNA indirectly. It does this largely through its interactions with cellular chromophores that act as photosensitisers to generate reactive oxygen species. Exogenously supplied chemicals, including some widely-prescribed medicines, may also act as photosensitisers and these drugs are associated with an increased risk of sun-related cancer. Because they amplify the effects of UVA on cells, they provide a means to investigate the mechanisms and effects of UVA-induced photodamage. Here, we describe some of the major lesions induced by two groups of UVA photosensitisers, the DNA thionucleotides and the fluoroquinolone antibiotics. In thionucleotides, replacement of the oxygen atoms of canonical nucleobases by sulfur converts them into strong UVA chromophores that can be incorporated into DNA. The fluoroquinolones are also UVA chromophores. They are not incorporated into DNA and induce a different range of DNA damages. We also draw attention to the potentially important contribution of photochemical protein damage to the cellular effects of photosensitised UVA. Proteins targeted for oxidation damage include DNA repair factors and we suggest that UVA-mediated protein damage may contribute to sunlight-induced cancer risk.
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Affiliation(s)
- Reto Brem
- The Francis Crick Institute, 1, Midland Road, London NW1 1AT, UK
| | - Melisa Guven
- The Francis Crick Institute, 1, Midland Road, London NW1 1AT, UK
| | - Peter Karran
- The Francis Crick Institute, 1, Midland Road, London NW1 1AT, UK.
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28
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Guven M, Barnouin K, Snijders AP, Karran P. Photosensitized UVA-Induced Cross-Linking between Human DNA Repair and Replication Proteins and DNA Revealed by Proteomic Analysis. J Proteome Res 2016; 15:4612-4623. [PMID: 27654267 PMCID: PMC5154610 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jproteome.6b00717] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2016] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Long wavelength ultraviolet radiation (UVA, 320-400 nm) interacts with chromophores present in human cells to induce reactive oxygen species (ROS) that damage both DNA and proteins. ROS levels are amplified, and the damaging effects of UVA are exacerbated if the cells are irradiated in the presence of UVA photosensitizers such as 6-thioguanine (6-TG), a strong UVA chromophore that is extensively incorporated into the DNA of dividing cells, or the fluoroquinolone antibiotic ciprofloxacin. Both DNA-embedded 6-TG and ciprofloxacin combine synergistically with UVA to generate high levels of ROS. Importantly, the extensive protein damage induced by these photosensitizer+UVA combinations inhibits DNA repair. DNA is maintained in intimate contact with the proteins that effect its replication, transcription, and repair, and DNA-protein cross-links (DPCs) are a recognized reaction product of ROS. Cross-linking of DNA metabolizing proteins would compromise these processes by introducing physical blocks and by depleting active proteins. We describe a sensitive and statistically rigorous method to analyze DPCs in cultured human cells. Application of this proteomics-based analysis to cells treated with 6-TG+UVA and ciprofloxacin+UVA identified proteins involved in DNA repair, replication, and gene expression among those most vulnerable to cross-linking under oxidative conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melisa Guven
- The
Francis Crick Institute, Clare Hall Laboratory, South Mimms, Herts EN6
3LD, U.K.
| | - Karin Barnouin
- The
Francis Crick Institute, Clare Hall Laboratory, South Mimms, Herts EN6
3LD, U.K.
| | - Ambrosius P. Snijders
- The
Francis Crick Institute, Clare Hall Laboratory, South Mimms, Herts EN6
3LD, U.K.
| | - Peter Karran
- The
Francis Crick Institute, Clare Hall Laboratory, South Mimms, Herts EN6
3LD, U.K.
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29
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Medda E, Minoprio A, Nisticò L, Bocca B, Simonelli V, D'Errico M, Calcagnile A, Giuliani A, Toccaceli V, Minghetti L, Alimonti A, Stazi MA, Mazzei F, Dogliotti E. The response to oxidative stress and metallomics analysis in a twin study: The role of the environment. Free Radic Biol Med 2016; 97:236-243. [PMID: 27264237 DOI: 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2016.05.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2015] [Revised: 05/23/2016] [Accepted: 05/29/2016] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
Inefficient response to oxidative stress has been associated with ageing and health risk. Metals are known to inhibit DNA repair and may modify the antioxidant response. How genetic variability and lifestyle factors modulate the response to oxidative stress is poorly explored. Our study aims to disentangle the contribution of genetics and environmental exposures to oxidative stress response using data from twin pairs. The non-enzymatic antioxidant capacity (NEAC), the repair capacity of 8-oxo-7,8-dihydroguanine (OGG activity) and the levels of 12 metals were measured in blood of 64 monozygotic and 31 dizygotic twin pairs. The contributions of genetic and environmental effects were assessed using standard univariate twin modelling. NEAC and OGG activity significantly decreased with age. Gender-, age- and body mass index-associated differences were identified for some metals. Principal Component Analysis identified two groups of metals whose levels in blood were highly correlated: As, Hg, Pb, Se, Zn and Al, Co, Cr, Mn, Ni. The environmental influence was predominant on OGG activity and NEAC variance whereas for most metals the best-fitting model incorporated additive genetic and unique environmental sources of variance. NEAC and OGG activity were both inversely correlated with blood levels of various metals. The inhibition of OGG activity by Cd was largely explained by smoking. Our data show a substantial role of environmental factors in NEAC and OGG activity variance that is not explained by twins' age. Exogenous environmental factors such as metals contribute to oxidative stress by decreasing NEAC and inhibiting repair of oxidatively-induced DNA damage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emanuela Medda
- National Center of Epidemiology, Surveillance and Health Promotion, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Rome, Italy
| | - Anna Minoprio
- Department of Environment and Primary Prevention, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Rome, Italy
| | - Lorenza Nisticò
- National Center of Epidemiology, Surveillance and Health Promotion, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Rome, Italy
| | - Beatrice Bocca
- Department of Environment and Primary Prevention, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Rome, Italy
| | - Valeria Simonelli
- Department of Environment and Primary Prevention, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Rome, Italy
| | - Mariarosaria D'Errico
- Department of Environment and Primary Prevention, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Rome, Italy
| | - Angelo Calcagnile
- Department of Environment and Primary Prevention, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Rome, Italy
| | - Alessandro Giuliani
- Department of Environment and Primary Prevention, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Rome, Italy
| | - Virgilia Toccaceli
- National Center of Epidemiology, Surveillance and Health Promotion, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Rome, Italy
| | - Luisa Minghetti
- Department of Cell Biology and Neuroscience, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Rome, Italy
| | - Alessandro Alimonti
- Department of Environment and Primary Prevention, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Rome, Italy
| | - Maria Antonietta Stazi
- National Center of Epidemiology, Surveillance and Health Promotion, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Rome, Italy
| | - Filomena Mazzei
- Department of Environment and Primary Prevention, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Rome, Italy.
| | - Eugenia Dogliotti
- Department of Environment and Primary Prevention, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Rome, Italy.
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30
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31
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Abstract
Solar UVB is carcinogenic. Nucleotide excision repair (NER) counteracts the carcinogenicity of UVB by excising potentially mutagenic UVB-induced DNA lesions. Despite this capacity for DNA repair, non-melanoma skin cancers and apparently normal sun-exposed skin contain huge numbers of mutations that are mostly attributable to unrepaired UVB-induced DNA lesions. UVA is about 20-times more abundant than UVB in incident sunlight. It does cause some DNA damage but this does not fully account for its biological impact. The effects of solar UVA are mediated by its interactions with cellular photosensitizers that generate reactive oxygen species (ROS) and induce oxidative stress. The proteome is a significant target for damage by UVA-induced ROS. In cultured human cells, UVA-induced oxidation of DNA repair proteins inhibits DNA repair. This article addresses the possible role of oxidative stress and protein oxidation in determining DNA repair efficiency - with particular reference to NER and skin cancer risk.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter Karran
- Francis Crick Research Institute, Clare Hall Laboratory, South Mimms, Herts. EN6 3LD, UK.
| | - Reto Brem
- Francis Crick Research Institute, Clare Hall Laboratory, South Mimms, Herts. EN6 3LD, UK
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32
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Liu Y, Li Q, Zhou L, Xie N, Nice EC, Zhang H, Huang C, Lei Y. Cancer drug resistance: redox resetting renders a way. Oncotarget 2016; 7:42740-42761. [PMID: 27057637 PMCID: PMC5173169 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.8600] [Citation(s) in RCA: 116] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2015] [Accepted: 03/28/2016] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Disruption of redox homeostasis is a crucial factor in the development of drug resistance, which is a major problem facing current cancer treatment. Compared with normal cells, tumor cells generally exhibit higher levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS), which can promote tumor progression and development. Upon drug treatment, some tumor cells can undergo a process of 'Redox Resetting' to acquire a new redox balance with higher levels of ROS accumulation and stronger antioxidant systems. Evidence has accumulated showing that the 'Redox Resetting' enables cancer cells to become resistant to anticancer drugs by multiple mechanisms, including increased rates of drug efflux, altered drug metabolism and drug targets, activated prosurvival pathways and inefficient induction of cell death. In this article, we provide insight into the role of 'Redox Resetting' on the emergence of drug resistance that may contribute to pharmacological modulation of resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuan Liu
- State Key Laboratory for Biotherapy and Cancer Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, and Collaborative Innovation Center of Biotherapy, Chengdu, P. R. China
- Department of Neurology, The Affiliated Hospital of Hainan Medical College, Haikou, Hainan, P. R. China
| | - Qifu Li
- Department of Neurology, The Affiliated Hospital of Hainan Medical College, Haikou, Hainan, P. R. China
| | - Li Zhou
- State Key Laboratory for Biotherapy and Cancer Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, and Collaborative Innovation Center of Biotherapy, Chengdu, P. R. China
| | - Na Xie
- State Key Laboratory for Biotherapy and Cancer Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, and Collaborative Innovation Center of Biotherapy, Chengdu, P. R. China
| | - Edouard C. Nice
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia
| | - Haiyuan Zhang
- Department of Neurology, The Affiliated Hospital of Hainan Medical College, Haikou, Hainan, P. R. China
| | - Canhua Huang
- State Key Laboratory for Biotherapy and Cancer Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, and Collaborative Innovation Center of Biotherapy, Chengdu, P. R. China
| | - Yunlong Lei
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, and Molecular Medicine and Cancer Research Center, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, P. R. China
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33
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McAdam E, Brem R, Karran P. Oxidative Stress-Induced Protein Damage Inhibits DNA Repair and Determines Mutation Risk and Therapeutic Efficacy. Mol Cancer Res 2016; 14:612-22. [PMID: 27106867 PMCID: PMC4955916 DOI: 10.1158/1541-7786.mcr-16-0053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2016] [Accepted: 04/18/2016] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
UNLABELLED The relationship between sun exposure and nonmelanoma skin cancer risk is well established. Solar UV (wavelength 280-400 nm) is firmly implicated in skin cancer development. Nucleotide excision repair (NER) protects against cancer by removing potentially mutagenic DNA lesions induced by UVB (280-320 nm). How the 20-fold more abundant UVA (320-400 nm) component of solar UV radiation increases skin cancer risk is not understood. Here it is demonstrated that the contribution of UVA to the effect of UV radiation on cultured human cells is largely independent of its ability to damage DNA. Instead, the effects of UVA reflect the induction of oxidative stress that causes extensive protein oxidation. Because NER proteins are among those damaged, UVA irradiation inhibits NER and increases the susceptibility of the cells to mutation by UVB. NER inhibition is a common consequence of oxidative stress. Exposure to chemical oxidants, treatment with drugs that deplete cellular antioxidants, and interventions that interfere with glucose metabolism to disrupt the supply of cellular reducing power all inhibit NER. Tumor cells are often in a condition of oxidative stress and one effect of the NER inhibition that results from stress-induced protein oxidation is an increased sensitivity to the anticancer drug cisplatin. IMPLICATIONS As NER is both a defense against cancer and a significant determinant of cell survival after treatment with anticancer drugs, its attenuation by protein damage under conditions of oxidative stress has implications for both cancer risk and for the effectiveness of anticancer therapy. Mol Cancer Res; 14(7); 612-22. ©2016 AACR.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth McAdam
- The Francis Crick Institute, Clare Hall Laboratory, South Mimms, Hertfordshire, United Kingdom
| | - Reto Brem
- The Francis Crick Institute, Clare Hall Laboratory, South Mimms, Hertfordshire, United Kingdom
| | - Peter Karran
- The Francis Crick Institute, Clare Hall Laboratory, South Mimms, Hertfordshire, United Kingdom.
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34
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Li Z, Pearlman AH, Hsieh P. DNA mismatch repair and the DNA damage response. DNA Repair (Amst) 2016; 38:94-101. [PMID: 26704428 PMCID: PMC4740233 DOI: 10.1016/j.dnarep.2015.11.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 199] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2015] [Revised: 09/17/2015] [Accepted: 11/30/2015] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
This review discusses the role of DNA mismatch repair (MMR) in the DNA damage response (DDR) that triggers cell cycle arrest and, in some cases, apoptosis. Although the focus is on findings from mammalian cells, much has been learned from studies in other organisms including bacteria and yeast [1,2]. MMR promotes a DDR mediated by a key signaling kinase, ATM and Rad3-related (ATR), in response to various types of DNA damage including some encountered in widely used chemotherapy regimes. An introduction to the DDR mediated by ATR reveals its immense complexity and highlights the many biological and mechanistic questions that remain. Recent findings and future directions are highlighted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhongdao Li
- Genetics & Biochemistry Branch, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bldg. 5 Rm. 324, 5 Memorial Dr. MSC 0538, Bethesda, MD 20892-0538, USA
| | - Alexander H Pearlman
- Genetics & Biochemistry Branch, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bldg. 5 Rm. 324, 5 Memorial Dr. MSC 0538, Bethesda, MD 20892-0538, USA
| | - Peggy Hsieh
- Genetics & Biochemistry Branch, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bldg. 5 Rm. 324, 5 Memorial Dr. MSC 0538, Bethesda, MD 20892-0538, USA.
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35
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Furtado-Filho OV, Borba JB, Maraschin T, Souza LM, Henriques JAP, Moreira JCF, Saffi J. Effects of chronic exposure to 950 MHz ultra-high-frequency electromagnetic radiation on reactive oxygen species metabolism in the right and left cerebral cortex of young rats of different ages. Int J Radiat Biol 2015; 91:891-7. [DOI: 10.3109/09553002.2015.1083629] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Orlando V. Furtado-Filho
- Biotechnology Center, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), Porto Alegre, Brazil
- Department of Biophysics, Institute of Biosciences, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), Porto Alegre, Brazil
- Military School of Porto Alegre, Brazilian Army, Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | - Juliana B. Borba
- Biotechnology Center, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), Porto Alegre, Brazil
- Department of Biophysics, Institute of Biosciences, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | - Tatiana Maraschin
- Toxicological Genetics Laboratory, Lutheran University of Brazil (ULBRA), Canoas, RS, Brazil
| | - Larissa M. Souza
- Department of Biophysics, Institute of Biosciences, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | - João A. P. Henriques
- Biotechnology Center, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), Porto Alegre, Brazil
- Department of Biophysics, Institute of Biosciences, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | - José C. F. Moreira
- Department of Biochemistry, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | - Jenifer Saffi
- Department of Biophysics, Institute of Biosciences, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), Porto Alegre, Brazil
- Laboratory of Genetic Toxicology, Federal University of Health Sciences of Porto Alegre (UFCSPA), Porto Alegre, Brazil
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36
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Guven M, Brem R, Macpherson P, Peacock M, Karran P. Oxidative Damage to RPA Limits the Nucleotide Excision Repair Capacity of Human Cells. J Invest Dermatol 2015; 135:2834-2841. [PMID: 26134950 DOI: 10.1038/jid.2015.255] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2015] [Revised: 06/01/2015] [Accepted: 06/18/2015] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Nucleotide excision repair (NER) protects against sunlight-induced skin cancer. Defective NER is associated with photosensitivity and a high skin cancer incidence. Some clinical treatments that cause photosensitivity can also increase skin cancer risk. Among these, the immunosuppressant azathioprine and the fluoroquinolone antibiotics ciprofloxacin and ofloxacin interact with UVA radiation to generate reactive oxygen species that diminish NER capacity by causing protein damage. The replication protein A (RPA) DNA-binding protein has a pivotal role in DNA metabolism and is an essential component of NER. The relationship between protein oxidation and NER inhibition was investigated in cultured human cells expressing different levels of RPA. We show here that RPA is limiting for NER and that oxidative damage to RPA compromises NER capability. Our findings reveal that cellular RPA is surprisingly vulnerable to oxidation, and we identify oxidized forms of RPA that are associated with impaired NER. The vulnerability of NER to inhibition by oxidation provides a connection between cutaneous photosensitivity, protein damage, and increased skin cancer risk. Our findings emphasize that damage to DNA repair proteins, as well as to DNA itself, is likely to be an important contributor to skin cancer risk.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melisa Guven
- Francis Crick Institute, Clare Hall Laboratory, South Mimms, Herts, UK
| | - Reto Brem
- Francis Crick Institute, Clare Hall Laboratory, South Mimms, Herts, UK
| | - Peter Macpherson
- Francis Crick Institute, Clare Hall Laboratory, South Mimms, Herts, UK
| | - Matthew Peacock
- Francis Crick Institute, Clare Hall Laboratory, South Mimms, Herts, UK
| | - Peter Karran
- Francis Crick Institute, Clare Hall Laboratory, South Mimms, Herts, UK.
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37
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Grasso F, Ruggieri V, De Luca G, Leopardi P, Mancuso MT, Casorelli I, Pichierri P, Karran P, Bignami M. MUTYH mediates the toxicity of combined DNA 6-thioguanine and UVA radiation. Oncotarget 2015; 6:7481-92. [PMID: 25638157 PMCID: PMC4480694 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.3037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2014] [Accepted: 12/01/2014] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The therapeutic thiopurines, including the immunosuppressant azathioprine (Aza) cause the accumulation of the UVA photosensitizer 6-thioguanine (6-TG) in the DNA of the patients' cells. DNA 6-TG and UVA are synergistically cytotoxic and their interaction causes oxidative damage. The MUTYH DNA glycosylase participates in the base excision repair of oxidized DNA bases. Using Mutyh-nullmouse fibroblasts (MEFs) we examined whether MUTYH provides protection against the lethal effects of combined DNA 6-TG/UVA. Surprisingly, Mutyh-null MEFs were more resistant than wild-type MEFs, despite accumulating higher levels of DNA 8-oxo-7,8-dihydroguanine (8-oxoG).Their enhanced 6-TG/UVA resistance reflected the absence of the MUTYH protein and MEFs expressing enzymatically-dead human variants were as sensitive as wild-type cells. Consistent with their enhanced resistance, Mutyh-null cells sustained fewer DNA strand breaks and lower levels of chromosomal damage after 6-TG/UVA. Although 6-TG/UVA treatment caused early checkpoint activation irrespective of the MUTYH status, Mutyh-null cells failed to arrest in S-phase at late time points. MUTYH-dependent toxicity was also apparent in vivo. Mutyh-/- mice survived better than wild-type during a 12-month chronicexposure to Aza/UVA treatments that significantly increased levels of skin DNA 8-oxoG. Two squamous cell skin carcinomas arose in Aza/UVA treated Mutyh-/- mice whereas similarly treated wild-type animals remained tumor-free.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francesca Grasso
- Department of Environment and Primary Prevention, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Rome, Italy
- Department of Science, University Roma Tre, Rome, Italy
| | - Vitalba Ruggieri
- Laboratory of Pre-Clinical and Translational Research, IRCCS, Referral Cancer Center of Basilicata, Rionero in Vulture, Italy
| | - Gabriele De Luca
- Department of Environment and Primary Prevention, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Rome, Italy
| | - Paola Leopardi
- Department of Environment and Primary Prevention, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Rome, Italy
| | - Maria Teresa Mancuso
- Laboratory of Radiation Biology and Biomedicine, Agenzia Nazionale per le Nuove Tecnologie, l'Energia e lo Sviluppo Economico Sostenibile (ENEA) CR-Casaccia, Rome, Italy
| | - Ida Casorelli
- Department of Immunohematology and Transfusion Unit, Azienda Ospedaliera Sant'Andrea, Rome, Italy
| | - Pietro Pichierri
- Department of Environment and Primary Prevention, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Rome, Italy
| | - Peter Karran
- Cancer Research UK London Research Institute, Clare Hall Laboratories, South Mimms, Herts, UK
| | - Margherita Bignami
- Department of Environment and Primary Prevention, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Rome, Italy
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38
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Knatko EV, Ibbotson SH, Zhang Y, Higgins M, Fahey JW, Talalay P, Dawe RS, Ferguson J, Huang JTJ, Clarke R, Zheng S, Saito A, Kalra S, Benedict AL, Honda T, Proby CM, Dinkova-Kostova AT. Nrf2 Activation Protects against Solar-Simulated Ultraviolet Radiation in Mice and Humans. Cancer Prev Res (Phila) 2015; 8:475-86. [PMID: 25804610 DOI: 10.1158/1940-6207.capr-14-0362] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2014] [Accepted: 03/13/2015] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
The transcription factor Nrf2 determines the ability to adapt and survive under conditions of electrophilic, oxidative, and inflammatory stress by regulating the expression of elaborate networks comprising nearly 500 genes encoding proteins with versatile cytoprotective functions. In mice, disruption of Nrf2 increases susceptibility to carcinogens and accelerates disease pathogenesis. Paradoxically, Nrf2 is upregulated in established human tumors, but whether this upregulation drives carcinogenesis is not known. Here we show that the incidence, multiplicity, and burden of solar-simulated UV radiation-mediated cutaneous tumors that form in SKH-1 hairless mice in which Nrf2 is genetically constitutively activated are lower than those that arise in their wild-type counterparts. Pharmacologic Nrf2 activation by topical biweekly applications of small (40 nmol) quantities of the potent bis(cyano enone) inducer TBE-31 has a similar protective effect against solar-simulated UV radiation in animals receiving long-term treatment with the immunosuppressive agent azathioprine. Genetic or pharmacologic Nrf2 activation lowers the expression of the pro-inflammatory factors IL6 and IL1β, and COX2 after acute exposure of mice to UV radiation. In healthy human subjects, topical applications of extracts delivering the Nrf2 activator sulforaphane reduced the degree of solar-simulated UV radiation-induced skin erythema, a quantifiable surrogate endpoint for cutaneous damage and skin cancer risk. Collectively, these data show that Nrf2 is not a driver for tumorigenesis even upon exposure to a very potent and complete carcinogen and strongly suggest that the frequent activation of Nrf2 in established human tumors is a marker of metabolic adaptation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elena V Knatko
- Jacqui Wood Cancer Centre, Division of Cancer Research, Medical Research Institute, University of Dundee, Dundee, Scotland, United Kingdom
| | - Sally H Ibbotson
- Photobiology Unit, Ninewells Hospital and Medical School, University of Dundee, Dundee, Scotland, United Kingdom
| | - Ying Zhang
- Jacqui Wood Cancer Centre, Division of Cancer Research, Medical Research Institute, University of Dundee, Dundee, Scotland, United Kingdom
| | - Maureen Higgins
- Jacqui Wood Cancer Centre, Division of Cancer Research, Medical Research Institute, University of Dundee, Dundee, Scotland, United Kingdom
| | - Jed W Fahey
- Lewis B. and Dorothy Cullman Chemoprotection Center, Department of Pharmacology and Molecular Sciences, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland. Center for Human Nutrition, Department of International Health, Johns Hopkins University Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland
| | - Paul Talalay
- Lewis B. and Dorothy Cullman Chemoprotection Center, Department of Pharmacology and Molecular Sciences, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland
| | - Robert S Dawe
- Photobiology Unit, Ninewells Hospital and Medical School, University of Dundee, Dundee, Scotland, United Kingdom
| | - James Ferguson
- Photobiology Unit, Ninewells Hospital and Medical School, University of Dundee, Dundee, Scotland, United Kingdom
| | - Jeffrey T-J Huang
- Jacqui Wood Cancer Centre, Division of Cancer Research, Medical Research Institute, University of Dundee, Dundee, Scotland, United Kingdom
| | - Rosemary Clarke
- Division of Cell Signaling and Immunology, College of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Dundee, Scotland, United Kingdom
| | - Suqing Zheng
- Institute of Chemical Biology and Drug Discovery, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, New York
| | - Akira Saito
- Institute of Chemical Biology and Drug Discovery, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, New York
| | - Sukirti Kalra
- Jacqui Wood Cancer Centre, Division of Cancer Research, Medical Research Institute, University of Dundee, Dundee, Scotland, United Kingdom
| | - Andrea L Benedict
- Lewis B. and Dorothy Cullman Chemoprotection Center, Department of Pharmacology and Molecular Sciences, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland
| | - Tadashi Honda
- Institute of Chemical Biology and Drug Discovery, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, New York. Department of Chemistry, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, New York
| | - Charlotte M Proby
- Jacqui Wood Cancer Centre, Division of Cancer Research, Medical Research Institute, University of Dundee, Dundee, Scotland, United Kingdom. Photobiology Unit, Ninewells Hospital and Medical School, University of Dundee, Dundee, Scotland, United Kingdom
| | - Albena T Dinkova-Kostova
- Jacqui Wood Cancer Centre, Division of Cancer Research, Medical Research Institute, University of Dundee, Dundee, Scotland, United Kingdom. Lewis B. and Dorothy Cullman Chemoprotection Center, Department of Pharmacology and Molecular Sciences, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland.
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Jung JW, Overgaard NH, Burke MT, Isbel N, Frazer IH, Simpson F, Wells JW. Does the nature of residual immune function explain the differential risk of non-melanoma skin cancer development in immunosuppressed organ transplant recipients? Int J Cancer 2015; 138:281-92. [DOI: 10.1002/ijc.29450] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2014] [Accepted: 01/08/2015] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Ji-Won Jung
- The University of Queensland Diamantina Institute, The University of Queensland, Translational Research Institute; Brisbane QLD
| | - Nana H. Overgaard
- The University of Queensland Diamantina Institute, The University of Queensland, Translational Research Institute; Brisbane QLD
- Center for Cancer Immune Therapy (CCIT), Department of Hematology; Copenhagen University Hospital; Herlev Denmark
| | - Michael T. Burke
- Department of Renal Medicine; The University of Queensland, Princess Alexandra Hospital; Brisbane QLD
| | - Nicole Isbel
- Department of Renal Medicine; The University of Queensland, Princess Alexandra Hospital; Brisbane QLD
| | - Ian H. Frazer
- The University of Queensland Diamantina Institute, The University of Queensland, Translational Research Institute; Brisbane QLD
| | - Fiona Simpson
- The University of Queensland Diamantina Institute, The University of Queensland, Translational Research Institute; Brisbane QLD
| | - James W. Wells
- The University of Queensland Diamantina Institute, The University of Queensland, Translational Research Institute; Brisbane QLD
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Peacock M, Brem R, Macpherson P, Karran P. DNA repair inhibition by UVA photoactivated fluoroquinolones and vemurafenib. Nucleic Acids Res 2014; 42:13714-22. [PMID: 25414333 PMCID: PMC4267641 DOI: 10.1093/nar/gku1213] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Cutaneous photosensitization is a common side effect of drug treatment and can be associated with an increased skin cancer risk. The immunosuppressant azathioprine, the fluoroquinolone antibiotics and vemurafenib—a BRAF inhibitor used to treat metastatic melanoma—are all recognized clinical photosensitizers. We have compared the effects of UVA radiation on cultured human cells treated with 6-thioguanine (6-TG, a DNA-embedded azathioprine surrogate), the fluoroquinolones ciprofloxacin and ofloxacin and vemurafenib. Despite widely different structures and modes of action, each of these drugs potentiated UVA cytotoxicity. UVA photoactivation of 6-TG, ciprofloxacin and ofloxacin was associated with the generation of singlet oxygen that caused extensive protein oxidation. In particular, these treatments were associated with damage to DNA repair proteins that reduced the efficiency of nucleotide excision repair. Although vemurafenib was also highly phototoxic to cultured cells, its effects were less dependent on singlet oxygen. Highly toxic combinations of vemurafenib and UVA caused little protein carbonylation but were nevertheless inhibitory to nucleotide excision repair. Thus, for three different classes of drugs, photosensitization by at least two distinct mechanisms is associated with reduced protection against potentially mutagenic and carcinogenic DNA damage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew Peacock
- Cancer Research UK London Research Institute, Clare Hall Laboratories, South Mimms, Herts. EN6 3LD, UK
| | - Reto Brem
- Cancer Research UK London Research Institute, Clare Hall Laboratories, South Mimms, Herts. EN6 3LD, UK
| | - Peter Macpherson
- Cancer Research UK London Research Institute, Clare Hall Laboratories, South Mimms, Herts. EN6 3LD, UK
| | - Peter Karran
- Cancer Research UK London Research Institute, Clare Hall Laboratories, South Mimms, Herts. EN6 3LD, UK
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Gueranger Q, Li F, Peacock M, Larnicol-Fery A, Brem R, Macpherson P, Egly JM, Karran P. Response to Emanuele. J Invest Dermatol 2014; 134:2053-2055. [PMID: 24492241 DOI: 10.1038/jid.2014.67] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Quentin Gueranger
- Clare Hall Laboratories, Cancer Research UK London Research Institute, South Mimms, UK
| | - Feng Li
- Clare Hall Laboratories, Cancer Research UK London Research Institute, South Mimms, UK
| | - Matthew Peacock
- Clare Hall Laboratories, Cancer Research UK London Research Institute, South Mimms, UK
| | - Annabel Larnicol-Fery
- Institut de Genetique et de Biologie Moleculaire et Cellulaire, CNRS/Inserm/ULP, Strasbourg, France
| | - Reto Brem
- Clare Hall Laboratories, Cancer Research UK London Research Institute, South Mimms, UK
| | - Peter Macpherson
- Clare Hall Laboratories, Cancer Research UK London Research Institute, South Mimms, UK
| | - Jean-Marc Egly
- Institut de Genetique et de Biologie Moleculaire et Cellulaire, CNRS/Inserm/ULP, Strasbourg, France
| | - Peter Karran
- Clare Hall Laboratories, Cancer Research UK London Research Institute, South Mimms, UK.
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Emanuele E. Challenging the central dogma of skin photobiology: are proteins more important than DNA? J Invest Dermatol 2014; 134:2052-2053. [PMID: 24492242 DOI: 10.1038/jid.2014.64] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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