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Toupal L, Jílek R, Kubásek T, Vála L. Beryllium dust generation caused by HHF tests. FUSION ENGINEERING AND DESIGN 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fusengdes.2023.113461] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
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Atif SM, Mack DG, Martin AK, Fontenot AP. Protective role of tissue-resident regulatory T cells in a murine model of beryllium-induced disease. JCI Insight 2022; 7:156098. [PMID: 35819849 PMCID: PMC9462505 DOI: 10.1172/jci.insight.156098] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2021] [Accepted: 07/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
CD4+ T cells drive the immunopathogenesis of chronic beryllium disease (CBD), and their recruitment to the lung heralds the onset of granulomatous inflammation. We have shown that regulatory CD4+ T cells (Tregs) control granuloma formation in an HLA-DP2 transgenic (Tg) model of CBD. In these mice, Be oxide (BeO) exposure resulted in the accumulation of three distinct CD4+ T cell subsets in the lung with the majority of tissue-resident memory cells expressing FoxP3. The amount of Be regulated the number of total and antigen-specific CD4+ T cells and Tregs in the lungs of HLA-DP2 Tg mice. Depletion of Tregs increased the number of IFN-γ-producing CD4+ T cells and enhanced lung injury while mice treated with IL2/αIL-2 complexes had increased Tregs and reduced inflammation and Be-responsive T cells in the lung. BeO-experienced resident Tregs suppressed anti-CD3-induced proliferation of CD4+ T cells in a contact-dependent manner. CLTLA-4 and ICOS blockade as well as addition of LPS to BeO-exposed mice increased the Teff/Treg ratio and enhanced lung injury. Collectively, these data show that the protective role of tissue-resident Tregs is dependent on quantity of Be exposure and is overcome by blocking immune regulatory molecules or additional environmental insults.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shaikh M Atif
- Department of Medicine, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Auroroa, United States of America
| | - Douglas G Mack
- Department of Medicine, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Auroroa, United States of America
| | - Allison K Martin
- Department of Medicine, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Auroroa, United States of America
| | - Andrew P Fontenot
- Department of Medicine, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Auroroa, United States of America
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McKee AS, Atif SM, Falta MT, Fontenot AP. Innate and Adaptive Immunity in Noninfectious Granulomatous Lung Disease. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2022; 208:1835-1843. [PMID: 35418504 PMCID: PMC9106315 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.2101159] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2021] [Accepted: 02/08/2022] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Sarcoidosis and chronic beryllium disease are noninfectious lung diseases that are characterized by the presence of noncaseating granulomatous inflammation. Chronic beryllium disease is caused by occupational exposure to beryllium containing particles, whereas the etiology of sarcoidosis is not known. Genetic susceptibility for both diseases is associated with particular MHC class II alleles, and CD4+ T cells are implicated in their pathogenesis. The innate immune system plays a critical role in the initiation of pathogenic CD4+ T cell responses as well as the transition to active lung disease and disease progression. In this review, we highlight recent insights into Ag recognition in chronic beryllium disease and sarcoidosis. In addition, we discuss the current understanding of the dynamic interactions between the innate and adaptive immune systems and their impact on disease pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amy S McKee
- Department of Medicine, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO; and
- Department of Immunology and Microbiology, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO
| | - Shaikh M Atif
- Department of Medicine, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO; and
| | - Michael T Falta
- Department of Medicine, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO; and
| | - Andrew P Fontenot
- Department of Medicine, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO; and
- Department of Immunology and Microbiology, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO
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Li F, Zhu M, Niu B, Liu L, Peng X, Yang H, Qin B, Wang M, Ren X, Zhou X. Generation and expression analysis of BAC humanized mice carrying HLA-DP401 haplotype. Animal Model Exp Med 2021; 4:116-128. [PMID: 34179719 PMCID: PMC8212823 DOI: 10.1002/ame2.12158] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2020] [Accepted: 12/17/2020] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Human leukocyte antigen (HLA)-DP is much less studied than other HLA class II antigens, that is, HLA-DR and HLA-DQ, etc. However, the accumulating data have suggested the important roles of DP-restricted responses in the context of cancer, allergy, and infectious disease. Lack of animal models expressing these genes as authentic cis-haplotypes blocks our understanding for the role of HLA-DP haplotypes in immunity. Methods To explore the potential cis-acting control elements involved in the transcriptional regulation of the HLA-DPA1/DPB1 gene, we performed the expression analysis using bacterial artificial chromosome (BAC)-based transgenic humanized mice in the C57BL/6 background, which carried the entire HLA-DP401 gene locus. We further developed a mouse model of Staphylococcus aureus pneumonia in HLA-DP401 humanized transgenic mice, and performed the analysis on the expression pattern of HLA-DP401 and immunological responses in the model. Results In this study, we screened and identified a BAC clone spanning the entire HLA-DP gene locus. DNA from this clone was analyzed for integrity by pulsed-field gel electrophoresis and then microinjected into fertilized mouse oocytes to produce transgenic founder animals. Nine sets of PCR primers for regional markers with an average distance of 15 kb between each primer were used to confirm the integrity of the transgene in the five transgenic lines carrying the HLA-DPA1/DPB1 gene. Transgene copy numbers were determined by real-time PCR analysis. HLA-DP401 gene expression was analyzed at the mRNA and protein level. Although infection with S aureus Newman did not alter the percentage of immune cells in the spleen and thymus from the HLA-DP401-H2-Aβ1 humanized mice. Increased expression of HLA-DP401 was observed in the thymus of the humanized mice infected by S aureus. Conclusions We generated several BAC transgenic mice, and analyzed the expression of HLA-DPA1/DPB1 in those mice. A model of Saureus-induced pneumonia in the HLA-DP401-H2-Aβ1-/- humanized mice was further developed, and S aureus infection upregulated the HLA-DP401 expression in thymus of those humanized mice. These findings demonstrate the potential of those HLA-DPA1/DPB1 transgenic humanized mice for developing animal models of infectious diseases and MHC-associated immunological diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Feng Li
- Department of Laboratory Animal ScienceShanghai Public Health Clinical CenterFudan UniveristyShanghaiChina
| | - Meng‐min Zhu
- Department of Laboratory Animal ScienceShanghai Public Health Clinical CenterFudan UniveristyShanghaiChina
| | - Bo‐wen Niu
- Department of Laboratory Animal ScienceShanghai Public Health Clinical CenterFudan UniveristyShanghaiChina
| | - Ling‐ling Liu
- Department of Laboratory Animal ScienceShanghai Public Health Clinical CenterFudan UniveristyShanghaiChina
| | - Xiu‐hua Peng
- Department of Laboratory Animal ScienceShanghai Public Health Clinical CenterFudan UniveristyShanghaiChina
| | - Hua Yang
- Department of Laboratory Animal ScienceShanghai Public Health Clinical CenterFudan UniveristyShanghaiChina
| | - Bo‐yin Qin
- Department of Laboratory Animal ScienceShanghai Public Health Clinical CenterFudan UniveristyShanghaiChina
| | - Meixiang Wang
- Department of Scientific ResearchShanghai Public Health Clinical CenterFudan UniveristyShanghaiChina
| | - Xiaonan Ren
- Department of Laboratory Animal ScienceShanghai Public Health Clinical CenterFudan UniveristyShanghaiChina
| | - Xiaohui Zhou
- Department of Laboratory Animal ScienceShanghai Public Health Clinical CenterFudan UniveristyShanghaiChina
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Falta MT, Crawford JC, Tinega AN, Landry LG, Crawford F, Mack DG, Martin AK, Atif SM, Li L, Santos RG, Nakayama M, Kappler JW, Maier LA, Thomas PG, Pinilla C, Fontenot AP. Beryllium-specific CD4+ T cells induced by chemokine neoantigens perpetuate inflammation. J Clin Invest 2021; 131:144864. [PMID: 33630763 PMCID: PMC8087207 DOI: 10.1172/jci144864] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2020] [Accepted: 02/23/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Discovering dominant epitopes for T cells, particularly CD4+ T cells, in human immune-mediated diseases remains a significant challenge. Here, we used bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) cells from HLA-DP2-expressing patients with chronic beryllium disease (CBD), a debilitating granulomatous lung disorder characterized by accumulations of beryllium-specific (Be-specific) CD4+ T cells in the lung. We discovered lung-resident CD4+ T cells that expressed a disease-specific public CDR3β T cell receptor motif and were specific to Be-modified self-peptides derived from C-C motif ligand 4 (CCL4) and CCL3. HLA-DP2-CCL/Be tetramer staining confirmed that these chemokine-derived peptides represented major antigenic targets in CBD. Furthermore, Be induced CCL3 and CCL4 secretion in the lungs of mice and humans. In a murine model of CBD, the addition of LPS to Be oxide exposure enhanced CCL4 and CCL3 secretion in the lung and significantly increased the number and percentage of CD4+ T cells specific for the HLA-DP2-CCL/Be epitope. Thus, we demonstrate a direct link between Be-induced innate production of chemokines and the development of a robust adaptive immune response to those same chemokines presented as Be-modified self-peptides, creating a cycle of innate and adaptive immune activation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael T. Falta
- Department of Medicine, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado, USA
| | - Jeremy C. Crawford
- Department of Immunology, St. Jude Children’s Research Hospital, Memphis, Tennessee, USA
| | - Alex N. Tinega
- Department of Medicine, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado, USA
| | - Laurie G. Landry
- Barbara Davis Center for Childhood Diabetes, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado, USA
| | | | - Douglas G. Mack
- Department of Medicine, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado, USA
| | - Allison K. Martin
- Department of Medicine, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado, USA
| | - Shaikh M. Atif
- Department of Medicine, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado, USA
| | - Li Li
- Department of Medicine, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado, USA
- Department of Medicine, National Jewish Health, Denver, Colorado, USA
| | - Radleigh G. Santos
- Department of Mathematics, Nova Southeastern University, Ft. Lauderdale, Florida, USA
| | - Maki Nakayama
- Barbara Davis Center for Childhood Diabetes, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado, USA
- Department of Immunology and Microbiology, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado, USA
| | - John W. Kappler
- Department of Biomedical Research and
- Department of Immunology and Microbiology, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado, USA
| | - Lisa A. Maier
- Department of Medicine, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado, USA
- Department of Medicine, National Jewish Health, Denver, Colorado, USA
| | - Paul G. Thomas
- Department of Immunology, St. Jude Children’s Research Hospital, Memphis, Tennessee, USA
| | | | - Andrew P. Fontenot
- Department of Medicine, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado, USA
- Department of Immunology and Microbiology, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado, USA
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Abstract
Abstract
Beryllium has long been considered the most toxic non-radioactive element to humans. However, it is shown that the acute toxicity of beryllium ions does not exceed that of other toxic cations like Cd2+, Ba2+, Hg2+ or As3+. The physiological mechanisms liable for the development of beryllium-associated diseases are discussed. Additionally an overview over proposed low-molecular model system for the beryllium species responsible for beryllioses is presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Magnus R. Buchner
- Anorganische Chemie, Nachwuchsgruppe Berylliumchemie, Fachbereich Chemie , Philipps-Universität Marburg , Hans-Meerwein-Straße 4 , 35032 Marburg , Germany
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Atif SM, Mack DG, McKee AS, Rangel-Moreno J, Martin AK, Getahun A, Maier LA, Cambier JC, Tuder R, Fontenot AP. Protective role of B cells in sterile particulate-induced lung injury. JCI Insight 2019; 5:125494. [PMID: 31094704 DOI: 10.1172/jci.insight.125494] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Susceptibility to chronic beryllium (Be) disease is linked to HLA-DP molecules possessing a glutamic acid at the 69th position of the β-chain (βGlu69), with the most prevalent βGlu69-containing molecule being HLA-DP2. We have previously shown that HLA-DP2 transgenic (Tg) mice exposed to Be oxide (BeO) develop mononuclear infiltrates in a peribronchovascular distribution and a beryllium-specific, HLA-DP2-restricted CD4+ T cell response. In addition to T cells, B cells constituted a major portion of infiltrated leukocytes in the lung of BeO-exposed HLA-DP2 Tg mice and sequester BeO particles within ectopic lymphoid aggregates and granulomas. B cell depletion was associated with a loss of lymphoid aggregates and granulomas as well as a significant increase in lung injury in BeO-exposed mice. The protective role of B cells was innate in origin, and BeO-induced B cell recruitment to the lung was dependent on MyD88 signaling. Similar to BeO-exposed HLA-DP2 mice, B cells also accumulate in the lungs of CBD subjects, located at the periphery and surrounding the granuloma. Overall, our data suggest a novel modulatory role for B cells in the protection of the lung against sterile particulate exposure, with B cell recruitment to the inflamed lung occurring in an antigen-independent and MyD88-dependent manner.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shaikh M Atif
- Department of Medicine, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado, USA
| | - Douglas G Mack
- Department of Medicine, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado, USA
| | - Amy S McKee
- Department of Medicine, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado, USA
| | - Javier Rangel-Moreno
- Department of Medicine, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, New York, USA
| | - Allison K Martin
- Department of Medicine, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado, USA
| | - Andrew Getahun
- Department of Immunology and Microbiology, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado, USA
| | - Lisa A Maier
- Department of Medicine, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado, USA.,Department of Medicine, National Jewish Health, Denver, Colorado, USA
| | - John C Cambier
- Department of Immunology and Microbiology, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado, USA
| | - Rubin Tuder
- Department of Medicine, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado, USA
| | - Andrew P Fontenot
- Department of Medicine, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado, USA.,Department of Immunology and Microbiology, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado, USA
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Bradley P, Thomas PG. Using T Cell Receptor Repertoires to Understand the Principles of Adaptive Immune Recognition. Annu Rev Immunol 2019; 37:547-570. [PMID: 30699000 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-immunol-042718-041757] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Adaptive immune recognition is mediated by antigen receptors on B and T cells generated by somatic recombination during lineage development. The high level of diversity resulting from this process posed technical limitations that previously limited the comprehensive analysis of adaptive immune recognition. Advances over the last ten years have produced data and approaches allowing insights into how T cells develop, evolutionary signatures of recombination and selection, and the features of T cell receptors that mediate epitope-specific binding and T cell activation. The size and complexity of these data have necessitated the generation of novel computational and analytical approaches, which are transforming how T cell immunology is conducted. Here we review the development and application of novel biological, theoretical, and computational methods for understanding T cell recognition and discuss the potential for improved models of receptor:antigen interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philip Bradley
- Division of Public Health Sciences, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, Washington 98109, USA; .,Institute for Protein Design, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195, USA
| | - Paul G Thomas
- Department of Immunology, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, Tennessee 38105, USA;
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Wade MF, Collins MK, Richards D, Mack DG, Martin AK, Dinarello CA, Fontenot AP, McKee AS. TLR9 and IL-1R1 Promote Mobilization of Pulmonary Dendritic Cells during Beryllium Sensitization. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2018; 201:2232-2243. [PMID: 30185516 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1800303] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2018] [Accepted: 08/13/2018] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Metal-induced hypersensitivity is driven by dendritic cells (DCs) that migrate from the site of exposure to the lymph nodes, upregulate costimulatory molecules, and initiate metal-specific CD4+ T cell responses. Chronic beryllium disease (CBD), a life-threatening metal-induced hypersensitivity, is driven by beryllium-specific CD4+ Th1 cells that expand in the lung-draining lymph nodes (LDLNs) after beryllium exposure (sensitization phase) and are recruited back to the lung, where they orchestrate granulomatous lung disease (elicitation phase). To understand more about how beryllium exposures impact DC function during sensitization, we examined the early events in the lung and LDLNs after pulmonary exposure to different physiochemical forms of beryllium. Exposure to soluble or crystalline forms of beryllium induced alveolar macrophage death/release of IL-1α and DNA, enhanced migration of CD80hi DCs to the LDLNs, and sensitized HLA-DP2 transgenic mice after single low-dose exposures, whereas exposures to insoluble particulate forms beryllium did not. IL-1α and DNA released by alveolar macrophages upregulated CD80 on immature BMDC via IL-1R1 and TLR9, respectively. Intrapulmonary exposure of mice to IL-1R and TLR9 agonists without beryllium was sufficient to drive accumulation of CD80hi DCs in the LDLNs, whereas blocking both pathways prevented accumulation of CD80hi DCs in the LDLNs of beryllium-exposed mice. Thus, in contrast to particulate forms of beryllium, which are poor sensitizers, soluble or crystalline forms of beryllium promote death of alveolar macrophages and their release of IL-1α and DNA, which act as damage-associated molecular pattern molecules to enhance DC function during beryllium sensitization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Morgan F Wade
- Department of Medicine, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO 80045
| | - Morgan K Collins
- Department of Medicine, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO 80045
| | - Denay Richards
- Department of Medicine, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO 80045.,Webb Waring Summer Research Program, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO 80045; and
| | - Douglas G Mack
- Department of Medicine, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO 80045
| | - Allison K Martin
- Department of Medicine, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO 80045
| | - Charles A Dinarello
- Department of Medicine, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO 80045
| | - Andrew P Fontenot
- Department of Medicine, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO 80045.,Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO 80045
| | - Amy S McKee
- Department of Medicine, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO 80045; .,Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO 80045
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Moller DR, Rybicki BA, Hamzeh NY, Montgomery CG, Chen ES, Drake W, Fontenot AP. Genetic, Immunologic, and Environmental Basis of Sarcoidosis. Ann Am Thorac Soc 2017; 14:S429-S436. [PMID: 29073364 PMCID: PMC5822412 DOI: 10.1513/annalsats.201707-565ot] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2017] [Accepted: 10/24/2017] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Sarcoidosis is a multisystem disease with tremendous heterogeneity in disease manifestations, severity, and clinical course that varies among different ethnic and racial groups. To better understand this disease and to improve the outcomes of patients, a National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute workshop was convened to assess the current state of knowledge, gaps, and research needs across the clinical, genetic, environmental, and immunologic arenas. We also explored to what extent the interplay of the genetic, environmental, and immunologic factors could explain the different phenotypes and outcomes of patients with sarcoidosis, including the chronic phenotypes that have the greatest healthcare burden. The potential use of current genetic, epigenetic, and immunologic tools along with study approaches that integrate environmental exposures and precise clinical phenotyping were also explored. Finally, we made expert panel-based consensus recommendations for research approaches and priorities to improve our understanding of the effect of these factors on the health outcomes in sarcoidosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- David R. Moller
- Department of Medicine, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore Maryland
| | - Ben A. Rybicki
- Department of Public Health Sciences, Henry Ford Hospital, Detroit, Michigan
| | | | - Courtney G. Montgomery
- Arthritis and Clinical Immunology Research Program, Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma
| | - Edward S. Chen
- Department of Medicine, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore Maryland
| | - Wonder Drake
- Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, Tennessee; and
| | - Andrew P. Fontenot
- Department of Medicine, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, Colorado
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Illing PT, Purcell AW, McCluskey J. The role of HLA genes in pharmacogenomics: unravelling HLA associated adverse drug reactions. Immunogenetics 2017; 69:617-630. [DOI: 10.1007/s00251-017-1007-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2017] [Accepted: 05/29/2017] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
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