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Ong J, Zarnegar A, Selvam A, Driban M, Chhablani J. The Complement System as a Therapeutic Target in Retinal Disease. MEDICINA (KAUNAS, LITHUANIA) 2024; 60:945. [PMID: 38929562 PMCID: PMC11205777 DOI: 10.3390/medicina60060945] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2024] [Revised: 05/16/2024] [Accepted: 05/23/2024] [Indexed: 06/28/2024]
Abstract
The complement cascade is a vital system in the human body's defense against pathogens. During the natural aging process, it has been observed that this system is imperative for ensuring the integrity and homeostasis of the retina. While this system is critical for proper host defense and retinal integrity, it has also been found that dysregulation of this system may lead to certain retinal pathologies, including geographic atrophy and diabetic retinopathy. Targeting components of the complement system for retinal diseases has been an area of interest, and in vivo, ex vivo, and clinical trials have been conducted in this area. Following clinical trials, medications targeting the complement system for retinal disease have also become available. In this manuscript, we discuss the pathophysiology of complement dysfunction in the retina and specific pathologies. We then describe the results of cellular, animal, and clinical studies targeting the complement system for retinal diseases. We then provide an overview of complement inhibitors that have been approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for geographic atrophy. The complement system in retinal diseases continues to serve as an emerging therapeutic target, and further research in this field will provide additional insights into the mechanisms and considerations for treatment of retinal pathologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joshua Ong
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, University of Michigan Kellogg Eye Center, Ann Arbor, MI 48105, USA
| | - Arman Zarnegar
- Department of Ophthalmology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA
| | - Amrish Selvam
- Department of Ophthalmology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA
| | - Matthew Driban
- Department of Ophthalmology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA
| | - Jay Chhablani
- Department of Ophthalmology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA
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2
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Mastellos DC, Hajishengallis G, Lambris JD. A guide to complement biology, pathology and therapeutic opportunity. Nat Rev Immunol 2024; 24:118-141. [PMID: 37670180 DOI: 10.1038/s41577-023-00926-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/20/2023] [Indexed: 09/07/2023]
Abstract
Complement has long been considered a key innate immune effector system that mediates host defence and tissue homeostasis. Yet, growing evidence has illuminated a broader involvement of complement in fundamental biological processes extending far beyond its traditional realm in innate immunity. Complement engages in intricate crosstalk with multiple pattern-recognition and signalling pathways both in the extracellular and intracellular space. Besides modulating host-pathogen interactions, this crosstalk guides early developmental processes and distinct cell trajectories, shaping tissue immunometabolic and regenerative programmes in different physiological systems. This Review provides a guide to the system-wide functions of complement. It highlights illustrative paradigm shifts that have reshaped our understanding of complement pathobiology, drawing examples from evolution, development of the central nervous system, tissue regeneration and cancer immunity. Despite its tight spatiotemporal regulation, complement activation can be derailed, fuelling inflammatory tissue pathology. The pervasive contribution of complement to disease pathophysiology has inspired a resurgence of complement therapeutics with major clinical developments, some of which have challenged long-held dogmas. We thus highlight major therapeutic concepts and milestones in clinical complement intervention.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - George Hajishengallis
- Department of Basic and Translational Sciences, Penn Dental Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - John D Lambris
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA.
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3
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Markitantova YV, Grigoryan EN. Cellular and Molecular Triggers of Retinal Regeneration in Amphibians. Life (Basel) 2023; 13:1981. [PMID: 37895363 PMCID: PMC10608152 DOI: 10.3390/life13101981] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2023] [Revised: 09/23/2023] [Accepted: 09/26/2023] [Indexed: 10/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Understanding the mechanisms triggering the initiation of retinal regeneration in amphibians may advance the quest for prevention and treatment options for degenerating human retina diseases. Natural retinal regeneration in amphibians requires two cell sources, namely retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) and ciliary marginal zone. The disruption of RPE interaction with photoreceptors through surgery or injury triggers local and systemic responses for retinal protection. In mammals, disease-induced damage to the retina results in the shutdown of the function, cellular or oxidative stress, pronounced immune response, cell death and retinal degeneration. In contrast to retinal pathology in mammals, regenerative responses in amphibians have taxon-specific features ensuring efficient regeneration. These include rapid hemostasis, the recruitment of cells and factors of endogenous defense systems, activities of the immature immune system, high cell viability, and the efficiency of the extracellular matrix, cytoskeleton, and cell surface remodeling. These reactions are controlled by specific signaling pathways, transcription factors, and the epigenome, which are insufficiently studied. This review provides a summary of the mechanisms initiating retinal regeneration in amphibians and reveals its features collectively directed at recruiting universal responses to trauma to activate the cell sources of retinal regeneration. This study of the integrated molecular network of these processes is a prospect for future research in demand biomedicine.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Eleonora N. Grigoryan
- Koltzov Institute of Developmental Biology, Russian Academy of Sciences, 119334 Moscow, Russia;
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4
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Evans R, Watkins LM, Hawkins K, Santiago G, Demetriou C, Naughton M, Dittmer M, Rees MI, Fitzgerald D, Morgan BP, Neal JW, Howell OW. Complement activation and increased anaphylatoxin receptor expression are associated with cortical grey matter lesions and the compartmentalised inflammatory response of multiple sclerosis. Front Cell Neurosci 2023; 17:1094106. [PMID: 37032838 PMCID: PMC10073739 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2023.1094106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2022] [Accepted: 02/07/2023] [Indexed: 04/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Background The extent of cortical pathology is an important determinant of multiple sclerosis (MS) severity. Cortical demyelination and neurodegeneration are related to inflammation of the overlying leptomeninges, a more inflammatory CSF milieu and with parenchymal microglia and astroglia activation. These are all components of the compartmentalised inflammatory response. Compartmentalised inflammation is a feature of progressive MS, which is not targeted by disease modifying therapies. Complement is differentially expressed in the MS CSF and complement, and complement receptors, are associated with demyelination and neurodegeneration. Methods To better understand if complement activation in the leptomeninges is associated with underlying cortical demyelination, inflammation, and microglial activation, we performed a neuropathological study of progressive MS (n = 22, 14 females), neuroinflammatory (n = 8), and non-neurological disease controls (n = 10). We then quantified the relative extent of demyelination, connective tissue inflammation, complement, and complement receptor positive microglia/macrophages. Results Complement was elevated at the leptomeninges, subpial, and within and around vessels of the cortical grey matter. The extent of complement C1q immunoreactivity correlated with connective tissue infiltrates, whilst activation products C4d, Bb, and C3b associated with grey matter demyelination, and C3a receptor 1+ and C5a receptor 1+ microglia/macrophages closely apposed C3b labelled cells. The density of C3a receptor 1+ and C5a receptor 1+ cells was increased at the expanding edge of subpial and leukocortical lesions. C5a receptor 1+ cells expressed TNFα, iNOS and contained puncta immunoreactive for proteolipid protein, neurofilament and synaptophysin, suggesting their involvement in grey matter lesion expansion. Interpretation The presence of products of complement activation at the brain surfaces, their association with the extent of underlying pathology and increased complement anaphylatoxin receptor positive microglia/macrophages at expanding cortical grey matter lesions, could represent a target to modify compartmentalised inflammation and cortical demyelination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rhian Evans
- Faculty of Medicine, Health and Life Sciences, Swansea University Medical School, Swansea, United Kingdom
| | - Lewis M. Watkins
- Faculty of Medicine, Health and Life Sciences, Swansea University Medical School, Swansea, United Kingdom
| | - Kristen Hawkins
- Faculty of Medicine, Health and Life Sciences, Swansea University Medical School, Swansea, United Kingdom
| | - Gabriella Santiago
- Faculty of Medicine, Health and Life Sciences, Swansea University Medical School, Swansea, United Kingdom
| | - Constantinos Demetriou
- Faculty of Medicine, Health and Life Sciences, Swansea University Medical School, Swansea, United Kingdom
| | - Michelle Naughton
- The Wellcome-Wolfson Institute for Experimental Medicine, Queen’s University Belfast, Belfast, United Kingdom
| | - Marie Dittmer
- Centre for Experimental Medicine, Queen’s University Belfast, Belfast, United Kingdom
| | - Mark I. Rees
- Faculty of Medicine and Health, The University of Sydney, Darlington, NSW, Australia
| | - Denise Fitzgerald
- The Wellcome-Wolfson Institute for Experimental Medicine, Queen’s University Belfast, Belfast, United Kingdom
| | - B. Paul Morgan
- School of Medicine, UK Dementia Research Institute Cardiff and Systems Immunity Research Institute, Cardiff University, Cardiff, United Kingdom
| | - James W. Neal
- Faculty of Medicine, Health and Life Sciences, Swansea University Medical School, Swansea, United Kingdom
| | - Owain W. Howell
- Faculty of Medicine, Health and Life Sciences, Swansea University Medical School, Swansea, United Kingdom
- *Correspondence: Owain W. Howell,
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Grigoryan EN. Cell Sources for Retinal Regeneration: Implication for Data Translation in Biomedicine of the Eye. Cells 2022; 11:cells11233755. [PMID: 36497013 PMCID: PMC9738527 DOI: 10.3390/cells11233755] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2022] [Revised: 11/16/2022] [Accepted: 11/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
The main degenerative diseases of the retina include macular degeneration, proliferative vitreoretinopathy, retinitis pigmentosa, and glaucoma. Novel approaches for treating retinal diseases are based on cell replacement therapy using a variety of exogenous stem cells. An alternative and complementary approach is the potential use of retinal regeneration cell sources (RRCSs) containing retinal pigment epithelium, ciliary body, Müller glia, and retinal ciliary region. RRCSs in lower vertebrates in vivo and in mammals mostly in vitro are able to proliferate and exhibit gene expression and epigenetic characteristics typical for neural/retinal cell progenitors. Here, we review research on the factors controlling the RRCSs' properties, such as the cell microenvironment, growth factors, cytokines, hormones, etc., that determine the regenerative responses and alterations underlying the RRCS-associated pathologies. We also discuss how the current data on molecular features and regulatory mechanisms of RRCSs could be translated in retinal biomedicine with a special focus on (1) attempts to obtain retinal neurons de novo both in vivo and in vitro to replace damaged retinal cells; and (2) investigations of the key molecular networks stimulating regenerative responses and preventing RRCS-related pathologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eleonora N Grigoryan
- Koltzov Institute of Developmental Biology, Russian Academy of Sciences, 119334 Moscow, Russia
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6
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Yednock T, Fong DS, Lad EM. C1q and the classical complement cascade in geographic atrophy secondary to age-related macular degeneration. Int J Retina Vitreous 2022; 8:79. [PMID: 36348407 PMCID: PMC9641935 DOI: 10.1186/s40942-022-00431-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2022] [Accepted: 10/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Geographic atrophy (GA) secondary to age-related macular degeneration (AMD) is a retinal neurodegenerative disorder. Human genetic data support the complement system as a key component of pathogenesis in AMD, which has been further supported by pre-clinical and recent clinical studies. However, the involvement of the different complement pathways (classical, lectin, alternative), and thus the optimal complement inhibition target, has yet to be fully defined. There is evidence that C1q, the initiating molecule of the classical pathway, is a key driver of complement activity in AMD. C1q is expressed locally by infiltrating phagocytic cells and C1q-activating ligands are present at disease onset and continue to accumulate with disease progression. The accumulation of C1q on photoreceptor synapses with age and disease is consistent with its role in synapse elimination and neurodegeneration that has been observed in other neurodegenerative disorders. Furthermore, genetic deletion of C1q, local pharmacologic inhibition within the eye, or genetic deletion of downstream C4 prevents photoreceptor cell damage in mouse models. Hence, targeting the classical pathway in GA could provide a more specific therapeutic approach with potential for favorable efficacy and safety.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ted Yednock
- Annexon Biosciences, 1400 Sierra Point Parkway Building C, 2nd Floor, Brisbane, CA, 94005, USA
| | - Donald S Fong
- Annexon Biosciences, 1400 Sierra Point Parkway Building C, 2nd Floor, Brisbane, CA, 94005, USA.
| | - Eleonora M Lad
- Department of Ophthalmology, Duke University Medical Center, 2351 Erwin Rd, Durham, NC, 27705, USA
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7
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Webster SE, Spitsbergen JB, Linn DM, Webster MK, Otteson D, Cooley-Themm C, Linn CL. Transcriptome Changes in Retinal Pigment Epithelium Post-PNU-282987 Treatment Associated with Adult Retinal Neurogenesis in Mice. J Mol Neurosci 2022; 72:1990-2010. [PMID: 35867327 DOI: 10.1007/s12031-022-02049-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2022] [Accepted: 07/12/2022] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
PNU-282987, a selective alpha7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor agonist, has previously been shown to have both neurogenic and broad regenerative effects in the adult murine retina. The objective of this study was to assay the molecular mechanism by which PNU-282987 promotes the production of Muller-derived progenitor cells through signaling via the resident retinal pigment epithelium. These Muller-derived progenitor cells generate a myriad of differentiated neurons throughout the retina that have previously been characterized by morphology. Herein, we demonstrate that topical application of PNU-282987 stimulates production of functional neurons as measured by electroretinograms. Further, we examine the mechanism of how this phenomenon occurs through activation of this atypical receptor using a transcriptomic approach isolated retinal pigment epithelium activated by PNU-282987 and in whole retina. We provide evidence that PNU-282987 causes a bi-modal signaling event in which early activation primes the retina with an inflammatory response and developmental signaling cues, followed by an inhibition of gliotic mechanisms and a decrease in the immune response, ending with upregulation of genes associated with specific retinal neuron generation. Taken together, these data provide evidence that PNU-282987 activates the retinal pigment epithelium to signal to Muller glia to produce Muller-derived progenitor cells, which can differentiate into new, functional neurons in adult mice. These data not only increase our understanding of how adult mammalian retinal regeneration can occur, but also provide therapeutic promise for treating functional vision loss.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah E Webster
- Department of Biological Sciences, Western Michigan University, Kalamazoo, MI, USA
| | - Jake B Spitsbergen
- Department of Biological Sciences, Western Michigan University, Kalamazoo, MI, USA
| | - David M Linn
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Grand Valley State University, Grand Rapids, MI, USA
| | - Mark K Webster
- Department of Biological Sciences, Western Michigan University, Kalamazoo, MI, USA
| | - Deborah Otteson
- University of Houston College of Optometry, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Cynthia Cooley-Themm
- Department of Biological Sciences, Western Michigan University, Kalamazoo, MI, USA
| | - Cindy L Linn
- Department of Biological Sciences, Western Michigan University, Kalamazoo, MI, USA.
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8
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Sharma P, Ramachandran R. Retina regeneration: lessons from vertebrates. OXFORD OPEN NEUROSCIENCE 2022; 1:kvac012. [PMID: 38596712 PMCID: PMC10913848 DOI: 10.1093/oons/kvac012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2022] [Revised: 05/24/2022] [Accepted: 06/25/2022] [Indexed: 04/11/2024]
Abstract
Unlike mammals, vertebrates such as fishes and frogs exhibit remarkable tissue regeneration including the central nervous system. Retina being part of the central nervous system has attracted the interest of several research groups to explore its regenerative ability in different vertebrate models including mice. Fishes and frogs completely restore the size, shape and tissue structure of an injured retina. Several studies have unraveled molecular mechanisms underlying retina regeneration. In teleosts, soon after injury, the Müller glial cells of the retina reprogram to form a proliferating population of Müller glia-derived progenitor cells capable of differentiating into various neural cell types and Müller glia. In amphibians, the transdifferentiation of retinal pigment epithelium and differentiation of ciliary marginal zone cells contribute to retina regeneration. In chicks and mice, supplementation with external growth factors or genetic modifications cause a partial regenerative response in the damaged retina. The initiation of retina regeneration is achieved through sequential orchestration of gene expression through controlled modulations in the genetic and epigenetic landscape of the progenitor cells. Several developmental biology pathways are turned on during the Müller glia reprogramming, retinal pigment epithelium transdifferentiation and ciliary marginal zone differentiation. Further, several tumorigenic pathways and gene expression events also contribute to the complete regeneration cascade of events. In this review, we address the various retinal injury paradigms and subsequent gene expression events governed in different vertebrate species. Further, we compared how vertebrates such as teleost fishes and amphibians can achieve excellent regenerative responses in the retina compared with their mammalian counterparts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Poonam Sharma
- Department of Biological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research, Mohali, Knowledge City, SAS Nagar, Sector 81, Manauli PO, 140306 Mohali, Punjab, India
| | - Rajesh Ramachandran
- Department of Biological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research, Mohali, Knowledge City, SAS Nagar, Sector 81, Manauli PO, 140306 Mohali, Punjab, India
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9
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Grigoryan EN. Pigment Epithelia of the Eye: Cell-Type Conversion in Regeneration and Disease. Life (Basel) 2022; 12:life12030382. [PMID: 35330132 PMCID: PMC8955580 DOI: 10.3390/life12030382] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2022] [Revised: 02/28/2022] [Accepted: 03/03/2022] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Pigment epithelial cells (PECs) of the retina (RPE), ciliary body, and iris (IPE) are capable of altering their phenotype. The main pathway of phenotypic switching of eye PECs in vertebrates and humans in vivo and/or in vitro is neural/retinal. Besides, cells of amphibian IPE give rise to the lens and its derivatives, while mammalian and human RPE can be converted along the mesenchymal pathway. The PECs’ capability of conversion in vivo underlies the lens and retinal regeneration in lower vertebrates and retinal diseases such as proliferative vitreoretinopathy and fibrosis in mammals and humans. The present review considers these processes studied in vitro and in vivo in animal models and in humans. The molecular basis of conversion strategies in PECs is elucidated. Being predetermined onto- and phylogenetically, it includes a species-specific molecular context, differential expression of transcription factors, signaling pathways, and epigenomic changes. The accumulated knowledge regarding the mechanisms of PECs phenotypic switching allows the development of approaches to specified conversion for many purposes: obtaining cells for transplantation, creating conditions to stimulate natural regeneration of the retina and the lens, blocking undesirable conversions associated with eye pathology, and finding molecular markers of pathology to be targets of therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eleonora N Grigoryan
- Kol'tsov Institute of Developmental Biology, Russian Academy of Sciences, 119334 Moscow, Russia
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10
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Ricci L, Salmon B, Olivier C, Andreoni-Pham R, Chaurasia A, Alié A, Tiozzo S. The Onset of Whole-Body Regeneration in Botryllus schlosseri: Morphological and Molecular Characterization. Front Cell Dev Biol 2022; 10:843775. [PMID: 35237607 PMCID: PMC8882763 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2022.843775] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/26/2021] [Accepted: 01/19/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Colonial tunicates are the only chordates that regularly regenerate a fully functional whole body as part of their asexual life cycle, starting from specific epithelia and/or mesenchymal cells. In addition, in some species, whole-body regeneration (WBR) can also be triggered by extensive injuries, which deplete most of their tissues and organs and leave behind only small fragments of their body. In this manuscript, we characterized the onset of WBR in Botryllus schlosseri, one colonial tunicate long used as a laboratory model. We first analyzed the transcriptomic response to a WBR-triggering injury. Then, through morphological characterization, in vivo observations via time-lapse, vital dyes, and cell transplant assays, we started to reconstruct the dynamics of the cells triggering regeneration, highlighting an interplay between mesenchymal and epithelial cells. The dynamics described here suggest that WBR in B. schlosseri is initiated by extravascular tissue fragments derived from the injured individuals rather than particular populations of blood-borne cells, as has been described in closely related species. The morphological and molecular datasets here reported provide the background for future mechanistic studies of the WBR ontogenesis in B. schlosseri and allow to compare it with other regenerative processes occurring in other tunicate species and possibly independently evolved.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lorenzo Ricci
- Laboratoire de Biologie du Développement de Villefranche-sur-Mer (LBDV), CNRS, Sorbonne University, Paris, France
- Institute for Research on Cancer and Aging in Nice (IRCAN), CNRS, INSERM, Université Côte d’Azur, Nice, France
| | - Bastien Salmon
- Laboratoire de Biologie du Développement de Villefranche-sur-Mer (LBDV), CNRS, Sorbonne University, Paris, France
| | - Caroline Olivier
- Laboratoire de Biologie du Développement de Villefranche-sur-Mer (LBDV), CNRS, Sorbonne University, Paris, France
| | - Rita Andreoni-Pham
- Laboratoire de Biologie du Développement de Villefranche-sur-Mer (LBDV), CNRS, Sorbonne University, Paris, France
- Institute for Research on Cancer and Aging in Nice (IRCAN), CNRS, INSERM, Université Côte d’Azur, Nice, France
| | - Ankita Chaurasia
- Laboratoire de Biologie du Développement de Villefranche-sur-Mer (LBDV), CNRS, Sorbonne University, Paris, France
| | - Alexandre Alié
- Laboratoire de Biologie du Développement de Villefranche-sur-Mer (LBDV), CNRS, Sorbonne University, Paris, France
| | - Stefano Tiozzo
- Laboratoire de Biologie du Développement de Villefranche-sur-Mer (LBDV), CNRS, Sorbonne University, Paris, France
- *Correspondence: Stefano Tiozzo,
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Garg V, Chandanala S, David-Luther M, Govind M, Prasad RR, Kumar A, Prasanna SJ. The Yin and Yang of Immunity in Stem Cell Decision Guidance in Tissue Ecologies: An Infection Independent Perspective. Front Cell Dev Biol 2022; 10:793694. [PMID: 35198558 PMCID: PMC8858808 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2022.793694] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2021] [Accepted: 01/10/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The impact of immune system and inflammation on organ homeostasis and tissue stem cell niches in the absence of pathogen invasion has long remained a conundrum in the field of regenerative medicine. The paradoxical role of immune components in promoting tissue injury as well as resolving tissue damage has complicated therapeutic targeting of inflammation as a means to attain tissue homeostasis in degenerative disease contexts. This confound could be resolved by an integrated intricate assessment of cross-talk between inflammatory components and micro- and macro-environmental factors existing in tissues during health and disease. Prudent fate choice decisions of stem cells and their differentiated progeny are key to maintain tissue integrity and function. Stem cells have to exercise this fate choice in consultation with other tissue components. With this respect tissue immune components, danger/damage sensing molecules driving sterile inflammatory signaling cascades and barrier cells having immune-surveillance functions play pivotal roles in supervising stem cell decisions in their niches. Stem cells learn from their previous damage encounters, either endogenous or exogenous, or adapt to persistent micro-environmental changes to orchestrate their decisions. Thus understanding the communication networks between stem cells and immune system components is essential to comprehend stem cell decisions in endogenous tissue niches. Further the systemic interactions between tissue niches integrated through immune networks serve as patrolling systems to establish communication links and orchestrate micro-immune ecologies to better organismal response to injury and promote regeneration. Understanding these communication links is key to devise immune-centric regenerative therapies. Thus the present review is an integrated attempt to provide a unified purview of how inflammation and immune cells provide guidance to stem cells for tissue sculpting during development, organismal aging and tissue crisis based on the current knowledge in the field.
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Neurospheres obtained from the ciliary margin of the chicken eye possess positional values and retinal ganglion cells differentiated from them respond to EphA/ephrin-A system. Exp Eye Res 2022; 217:108965. [DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2022.108965] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2021] [Revised: 12/14/2021] [Accepted: 01/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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13
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Grigoryan EN, Markitantova YV. Molecular Strategies for Transdifferentiation of Retinal Pigment Epithelial Cells in Amphibians and Mammals In Vivo. Russ J Dev Biol 2021. [DOI: 10.1134/s1062360421040032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
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14
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Kim BJ, Mastellos DC, Li Y, Dunaief JL, Lambris JD. Targeting complement components C3 and C5 for the retina: Key concepts and lingering questions. Prog Retin Eye Res 2021; 83:100936. [PMID: 33321207 PMCID: PMC8197769 DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2020.100936] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2020] [Revised: 12/07/2020] [Accepted: 12/09/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) remains a major cause of legal blindness, and treatment for the geographic atrophy form of AMD is a significant unmet need. Dysregulation of the complement cascade is thought to be instrumental for AMD pathophysiology. In particular, C3 and C5 are pivotal components of the complement cascade and have become leading therapeutic targets for AMD. In this article, we discuss C3 and C5 in detail, including their roles in AMD, biochemical and structural aspects, locations of expression, and the functions of C3 and C5 fragments. Further, the article critically reviews developing therapeutics aimed at C3 and C5, underscoring the potential effects of broad inhibition of complement at the level of C3 versus more specific inhibition at C5. The relationships of complement biology to the inflammasome and microglia/macrophage activity are highlighted. Concepts of C3 and C5 biology will be emphasized, while we point out questions that need to be settled and directions for future investigations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin J Kim
- Scheie Eye Institute, Department of Ophthalmology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA.
| | | | - Yafeng Li
- Scheie Eye Institute, Department of Ophthalmology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Joshua L Dunaief
- Scheie Eye Institute, Department of Ophthalmology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - John D Lambris
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
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Tangeman JA, Luz-Madrigal A, Sreeskandarajan S, Grajales-Esquivel E, Liu L, Liang C, Tsonis PA, Del Rio-Tsonis K. Transcriptome Profiling of Embryonic Retinal Pigment Epithelium Reprogramming. Genes (Basel) 2021; 12:genes12060840. [PMID: 34072522 PMCID: PMC8226911 DOI: 10.3390/genes12060840] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2021] [Revised: 05/05/2021] [Accepted: 05/22/2021] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
The plasticity of human retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) has been observed during proliferative vitreoretinopathy, a defective repair process during which injured RPE gives rise to fibrosis. In contrast, following injury, the RPE of the embryonic chicken can be reprogrammed to regenerate neural retina in a fibroblast growth factor 2 (FGF2)-dependent manner. To better explore the mechanisms underlying embryonic RPE reprogramming, we used laser capture microdissection to isolate RNA from (1) intact RPE, (2) transiently reprogrammed RPE (t-rRPE) 6 h post-retinectomy, and (3) reprogrammed RPE (rRPE) 6 h post-retinectomy with FGF2 treatment. Using RNA-seq, we observed the acute repression of genes related to cell cycle progression in the injured t-rRPE, as well as up-regulation of genes associated with injury. In contrast, the rRPE was strongly enriched for mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK)-responsive genes and retina development factors, confirming that FGF2 and the downstream MAPK cascade are the main drivers of embryonic RPE reprogramming. Clustering and pathway enrichment analysis was used to create an integrated network of the core processes associated with RPE reprogramming, including key terms pertaining to injury response, migration, actin dynamics, and cell cycle progression. Finally, we employed gene set enrichment analysis to suggest a previously uncovered role for epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) machinery in the initiation of embryonic chick RPE reprogramming. The EMT program is accompanied by extensive, coordinated regulation of extracellular matrix (ECM) associated factors, and these observations together suggest an early role for ECM and EMT-like dynamics during reprogramming. Our study provides for the first time an in-depth transcriptomic analysis of embryonic RPE reprogramming and will prove useful in guiding future efforts to understand proliferative disorders of the RPE and to promote retinal regeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jared A. Tangeman
- Department of Biology and Center for Visual Sciences at Miami University, Miami University, Oxford, OH 45056, USA; (J.A.T.); (A.L.-M.); (S.S.); (E.G.-E.); (L.L.); (C.L.)
| | - Agustín Luz-Madrigal
- Department of Biology and Center for Visual Sciences at Miami University, Miami University, Oxford, OH 45056, USA; (J.A.T.); (A.L.-M.); (S.S.); (E.G.-E.); (L.L.); (C.L.)
- McPherson Eye Research Institute, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53705, USA
- Waisman Center, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53705, USA
| | - Sutharzan Sreeskandarajan
- Department of Biology and Center for Visual Sciences at Miami University, Miami University, Oxford, OH 45056, USA; (J.A.T.); (A.L.-M.); (S.S.); (E.G.-E.); (L.L.); (C.L.)
- Center for Autoimmune Genomics and Etiology, Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH 45229, USA
| | - Erika Grajales-Esquivel
- Department of Biology and Center for Visual Sciences at Miami University, Miami University, Oxford, OH 45056, USA; (J.A.T.); (A.L.-M.); (S.S.); (E.G.-E.); (L.L.); (C.L.)
| | - Lin Liu
- Department of Biology and Center for Visual Sciences at Miami University, Miami University, Oxford, OH 45056, USA; (J.A.T.); (A.L.-M.); (S.S.); (E.G.-E.); (L.L.); (C.L.)
| | - Chun Liang
- Department of Biology and Center for Visual Sciences at Miami University, Miami University, Oxford, OH 45056, USA; (J.A.T.); (A.L.-M.); (S.S.); (E.G.-E.); (L.L.); (C.L.)
- Department of Computer Science and Software Engineering, Miami University, Oxford, OH 45056, USA
| | - Panagiotis A. Tsonis
- Department of Biology, University of Dayton and Center for Tissue Regeneration and Engineering at the University of Dayton (TREND), Dayton, OH 45469, USA;
| | - Katia Del Rio-Tsonis
- Department of Biology and Center for Visual Sciences at Miami University, Miami University, Oxford, OH 45056, USA; (J.A.T.); (A.L.-M.); (S.S.); (E.G.-E.); (L.L.); (C.L.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +513-529-3128; Fax: +513-529-6900
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16
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Activation of the Complement System on Human Endothelial Cells by Urban Particulate Matter Triggers Inflammation-Related Protein Production. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22073336. [PMID: 33805189 PMCID: PMC8038114 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22073336] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2021] [Revised: 03/19/2021] [Accepted: 03/23/2021] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Exposure to particulate matter (PM) is becoming a major global health issue. The amount and time of exposure to PM are known to be closely associated with cardiovascular diseases. However, the mechanism through which PM affects the vascular system is still not clear. Endothelial cells line the interior surface of blood vessels and actively interact with plasma proteins, including the complement system. Unregulated complement activation caused by invaders, such as pollutants, may promote endothelial inflammation. In the present study, we sought to investigate whether urban PM (UPM) acts on the endothelial environment via the complement system. UPM-treated human endothelial cells with normal human serum showed the deposition of membrane attack complexes (MACs) on the cell surface via the alternative pathway of the complement system. Despite the formation of MACs, cell death was not observed, and cell proliferation was increased in UPM-mediated complement activation. Furthermore, complement activation on endothelial cells stimulated the production of inflammation-related proteins. Our results revealed that UPM could activate the complement system in human endothelial cells and that complement activation regulated inflammatory reaction in microenvironment. These findings provide clues with regard to the role of the complement system in pathophysiologic events of vascular disease elicited by air pollution.
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17
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Grigoryan EN. Potential Endogenous Cell Sources for Retinal Regeneration in Vertebrates and Humans: Progenitor Traits and Specialization. Biomedicines 2020; 8:E208. [PMID: 32664635 PMCID: PMC7400588 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines8070208] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2020] [Revised: 07/04/2020] [Accepted: 07/10/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Retinal diseases often cause the loss of photoreceptor cells and, consequently, impairment of vision. To date, several cell populations are known as potential endogenous retinal regeneration cell sources (RRCSs): the eye ciliary zone, the retinal pigment epithelium, the iris, and Müller glia. Factors that can activate the regenerative responses of RRCSs are currently under investigation. The present review considers accumulated data on the relationship between the progenitor properties of RRCSs and the features determining their differentiation. Specialized RRCSs (all except the ciliary zone in low vertebrates), despite their differences, appear to be partially "prepared" to exhibit their plasticity and be reprogrammed into retinal neurons due to the specific gene expression and epigenetic landscape. The "developmental" characteristics of RRCS gene expression are predefined by the pathway by which these cell populations form during eye morphogenesis; the epigenetic features responsible for chromatin organization in RRCSs are under intracellular regulation. Such genetic and epigenetic readiness is manifested in vivo in lower vertebrates and in vitro in higher ones under conditions permissive for cell phenotype transformation. Current studies on gene expression in RRCSs and changes in their epigenetic landscape help find experimental approaches to replacing dead cells through recruiting cells from endogenous resources in vertebrates and humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eleonora N Grigoryan
- Koltsov Institute of Developmental Biology, Russian Academy of Sciences, 119334 Moscow, Russia
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18
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Markitantova YV, Simirskii VN. Role of the Redox System in Initiation of a Regenerative Response of Neural Eye Tissues in Vertebrates. Russ J Dev Biol 2020. [DOI: 10.1134/s106236042001004x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
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19
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Magnadóttir B, Uysal-Onganer P, Kraev I, Svansson V, Hayes P, Lange S. Deiminated proteins and extracellular vesicles - Novel serum biomarkers in whales and orca. COMPARATIVE BIOCHEMISTRY AND PHYSIOLOGY D-GENOMICS & PROTEOMICS 2020; 34:100676. [PMID: 32114311 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbd.2020.100676] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2019] [Revised: 01/16/2020] [Accepted: 02/17/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Peptidylarginine deiminases (PADs) are a family of phylogenetically conserved calcium-dependent enzymes which cause post-translational protein deimination. This can result in neoepitope generation, affect gene regulation and allow for protein moonlighting via functional and structural changes in target proteins. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) carry cargo proteins and genetic material and are released from cells as part of cellular communication. EVs are found in most body fluids where they can be useful biomarkers for assessment of health status. Here, serum-derived EVs were profiled, and post-translationally deiminated proteins and EV-related microRNAs are described in 5 ceataceans: minke whale, fin whale, humpback whale, Cuvier's beaked whale and orca. EV-serum profiles were assessed by transmission electron microscopy and nanoparticle tracking analysis. EV profiles varied between the 5 species and were identified to contain deiminated proteins and selected key inflammatory and metabolic microRNAs. A range of proteins, critical for immune responses and metabolism were identified to be deiminated in cetacean sera, with some shared KEGG pathways of deiminated proteins relating to immunity and physiology, while some KEGG pathways were species-specific. This is the first study to characterise and profile EVs and to report deiminated proteins and putative effects of protein-protein interaction networks via such post-translationald deimination in cetaceans, revealing key immune and metabolic factors to undergo this post-translational modification. Deiminated proteins and EVs profiles may possibly be developed as new biomarkers for assessing health status of sea mammals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bergljót Magnadóttir
- Institute for Experimental Pathology, University of Iceland, Keldur v. Vesturlandsveg, 112 Reykjavik, Iceland.
| | - Pinar Uysal-Onganer
- Cancer Research Group, School of Life Sciences, University of Westminster, London W1W 6UW, UK.
| | - Igor Kraev
- Electron Microscopy Suite, Faculty of Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics, Open University, Milton Keynes MK7 6AA, UK.
| | - Vilhjálmur Svansson
- Institute for Experimental Pathology, University of Iceland, Keldur v. Vesturlandsveg, 112 Reykjavik, Iceland
| | - Polly Hayes
- Tissue Architecture and Regeneration Research Group, School of Life Sciences, University of Westminster, London W1W 6UW, UK.
| | - Sigrun Lange
- Tissue Architecture and Regeneration Research Group, School of Life Sciences, University of Westminster, London W1W 6UW, UK.
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20
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Su JB, Wu YY, Xu F, Wang X, Cai HL, Zhao LH, Zhang XL, Chen T, Huang HY, Wang XQ. Serum complement C3 and islet β-cell function in patients with type 2 diabetes: A 4.6-year prospective follow-up study. Endocrine 2020; 67:321-330. [PMID: 31786774 DOI: 10.1007/s12020-019-02144-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2019] [Accepted: 11/18/2019] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE Serum complement C3 has been shown to contribute to the incidence of type 2 diabetes (T2D), but how serum complement C3 affects islet β-cell function throughout the course of T2D is unclear. This study explored whether serum complement C3 is independently associated with changes in islet β-cell function over time in patients with T2D. METHODS Serum complement C3 was measured, and endogenous β-cell function was evaluated by area under the C-peptide curve (AUCcp) during an oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) in 411 patients with T2D at baseline from 2011 to 2015. Next, 347 of those patients with available data were pooled for a final follow-up analysis from 2014 to 2018. Changes in islet β-cell function at follow-up were evaluated by AUCcp percentage changes (ΔAUCcp%). In addition, other possible clinical risks for diabetes were also examined. RESULTS The 347 patients included in the analysis had a diabetes duration of 4.84 ± 3.63 years at baseline. Baseline serum complement C3 (baseline C3) levels were positively correlated with baseline natural logarithm of AUCcp (lnAUCcp) (n = 347, r = 0.288, p < 0.001), and baseline C3 was independently associated with baseline lnAUCcp (β = 0.17, t = 3.52, p < 0.001) after adjustment for baseline glycemic status and other clinical confounders by multivariate liner regression analysis. Compared with the baseline values, complement C3 changes (ΔC3) and ΔAUCcp% was -0.15 ± 0.28 mg/ml and -17.2 ± 18.4%, respectively, at a follow-up visit 4.57 ± 0.78 years later. Moreover, ΔC3 was positively correlated with ΔAUCcp% (n = 347, r = 0.302, p < 0.001). Furthermore, each 0.1 mg/ml increase in ΔC3 was associated with a higher ΔAUCcp% (1.41% [95% CI, 0.82-2.00%]) after adjusting for changes in glycemic status and other clinical confounders at follow-up. CONCLUSIONS In addition to serum complement C3 being independently associated with islet β-cell function at baseline, its changes were also independently associated with changes in islet β-cell function over time in patients with T2D.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jian-Bin Su
- Department of Endocrinology, Affiliated Hospital 2 of Nantong University, and First People's Hospital of Nantong City, No. 6, Haierxiang North Road, Nantong, 226001, China.
| | - Yun-Yu Wu
- Medical School of Nantong University, No. 19, Qixiu Road, Nantong, 226001, China
| | - Feng Xu
- Department of Endocrinology, Affiliated Hospital 2 of Nantong University, and First People's Hospital of Nantong City, No. 6, Haierxiang North Road, Nantong, 226001, China
| | - Xing Wang
- Department of Endocrinology, Affiliated Hospital 2 of Nantong University, and First People's Hospital of Nantong City, No. 6, Haierxiang North Road, Nantong, 226001, China
| | - Hong-Li Cai
- Department of Geriatrics, Affiliated Hospital 2 of Nantong University, and First People's Hospital of Nantong City, No. 6 North Haierxiang Road, Nantong, 226001, China
| | - Li-Hua Zhao
- Department of Endocrinology, Affiliated Hospital 2 of Nantong University, and First People's Hospital of Nantong City, No. 6, Haierxiang North Road, Nantong, 226001, China
| | - Xiu-Lin Zhang
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, Affiliated Hospital 2 of Nantong University, and First People's Hospital of Nantong City, No. 6, Haierxiang North Road, Nantong, 226001, China
| | - Tong Chen
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, Affiliated Hospital 2 of Nantong University, and First People's Hospital of Nantong City, No. 6, Haierxiang North Road, Nantong, 226001, China
| | - Hai-Yan Huang
- Department of Endocrinology, Affiliated Hospital 2 of Nantong University, and First People's Hospital of Nantong City, No. 6, Haierxiang North Road, Nantong, 226001, China
| | - Xue-Qin Wang
- Department of Endocrinology, Affiliated Hospital 2 of Nantong University, and First People's Hospital of Nantong City, No. 6, Haierxiang North Road, Nantong, 226001, China.
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21
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Criscitiello MF, Kraev I, Lange S. Deiminated proteins in extracellular vesicles and serum of llama (Lama glama)-Novel insights into camelid immunity. Mol Immunol 2020; 117:37-53. [PMID: 31733447 PMCID: PMC7112542 DOI: 10.1016/j.molimm.2019.10.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2019] [Revised: 10/05/2019] [Accepted: 10/23/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Peptidylarginine deiminases (PADs) are phylogenetically conserved calcium-dependent enzymes which post-translationally convert arginine into citrulline in target proteins in an irreversible manner, causing functional and structural changes in target proteins. Protein deimination causes generation of neo-epitopes, affects gene regulation and also allows for protein moonlighting. Furthermore, PADs have been found to be a phylogenetically conserved regulator for extracellular vesicle (EVs) release. EVs are found in most body fluids and participate in cellular communication via transfer of cargo proteins and genetic material. In this study, post-translationally deiminated proteins in serum and serum-EVs are described for the first time in camelids, using the llama (Lama glama L. 1758) as a model animal. We report a poly-dispersed population of llama serum EVs, positive for phylogenetically conserved EV-specific markers and characterised by TEM. In serum, 103 deiminated proteins were overall identified, including key immune and metabolic mediators including complement components, immunoglobulin-based nanobodies, adiponectin and heat shock proteins. In serum, 60 deiminated proteins were identified that were not in EVs, and 25 deiminated proteins were found to be unique to EVs, with 43 shared deiminated protein hits between both serum and EVs. Deiminated histone H3, a marker of neutrophil extracellular trap formation, was also detected in llama serum. PAD homologues were identified in llama serum by Western blotting, via cross reaction with human PAD antibodies, and detected at an expected 70 kDa size. This is the first report of deiminated proteins in serum and EVs of a camelid species, highlighting a hitherto unrecognized post-translational modification in key immune and metabolic proteins in camelids, which may be translatable to and inform a range of human metabolic and inflammatory pathologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael F Criscitiello
- Comparative Immunogenetics Laboratory, Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, 77843, USA; Department of Microbial Pathogenesis and Immunology, College of Medicine, Texas A&M Health Science Center, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, 77843, USA.
| | - Igor Kraev
- Electron Microscopy Suite, Faculty of Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics, Open University, Milton Keynes, MK7 6AA, UK.
| | - Sigrun Lange
- Tissue Architecture and Regeneration Research Group, School of Life Sciences, University of Westminster, London W1W 6UW, UK.
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22
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Abstract
Much of our knowledge regarding the interactions between epithelial tissues and the immune system has been gathered from animal models and co-cultures with cell lines. However, unique features of human cells cannot be modelled in mice, and cell lines are often transformed or genetically immortalized. Organoid technology has emerged as a powerful tool to maintain epithelial cells in a near-native state. In this Review, we discuss how organoids are being used in immunological research to understand the role of epithelial cell-immune cell interactions in tissue development and homeostasis, as well as in diseases such as cancer.
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23
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Lange S, Kraev I, Magnadóttir B, Dodds AW. Complement component C4-like protein in Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua L.) - Detection in ontogeny and identification of post-translational deimination in serum and extracellular vesicles. DEVELOPMENTAL AND COMPARATIVE IMMUNOLOGY 2019; 101:103437. [PMID: 31288046 DOI: 10.1016/j.dci.2019.103437] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2019] [Revised: 06/19/2019] [Accepted: 07/05/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
The complement system is a critical part of teleost immune defences, with complement component C4 forming part of the classical and lectin pathways. Cod C4-like protein was isolated from plasma, specific antibodies generated and C4-like protein was assessed in cod sera, mucus and in extracellular vesicles (EVs) from serum and mucus. Higher levels of C4-like protein were detected in serum- than mucus-derived EVs. Post-translational deimination, caused by conversion of arginine into citrulline, can affect protein structure and function. Here we detected deiminated forms of C4-like protein in cod serum and at lower levels in mucus. C4-like protein was also found in deiminated form at low levels in EVs from both serum and mucus. C4-like protein was assessed by immunohistochemistry in cod larvae and detected in a range of organs including in liver, kidney, gut, muscle, skin and mucus, as well as in neuronal tissues of the brain, spinal cord and eye. This abundance of C4-like protein during early development may indicate roles in tissue remodelling, in addition to immune defences. The presence of deiminated C4-like protein in serum and mucosa, as well as in EVs, may suggest C4 protein moonlighting via post-translational deimination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sigrun Lange
- Tissue Architecture and Regeneration Research Group, Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Westminster, London, W1W 6UW, UK.
| | - Igor Kraev
- School of Life, Health and Chemical Sciences, The Open University, Walton Hall, MK7 6AA, UK.
| | - Bergljót Magnadóttir
- Institute for Experimental Pathology, University of Iceland, Keldur v. Vesturlandsveg, 112 Reykjavik, Iceland.
| | - Alister W Dodds
- MRC Immunochemistry Unit, Department of Biochemistry, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK.
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24
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Magnadóttir B, Kraev I, Guðmundsdóttir S, Dodds AW, Lange S. Extracellular vesicles from cod (Gadus morhua L.) mucus contain innate immune factors and deiminated protein cargo. DEVELOPMENTAL AND COMPARATIVE IMMUNOLOGY 2019; 99:103397. [PMID: 31108150 DOI: 10.1016/j.dci.2019.103397] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2019] [Revised: 05/16/2019] [Accepted: 05/16/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Extracellular vesicles are released from cells and participate in cell communication via transfer of protein and genetic cargo derived from the parent cells. EVs play roles in normal physiology and immunity and are also linked to various pathological processes. Peptidylarginine deiminases (PADs) are phylogenetically conserved enzymes with physiological and pathophysiological roles. PADs cause post-translational protein deimination, resulting in structural and, in some cases, functional changes in target proteins and are also linked to EV biogenesis. This study describes for the first time EVs isolated from cod mucosa. Mucosal EVs were characterised by electron microscopy, nanoparticle tracking analysis and EV-specific surface markers. Cod mucosal EVs were found to carry PAD, complement component C3 and C-reactive proteins. C3 was found to be deiminated in both whole mucus and mucosal EVs, with some differences, and further 6 deiminated immune and cytoskeletal proteins were identified in EVs by LC-MS/MS analysis. As mucosal surfaces of teleost fish reflect human mucosal surfaces, these findings may provide useful insights into roles of EVs in mucosal immunity throughout phylogeny.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bergljót Magnadóttir
- Institute for Experimental Pathology, University of Iceland, Keldur V. Vesturlandsveg, 112 Reykjavik, Iceland.
| | - Igor Kraev
- School of Life, Health and Chemical Sciences, The Open University, Walton Hall, MK7 6AA, UK.
| | - Sigríður Guðmundsdóttir
- Institute for Experimental Pathology, University of Iceland, Keldur V. Vesturlandsveg, 112 Reykjavik, Iceland.
| | - Alister W Dodds
- MRC Immunochemistry Unit, Department of Biochemistry, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK.
| | - Sigrun Lange
- Tissue Architecture and Regeneration Research Group, Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Westminster, London, W1W 6UW, UK.
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25
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Criscitiello MF, Kraev I, Lange S. Deiminated proteins in extracellular vesicles and plasma of nurse shark (Ginglymostoma cirratum) - Novel insights into shark immunity. FISH & SHELLFISH IMMUNOLOGY 2019; 92:249-255. [PMID: 31200072 DOI: 10.1016/j.fsi.2019.06.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2019] [Revised: 06/04/2019] [Accepted: 06/09/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Peptidylarginine deiminases (PADs) are phylogenetically conserved calcium-dependent enzymes which post-translationally convert arginine into citrulline in target proteins in an irreversible manner, causing functional and structural changes in target proteins. Protein deimination causes generation of neo-epitopes, affects gene regulation and also allows for protein moonlighting. Extracellular vesicles are found in most body fluids and participate in cellular communication via transfer of cargo proteins and genetic material. In this study, post-translationally deiminated proteins and extracellular vesicles (EVs) are described for the first time in shark plasma. We report a poly-dispersed population of shark plasma EVs, positive for phylogenetically conserved EV-specific markers and characterised by TEM. In plasma, 6 deiminated proteins, including complement and immunoglobulin, were identified, whereof 3 proteins were found to be exported in plasma-derived EVs. A PAD homologue was identified in shark plasma by Western blotting and detected an expected 70 kDa size. Deiminated histone H3, a marker of neutrophil extracellular trap formation, was also detected in nurse shark plasma. This is the first report of deiminated proteins in plasma and EVs, highlighting a hitherto unrecognized post-translational modification in key immune proteins of innate and adaptive immunity in shark.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael F Criscitiello
- Comparative Immunogenetics Laboratory, Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, 77843, USA; Department of Microbial Pathogenesis and Immunology, College of Medicine, Texas A&M Health Science Center, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, 77843, USA.
| | - Igor Kraev
- School of Life, Health and Chemical Sciences, The Open University, Walton Hall, MK7 6AA, UK.
| | - Sigrun Lange
- Tissue Architecture and Regeneration Research Group, School of Life Sciences, University of Westminster, London, W1W 6UW, UK.
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26
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Zhou H, Hara H, Cooper DK. The complex functioning of the complement system in xenotransplantation. Xenotransplantation 2019; 26:e12517. [PMID: 31033064 PMCID: PMC6717021 DOI: 10.1111/xen.12517] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2018] [Revised: 03/15/2019] [Accepted: 03/22/2019] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
The role of complement in xenotransplantation is well-known and is a topic that has been reviewed previously. However, our understanding of the immense complexity of its interaction with other constituents of the innate immune response and of the coagulation, adaptive immune, and inflammatory responses to a xenograft is steadily increasing. In addition, the complement system plays a function in metabolism and homeostasis. New reviews at intervals are therefore clearly warranted. The pathways of complement activation, the function of the complement system, and the interaction between complement and coagulation, inflammation, and the adaptive immune system in relation to xenotransplantation are reviewed. Through several different mechanisms, complement activation is a major factor in contributing to xenograft failure. In the organ-source pig, the detrimental influence of the complement system is seen during organ harvest and preservation, for example, in ischemia-reperfusion injury. In the recipient, the effect of complement can be seen through its interaction with the immune, coagulation, and inflammatory responses. Genetic-engineering and other therapeutic methods by which the xenograft can be protected from the effects of complement activation are discussed. The review provides an updated source of reference to this increasingly complex subject.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hongmin Zhou
- Department of Cardiothoracic Surgery, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
- Xenotransplantation Program, Department of Surgery, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, USA
| | - Hidetaka Hara
- Xenotransplantation Program, Department of Surgery, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, USA
| | - David K.C. Cooper
- Xenotransplantation Program, Department of Surgery, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, USA
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Brennan FH, Jogia T, Gillespie ER, Blomster LV, Li XX, Nowlan B, Williams GM, Jacobson E, Osborne GW, Meunier FA, Taylor SM, Campbell KE, MacDonald KP, Levesque JP, Woodruff TM, Ruitenberg MJ. Complement receptor C3aR1 controls neutrophil mobilization following spinal cord injury through physiological antagonism of CXCR2. JCI Insight 2019; 4:98254. [PMID: 31045582 DOI: 10.1172/jci.insight.98254] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2018] [Accepted: 03/21/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Traumatic spinal cord injury (SCI) triggers an acute-phase response that leads to systemic inflammation and rapid mobilization of bone marrow (BM) neutrophils into the blood. These mobilized neutrophils then accumulate in visceral organs and the injured spinal cord where they cause inflammatory tissue damage. The receptor for complement activation product 3a, C3aR1, has been implicated in negatively regulating the BM neutrophil response to tissue injury. However, the mechanism via which C3aR1 controls BM neutrophil mobilization, and also its influence over SCI outcomes, are unknown. Here, we show that the C3a/C3aR1 axis exerts neuroprotection in SCI by acting as a physiological antagonist against neutrophil chemotactic signals. We show that C3aR1 engages phosphatase and tensin homolog (PTEN), a negative regulator of the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K)/AKT pathway, to restrain C-X-C chemokine receptor type 2-driven BM neutrophil mobilization following trauma. These findings are of direct clinical significance as lower circulating neutrophil numbers at presentation were identified as a marker for improved recovery in human SCI. Our work thus identifies C3aR1 and its downstream intermediary, PTEN, as therapeutic targets to broadly inhibit neutrophil mobilization/recruitment following tissue injury and reduce inflammatory pathology.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Trisha Jogia
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine
| | | | | | - Xaria X Li
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine
| | - Bianca Nowlan
- Blood and Bone Diseases Program, Mater Research Institute
| | | | | | - Geoff W Osborne
- Clem Jones Centre for Ageing Dementia Research, Queensland Brain Institute, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Frederic A Meunier
- Clem Jones Centre for Ageing Dementia Research, Queensland Brain Institute, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia
| | | | - Kate E Campbell
- Orthopaedic Department, Princess Alexandra Hospital, Brisbane, Australia.,Princess Alexandra Hospital - Southside Clinical School, Faculty of Medicine, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Kelli Pa MacDonald
- Antigen Presentation and Immunoregulation Laboratory, QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Brisbane Australia
| | | | | | - Marc J Ruitenberg
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine.,Trauma, Critical Care and Recovery, Brisbane Diamantina Health Partners, Brisbane, Australia
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28
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Magnadottir B, Gudmundsdottir S, Lange S. A novel ladder-like lectin relates to sites of mucosal immunity in Atlantic halibut (Hippoglossus hippoglossus L.). FISH & SHELLFISH IMMUNOLOGY 2019; 87:9-12. [PMID: 30584906 DOI: 10.1016/j.fsi.2018.12.034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2018] [Revised: 12/12/2018] [Accepted: 12/19/2018] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
A novel 27 kDa ladder-lectin-like protein, showing a multimeric structure under non-reducing conditions, was isolated from halibut serum by binding to N-acetyl glucosamine. Mass-spectrometry analysis did not show significant homology with known proteins. Specific antibodies were produced and used in immunohistochemistry on tissue sections of early halibut ontogeny from 119 until 1050 °d post hatching. A strong positive response was detected in the mucosal cells of the skin, gills and gut, indicating a role in the mucosal immune defence at these sites. Further immunopositivity was detected in liver, myeloma of kidney and the brain at different developmental stages but predominant expression was found in mucosal surfaces at later stages of development tested (1050 °d). It is still uncertain whether this ladder-like lectin forms part of the complement pathway, as a lectin or ficolin, or if it belongs to galectins. A strong detection in mucosal surfaces on skin, gills and gut, show similar patterns of expression as both mucosal lectins and galectins in other fish. Detection in neuronal tissue may indicate putative roles in tissue remodelling of brain and in ongoing neurogenesis in the fish eye.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bergljot Magnadottir
- Institute for Experimental Pathology, University of Iceland, Keldur v. Vesturlandsveg, 112, Reykjavik, Iceland.
| | - Sigridur Gudmundsdottir
- Institute for Experimental Pathology, University of Iceland, Keldur v. Vesturlandsveg, 112, Reykjavik, Iceland.
| | - Sigrun Lange
- Tissue Architecture and Regeneration Research Group, School of Life Sciences, University of Westminster, London, W1W 6UW, UK.
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29
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Fan Z, Qin J, Wang D, Geng S. Complement C3a promotes proliferation, migration and stemness in cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma. J Cell Mol Med 2019; 23:3097-3107. [PMID: 30825266 PMCID: PMC6484302 DOI: 10.1111/jcmm.13959] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2018] [Accepted: 09/17/2018] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Complement C3 has been shown to be highly expressed in cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma (cSCC) tumour tissues and is correlated with tumour cell growth. This study aimed to investigate the mechanism of C3 in cSCC malignant transformation. Methods C3 expression was analysed in cSCC cell lines A431, Tca8113, SCC13, HSC‐5 and HSC‐1 and in immortalized HaCaT keratinocytes. Proliferation and migration of cSCC were determined after C3a exposure. Expression of cyclin D1, cyclin E, vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), pro‐matrix metalloproteinase 1 (pro‐MMP1), pro‐matrix metalloproteinase 2 (pro‐MMP2), stemness factors, GSK‐3β, and β‐catenin were analyzed. Tumour growth was examined in a murine xenograft model. Results C3 expression was much more highly expressed in all cSCC cell lines than in HaCaT cells. C3a treatment significantly promoted cSCC cell proliferation and migration and upregulated cyclin D1, cyclin E, VEGF, pro‐MMP1 and pro‐MMP2 expression, which were impeded by the C3aR antagonist. Moreover, the expression of stemness factors Sox‐2, Nanog, Oct‐4, c‐Myc and CD‐44 was stimulated by C3a and slowed by C3aR disruption. Knockdown of Sox‐2 by siRNA transfection suppressed cell proliferation and migration, constrained VEGF secretion and inhibited pro‐MMP1 and pro‐MMP2 expression. C3a also activated the Wnt and β‐catenin pathway in cSCC cells. Disruption of C3aR expression dampened tumour growth and the expression of Wnt‐1, β‐catenin and Sox‐2 in the xenograft model. Conclusions C3a enhanced cell proliferation, migration and stemness in cSCC, and this activity was correlated with activation of the Wnt and β‐catenin pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhuo Fan
- Department of Dermatology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, China.,Department of Dermatology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Medical University, Xi'an, China
| | - Jingjing Qin
- Department of Dermatology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Medical University, Xi'an, China
| | - Dandan Wang
- Department of Dermatology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Medical University, Xi'an, China
| | - Songmei Geng
- Department of Dermatology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, China
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30
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Magnadóttir B, Bragason BT, Bricknell IR, Bowden T, Nicholas AP, Hristova M, Guðmundsdóttir S, Dodds AW, Lange S. Peptidylarginine deiminase and deiminated proteins are detected throughout early halibut ontogeny - Complement components C3 and C4 are post-translationally deiminated in halibut (Hippoglossus hippoglossus L.). DEVELOPMENTAL AND COMPARATIVE IMMUNOLOGY 2019; 92:1-19. [PMID: 30395876 DOI: 10.1016/j.dci.2018.10.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2018] [Revised: 10/30/2018] [Accepted: 10/30/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Post-translational protein deimination is mediated by peptidylarginine deiminases (PADs), which are calcium dependent enzymes conserved throughout phylogeny with physiological and pathophysiological roles. Protein deimination occurs via the conversion of protein arginine into citrulline, leading to structural and functional changes in target proteins. In a continuous series of early halibut development from 37 to 1050° d, PAD, total deiminated proteins and deiminated histone H3 showed variation in temporal and spatial detection in various organs including yolksac, muscle, skin, liver, brain, eye, spinal cord, chondrocytes, heart, intestines, kidney and pancreas throughout early ontogeny. For the first time in any species, deimination of complement components C3 and C4 is shown in halibut serum, indicating a novel mechanism of complement regulation in immune responses and homeostasis. Proteomic analysis of deiminated target proteins in halibut serum further identified complement components C5, C7, C8 C9 and C1 inhibitor, as well as various other immunogenic, metabolic, cytoskeletal and nuclear proteins. Post-translational deimination may facilitate protein moonlighting, an evolutionary conserved phenomenon, allowing one polypeptide chain to carry out various functions to meet functional requirements for diverse roles in immune defences and tissue remodelling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bergljót Magnadóttir
- Institute for Experimental Pathology, University of Iceland, Keldur v. Vesturlandsveg, 112 Reykjavik, Iceland.
| | - Birkir Thor Bragason
- Institute for Experimental Pathology, University of Iceland, Keldur v. Vesturlandsveg, 112 Reykjavik, Iceland.
| | - Ian R Bricknell
- Aquaculture Research Institute School of Marine Sciences, University of Maine, Orono, ME, USA.
| | - Timothy Bowden
- Aquaculture Research Institute School of Food & Agriculture, University of Maine, University of Maine, Orono, ME, USA.
| | - Anthony P Nicholas
- Department of Neurology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, USA.
| | - Mariya Hristova
- Perinatal Brain Protection and Repair Group, EGA Institute for Women's Health, University College London, London, WC1E 6HX, UK.
| | - Sigríður Guðmundsdóttir
- Institute for Experimental Pathology, University of Iceland, Keldur v. Vesturlandsveg, 112 Reykjavik, Iceland.
| | - Alister W Dodds
- MRC Immunochemistry Unit, Department of Biochemistry, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK.
| | - Sigrun Lange
- Tissue Architecture and Regeneration Research Group, School of Life Sciences, University of Westminster, London, W1W 6UW, UK.
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31
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Kramer J, Chirco KR, Lamba DA. Immunological Considerations for Retinal Stem Cell Therapy. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2019; 1186:99-119. [PMID: 31654387 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-030-28471-8_4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
There is an increasing effort toward generating replacement cells for neuronal application due to the nonregenerative nature of these tissues. While much progress has been made toward developing methodologies to generate these cells, there have been limited improvements in functional restoration. Some of these are linked to the degenerative and often nonreceptive microenvironment that the new cells need to integrate into. In this chapter, we will focus on the status and role of the immune microenvironment of the retina during homeostasis and disease states. We will review changes in both innate and adaptive immunity as well as the role of immune rejection in stem cell replacement therapies. The chapter will end with a discussion of immune-modulatory strategies that have helped to ameliorate these effects and could potentially improve functional outcome for cell replacement therapies for the eye.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joshua Kramer
- Buck Institute for Research on Aging, Novato, CA, USA
| | | | - Deepak A Lamba
- Department of Ophthalmology, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA. .,Buck Institute for Research on Aging, Novato, CA, USA.
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32
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Litvinchuk A, Wan YW, Swartzlander DB, Chen F, Cole A, Propson NE, Wang Q, Zhang B, Liu Z, Zheng H. Complement C3aR Inactivation Attenuates Tau Pathology and Reverses an Immune Network Deregulated in Tauopathy Models and Alzheimer's Disease. Neuron 2018; 100:1337-1353.e5. [PMID: 30415998 PMCID: PMC6309202 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuron.2018.10.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 287] [Impact Index Per Article: 47.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2018] [Revised: 09/14/2018] [Accepted: 10/18/2018] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Strong evidence implicates the complement pathway as an important contributor to amyloid pathology in Alzheimer's disease (AD); however, the role of complement in tau modulation remains unclear. Here we show that the expression of C3 and C3a receptor (C3aR1) are positively correlated with cognitive decline and Braak staging in human AD brains. Deletion of C3ar1 in PS19 mice results in the rescue of tau pathology and attenuation of neuroinflammation, synaptic deficits, and neurodegeneration. Through RNA sequencing and cell-type-specific transcriptomic analysis, we identify a C3aR-dependent transcription factor network that regulates a reactive glial switch whose inactivation ameliorates disease-associated microglia and neurotoxic astrocyte signatures. Strikingly, this C3aR network includes multiple genes linked to late-onset AD. Mechanistically, we identify STAT3 as a direct target of C3-C3aR signaling that functionally mediates tau pathogenesis. All together our findings demonstrate a crucial role for activation of the C3-C3aR network in mediating neuroinflammation and tau pathology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandra Litvinchuk
- Huffington Center on Aging, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA; Integrative Molecular and Biomedical Sciences Program, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Ying-Wooi Wan
- Department of Molecular and Human Genetics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Dan B Swartzlander
- Huffington Center on Aging, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Fading Chen
- Huffington Center on Aging, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Allysa Cole
- Huffington Center on Aging, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Nicholas E Propson
- Huffington Center on Aging, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA; Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Qian Wang
- Department of Genetics and Genomics Science, Mount Sinai Center for Transformative Disease Modeling, Icahn Institute of Genomics and Multiscale Biology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY10029, USA
| | - Bin Zhang
- Department of Genetics and Genomics Science, Mount Sinai Center for Transformative Disease Modeling, Icahn Institute of Genomics and Multiscale Biology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY10029, USA
| | - Zhandong Liu
- Department of Pediatrics-Neurology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Hui Zheng
- Huffington Center on Aging, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA; Integrative Molecular and Biomedical Sciences Program, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA; Department of Molecular and Human Genetics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA; Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA.
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33
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Grigoryan EN. Molecular Factors of the Maintenance and Activation of the Juvenile Phenotype of Cellular Sources for Eye Tissue Regeneration. BIOCHEMISTRY (MOSCOW) 2018; 83:1318-1331. [DOI: 10.1134/s0006297918110032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
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34
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Bouwens van der Vlis TAM, Kros JM, Mustafa DAM, van Wijck RTA, Ackermans L, van Hagen PM, van der Spek PJ. The complement system in glioblastoma multiforme. Acta Neuropathol Commun 2018; 6:91. [PMID: 30208949 PMCID: PMC6134703 DOI: 10.1186/s40478-018-0591-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2018] [Accepted: 08/29/2018] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The human complement system is represents the main effector arm of innate immunity and its ambivalent function in cancer has been subject of ongoing dispute. Glioma stem-like cells (GSC) residing in specific niches within glioblastomas (GBM) are capable of self-renewal and tumor proliferation. Recent data are indicative of the influence of the complement system on the maintenance of these cells. It appears that the role of the complement system in glial tumorigenesis, particularly its influence on GSC niches and GSC maintenance, is significant and warrants further exploration for therapeutic interventions.
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Abstract
From its discovery in the late nineteenth century, as a 'complement' to the cellular immune response, the complement system has been widely affirmed as a powerful controller of innate and adaptive immune responses. In recent decades however, new roles for complement have been discovered, with multiple complement proteins now known to function in a broad array of non-immune systems. This includes during development, where complement exerts control over stem cell populations from fertilization and implantation throughout embryogenesis and beyond post-natal development. It is involved in processes as diverse as cell localisation, tissue morphogenesis, and the growth and refinement of the brain. Such physiological actions of complement have also been described in adult stem cell populations, with roles in proliferation, differentiation, survival, and regeneration. With such a broad range of complement functions now described, it is likely that current research only describes a fraction of the full reach of complement proteins. Here, we review how complement control of physiological cell processes has been harnessed in stem cell populations throughout both development and in adult physiology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Owen A Hawksworth
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, Queensland, Australia
| | - Liam G Coulthard
- School of Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, Queensland, Australia; Royal Brisbane and Women's Hospital, Herston, Queensland, Australia
| | - Susanna Mantovani
- Centre for Clinical Research, Faculty of Medicine, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, Queensland, Australia; Wesley Medical Research, Auchenflower, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Trent M Woodruff
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, Queensland, Australia; Wesley Medical Research, Auchenflower, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia.
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36
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Natarajan N, Abbas Y, Bryant DM, Gonzalez-Rosa JM, Sharpe M, Uygur A, Cocco-Delgado LH, Ho NN, Gerard NP, Gerard CJ, MacRae CA, Burns CE, Burns CG, Whited JL, Lee RT. Complement Receptor C5aR1 Plays an Evolutionarily Conserved Role in Successful Cardiac Regeneration. Circulation 2018; 137:2152-2165. [PMID: 29348261 PMCID: PMC5953786 DOI: 10.1161/circulationaha.117.030801] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2017] [Accepted: 12/19/2017] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Defining conserved molecular pathways in animal models of successful cardiac regeneration could yield insight into why adult mammals have inadequate cardiac regeneration after injury. Insight into the transcriptomic landscape of early cardiac regeneration from model organisms will shed light on evolutionarily conserved pathways in successful cardiac regeneration. METHODS Here we describe a cross-species transcriptomic screen in 3 model organisms for cardiac regeneration: axolotl, neonatal mice, and zebrafish. Apical resection to remove ≈10% to 20% of ventricular mass was carried out in these model organisms. RNA-sequencing analysis was performed on the hearts harvested at 3 time points: 12, 24, and 48 hours after resection. Sham surgery was used as internal control. RESULTS Genes associated with inflammatory processes were found to be upregulated in a conserved manner. Complement receptors (activated by complement components, part of the innate immune system) were found to be highly upregulated in all 3 species. This approach revealed induction of gene expression for complement 5a receptor 1 in the regenerating hearts of zebrafish, axolotls, and mice. Inhibition of complement 5a receptor 1 significantly attenuated the cardiomyocyte proliferative response to heart injury in all 3 species. Furthermore, after left ventricular apical resection, the cardiomyocyte proliferative response was diminished in mice with genetic deletion of complement 5a receptor 1. CONCLUSIONS These data reveal that activation of complement 5a receptor 1 mediates an evolutionarily conserved response that promotes cardiomyocyte proliferation after cardiac injury and identify complement pathway activation as a common pathway of successful heart regeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Niranjana Natarajan
- Department of Stem Cell and Regenerative Biology, Harvard Stem Cell Institute, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA (N.N., Y.A., D.M.B., A.U., L.H.C.-D., N.N.H., J.L.W., R.T.L.)
| | - Yamen Abbas
- Department of Stem Cell and Regenerative Biology, Harvard Stem Cell Institute, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA (N.N., Y.A., D.M.B., A.U., L.H.C.-D., N.N.H., J.L.W., R.T.L.)
| | - Donald M Bryant
- Department of Stem Cell and Regenerative Biology, Harvard Stem Cell Institute, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA (N.N., Y.A., D.M.B., A.U., L.H.C.-D., N.N.H., J.L.W., R.T.L.).,Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Brigham & Women's Hospital, Cambridge, MA (D.M.B., J.L.W.).,Allen Discovery Center, Tufts University, Medford, MA (D.M.B., J.L.W.)
| | - Juan Manuel Gonzalez-Rosa
- Harvard Medical School and Cardiovascular Research Center, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA (J.M.G.-R., M.S., C.E.B., C.G.B.)
| | - Michka Sharpe
- Harvard Medical School and Cardiovascular Research Center, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA (J.M.G.-R., M.S., C.E.B., C.G.B.)
| | - Aysu Uygur
- Department of Stem Cell and Regenerative Biology, Harvard Stem Cell Institute, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA (N.N., Y.A., D.M.B., A.U., L.H.C.-D., N.N.H., J.L.W., R.T.L.)
| | - Lucas H Cocco-Delgado
- Department of Stem Cell and Regenerative Biology, Harvard Stem Cell Institute, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA (N.N., Y.A., D.M.B., A.U., L.H.C.-D., N.N.H., J.L.W., R.T.L.)
| | - Nhi Ngoc Ho
- Department of Stem Cell and Regenerative Biology, Harvard Stem Cell Institute, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA (N.N., Y.A., D.M.B., A.U., L.H.C.-D., N.N.H., J.L.W., R.T.L.)
| | - Norma P Gerard
- Division of Respiratory Diseases, Boston Children's Hospital, MA (C.J.G., N.P.G.).,Department of Medicine, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA (C.J.G., N.P.G.).,Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Boston, MA (C.J.G., N.P.G.)
| | - Craig J Gerard
- Division of Respiratory Diseases, Boston Children's Hospital, MA (C.J.G., N.P.G.).,Department of Medicine, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA (C.J.G., N.P.G.).,Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Boston, MA (C.J.G., N.P.G.)
| | - Calum A MacRae
- Department of Medicine, Cardiovascular Division, Brigham & Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA (C.A.M., R.T.L.)
| | - Caroline E Burns
- Harvard Medical School and Cardiovascular Research Center, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA (J.M.G.-R., M.S., C.E.B., C.G.B.)
| | - C Geoffrey Burns
- Harvard Medical School and Cardiovascular Research Center, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA (J.M.G.-R., M.S., C.E.B., C.G.B.)
| | - Jessica L Whited
- Department of Stem Cell and Regenerative Biology, Harvard Stem Cell Institute, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA (N.N., Y.A., D.M.B., A.U., L.H.C.-D., N.N.H., J.L.W., R.T.L.).,Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Brigham & Women's Hospital, Cambridge, MA (D.M.B., J.L.W.).,Allen Discovery Center, Tufts University, Medford, MA (D.M.B., J.L.W.)
| | - Richard T Lee
- Department of Stem Cell and Regenerative Biology, Harvard Stem Cell Institute, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA (N.N., Y.A., D.M.B., A.U., L.H.C.-D., N.N.H., J.L.W., R.T.L.) .,Department of Medicine, Cardiovascular Division, Brigham & Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA (C.A.M., R.T.L.)
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Reis ES, Mastellos DC, Ricklin D, Mantovani A, Lambris JD. Complement in cancer: untangling an intricate relationship. Nat Rev Immunol 2018; 18:5-18. [PMID: 28920587 PMCID: PMC5816344 DOI: 10.1038/nri.2017.97] [Citation(s) in RCA: 257] [Impact Index Per Article: 42.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
In tumour immunology, complement has traditionally been considered as an adjunctive component that enhances the cytolytic effects of antibody-based immunotherapies, such as rituximab. Remarkably, research in the past decade has uncovered novel molecular mechanisms linking imbalanced complement activation in the tumour microenvironment with inflammation and suppression of antitumour immune responses. These findings have prompted new interest in manipulating the complement system for cancer therapy. This Review summarizes our current understanding of complement-mediated effector functions in the tumour microenvironment, focusing on how complement activation can act as a negative or positive regulator of tumorigenesis. It also offers insight into clinical aspects, including the feasibility of using complement biomarkers for cancer diagnosis and the use of complement inhibitors during cancer treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edimara S Reis
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania 19104, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | | | - Daniel Ricklin
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Basel, Basel 4056, Switzerland
| | - Alberto Mantovani
- Humanitas Clinical and Research Center and Humanitas University, Rozzano-Milan 20089, Italy
| | - John D Lambris
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania 19104, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
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38
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Echeverri-Ruiz N, Haynes T, Landers J, Woods J, Gemma MJ, Hughes M, Del Rio-Tsonis K. A biochemical basis for induction of retina regeneration by antioxidants. Dev Biol 2017; 433:394-403. [PMID: 29291983 PMCID: PMC5753421 DOI: 10.1016/j.ydbio.2017.08.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2017] [Revised: 08/04/2017] [Accepted: 08/09/2017] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
The use of antioxidants in tissue regeneration has been studied, but their mechanism of action is not well understood. Here, we analyze the role of the antioxidant N-acetylcysteine (NAC) in retina regeneration. Embryonic chicks are able to regenerate their retina after its complete removal from retinal stem/progenitor cells present in the ciliary margin (CM) of the eye only if a source of exogenous factors, such as FGF2, is present. This study shows that NAC modifies the redox status of the CM, initiates self-renewal of the stem/progenitor cells, and induces regeneration in the absence of FGF2. NAC works as an antioxidant by scavenging free radicals either independently or through the synthesis of glutathione (GSH), and/or by reducing oxidized proteins through a thiol disulfide exchange activity. We dissected the mechanism used by NAC to induce regeneration through the use of inhibitors of GSH synthesis and the use of other antioxidants with different biochemical structures and modes of action, and found that NAC induces regeneration through its thiol disulfide exchange activity. Thus, our results provide, for the first time, a biochemical basis for induction of retina regeneration. Furthermore, NAC induction was independent of FGF receptor signaling, but dependent on the MAPK (pErk1/2) pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nancy Echeverri-Ruiz
- Department of Biology and Center for Visual Sciences at Miami University (CVSMU), Oxford, OH 45056, USA
| | - Tracy Haynes
- Department of Biology and Center for Visual Sciences at Miami University (CVSMU), Oxford, OH 45056, USA
| | - Joseph Landers
- Department of Biology and Center for Visual Sciences at Miami University (CVSMU), Oxford, OH 45056, USA
| | - Justin Woods
- Department of Biology and Center for Visual Sciences at Miami University (CVSMU), Oxford, OH 45056, USA
| | - Michael J Gemma
- Department of Biology and Center for Visual Sciences at Miami University (CVSMU), Oxford, OH 45056, USA
| | - Michael Hughes
- Department of Statistics and Statistical Consulting Center, Miami University, Oxford, OH 45056, USA
| | - Katia Del Rio-Tsonis
- Department of Biology and Center for Visual Sciences at Miami University (CVSMU), Oxford, OH 45056, USA.
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Matsumoto N, Satyam A, Geha M, Lapchak PH, Dalle Lucca JJ, Tsokos MG, Tsokos GC. C3a Enhances the Formation of Intestinal Organoids through C3aR1. Front Immunol 2017; 8:1046. [PMID: 28928734 PMCID: PMC5591398 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2017.01046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2017] [Accepted: 08/11/2017] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
C3a is important in the regulation of the immune response as well as in the development of organ inflammation and injury. Furthermore, C3a contributes to liver regeneration but its role in intestinal stem cell function has not been studied. We hypothesized that C3a is important for intestinal repair and regeneration. Intestinal organoid formation, a measure of stem cell capacity, was significantly limited in C3-deficient and C3a receptor (C3aR) 1-deficient mice while C3a promoted the growth of organoids from normal mice by supporting Wnt-signaling but not from C3aR1-deficient mice. Similarly, the presence of C3a in media enhanced the expression of the intestinal stem cell marker leucine-rich repeat G-protein-coupled receptor 5 (Lgr5) and of the cell proliferation marker Ki67 in organoids formed from C3-deficient but not from C3aR1-deficient mice. Using Lgr5.egfp mice we showed significant expression of C3 in Lgr5+ intestinal stem cells whereas C3aR1 was expressed on the surface of various intestinal cells. C3 and C3aR1 expression was induced in intestinal crypts in response to ischemia/reperfusion injury. Finally, C3aR1-deficient mice displayed ischemia/reperfusion injury comparable to control mice. These data suggest that C3a through interaction with C3aR1 enhances stem cell expansion and organoid formation and as such may have a role in intestinal regeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Naoya Matsumoto
- Department of Medicine, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Abhigyan Satyam
- Department of Medicine, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Mayya Geha
- Department of Medicine, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States.,Department of Pediatrics, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Peter H Lapchak
- Department of Medicine, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Jurandir J Dalle Lucca
- Translational Medical Division, Department of Chemical and Biological Technologies, Defense Threat Reduction Agency, Fort Belvoir, VA, United States
| | - Maria G Tsokos
- Department of Medicine, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States
| | - George C Tsokos
- Department of Medicine, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States
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Grajales-Esquivel E, Luz-Madrigal A, Bierly J, Haynes T, Reis ES, Han Z, Gutierrez C, McKinney Z, Tzekou A, Lambris JD, Tsonis PA, Del Rio-Tsonis K. Complement component C3aR constitutes a novel regulator for chick eye morphogenesis. Dev Biol 2017; 428:88-100. [PMID: 28576690 PMCID: PMC5726978 DOI: 10.1016/j.ydbio.2017.05.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2015] [Revised: 08/05/2016] [Accepted: 05/17/2017] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Complement components have been implicated in a wide variety of functions including neurogenesis, proliferation, cell migration, differentiation, cancer, and more recently early development and regeneration. Following our initial observations indicating that C3a/C3aR signaling induces chick retina regeneration, we analyzed its role in chick eye morphogenesis. During eye development, the optic vesicle (OV) invaginates to generate a bilayer optic cup (OC) that gives rise to the retinal pigmented epithelium (RPE) and neural retina. We show by immunofluorescence staining that C3 and the receptor for C3a (the cleaved and active form of C3), C3aR, are present in chick embryos during eye morphogenesis in the OV and OC. Interestingly, C3aR is mainly localized in the nuclear compartment at the OC stage. Loss of function studies at the OV stage using morpholinos or a blocking antibody targeting the C3aR (anti-C3aR Ab), causes eye defects such as microphthalmia and defects in the ventral portion of the eye that result in coloboma. Such defects were not observed when C3aR was disrupted at the OC stage. Histological analysis demonstrated that microphthalmic eyes were unable to generate a normal optic stalk or a closed OC. The dorsal/ventral patterning defects were accompanied by an expansion of the ventral markers Pax2, cVax and retinoic acid synthesizing enzyme raldh-3 (aldh1a3) domains, an absence of the dorsal expression of Tbx5 and raldh-1 (aldh1a1) and a re-specification of the ventral RPE to neuroepithelium. In addition, the eyes showed overall decreased expression of Gli1 and a change in distribution of nuclear β-catenin, suggesting that Shh and Wnt pathways have been affected. Finally, we observed prominent cell death along with a decrease in proliferating cells, indicating that both processes contribute to the microphthalmic phenotype. Together our results show that C3aR is necessary for the proper morphogenesis of the OC. This is the first report implicating C3aR in eye development, revealing an unsuspected hitherto regulator for proper chick eye morphogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erika Grajales-Esquivel
- Department of Biology, Miami University and Center for Visual Sciences at Miami University (CVSMU), Oxford, OH 45056, USA.
| | - Agustin Luz-Madrigal
- Department of Biology, Miami University and Center for Visual Sciences at Miami University (CVSMU), Oxford, OH 45056, USA; Department of Biology, University of Dayton and Center for Tissue Regeneration and Engineering at the University of Dayton (TREND), Dayton, OH 45469, USA.
| | - Jeffrey Bierly
- Department of Biology, Miami University and Center for Visual Sciences at Miami University (CVSMU), Oxford, OH 45056, USA.
| | - Tracy Haynes
- Department of Biology, Miami University and Center for Visual Sciences at Miami University (CVSMU), Oxford, OH 45056, USA.
| | - Edimara S Reis
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA.
| | - Zeyu Han
- Department of Biology, Miami University and Center for Visual Sciences at Miami University (CVSMU), Oxford, OH 45056, USA.
| | - Christian Gutierrez
- Department of Biology, Miami University and Center for Visual Sciences at Miami University (CVSMU), Oxford, OH 45056, USA.
| | - Zachary McKinney
- Department of Biology, Miami University and Center for Visual Sciences at Miami University (CVSMU), Oxford, OH 45056, USA.
| | - Apostolia Tzekou
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA.
| | - John D Lambris
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA.
| | - Panagiotis A Tsonis
- Department of Biology, University of Dayton and Center for Tissue Regeneration and Engineering at the University of Dayton (TREND), Dayton, OH 45469, USA.
| | - Katia Del Rio-Tsonis
- Department of Biology, Miami University and Center for Visual Sciences at Miami University (CVSMU), Oxford, OH 45056, USA.
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Busch C, Annamalai B, Abdusalamova K, Reichhart N, Huber C, Lin Y, Jo EAH, Zipfel PF, Skerka C, Wildner G, Diedrichs-Möhring M, Rohrer B, Strauß O. Anaphylatoxins Activate Ca 2+, Akt/PI3-Kinase, and FOXO1/FoxP3 in the Retinal Pigment Epithelium. Front Immunol 2017; 8:703. [PMID: 28663750 PMCID: PMC5472091 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2017.00703] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2017] [Accepted: 05/31/2017] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE The retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) is a main target for complement activation in age-related macular degeneration (AMD). The anaphylatoxins C3a and C5a have been thought to mostly play a role as chemoattractants for macrophages and immune cells; here, we explore whether they trigger RPE alterations. Specifically, we investigated the RPE as a potential immunoregulatory gate, allowing for active changes in the RPE microenvironment in response to complement. DESIGN In vitro and in vivo analysis of signaling pathways. METHODS Individual activities of and interaction between the two anaphylatoxin receptors were tested in cultured RPE cells by fluorescence microscopy, western blot, and immunohistochemistry. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES Intracellular free calcium, protein phosphorylation, immunostaining of tissues/cells, and multiplex secretion assay. RESULTS Similar to immune cells, anaphylatoxin exposure resulted in increases in free cytosolic Ca2+, PI3-kinase/Akt activation, FoxP3 and FOXO1 phosphorylation, and cytokine/chemokine secretion. Differential responses were elicited depending on whether C3a and C5a were co-administered or applied consecutively, and response amplitudes in co-administration experiments ranged from additive to driven by C5a (C3a + C5a = C5a) or being smaller than those elicited by C3a alone (C3a + C5a < C3a). CONCLUSION We suggest that this combination of integrative signaling between C3aR and C5aR helps the RPE to precisely adopt its immune regulatory function. These data further contribute to our understanding of AMD pathophysiology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Catharina Busch
- Department of Ophthalmology, Charité University Medicine Berlin, Berlin, Germany
- Berlin Institute of Health, Berlin, Germany
| | | | - Khava Abdusalamova
- Department of Ophthalmology, Charité University Medicine Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Nadine Reichhart
- Department of Ophthalmology, Charité University Medicine Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Christian Huber
- Department of Ophthalmology, Charité University Medicine Berlin, Berlin, Germany
- Department of Ophthalmology, University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Yuchen Lin
- Department of Infection Biology, Leibniz Institute for Natural Product Research and Infection Biology, Jena, Germany
| | - Emeraldo A. H. Jo
- Department of Infection Biology, Leibniz Institute for Natural Product Research and Infection Biology, Jena, Germany
| | - Peter F. Zipfel
- Department of Infection Biology, Leibniz Institute for Natural Product Research and Infection Biology, Jena, Germany
| | - Christine Skerka
- Department of Infection Biology, Leibniz Institute for Natural Product Research and Infection Biology, Jena, Germany
| | - Gerhild Wildner
- Department of Ophthalmology, Section of Immunobiology, Clinic of the LMU Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Maria Diedrichs-Möhring
- Department of Ophthalmology, Section of Immunobiology, Clinic of the LMU Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Bärbel Rohrer
- Department of Ophthalmology, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC, United States
- Ralph H. Johnson VA Medical Center, Division of Research, Charleston, SC, United States
| | - Olaf Strauß
- Department of Ophthalmology, Charité University Medicine Berlin, Berlin, Germany
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Sifuentes CJ, Kim JW, Swaroop A, Raymond PA. Rapid, Dynamic Activation of Müller Glial Stem Cell Responses in Zebrafish. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2017; 57:5148-5160. [PMID: 27699411 PMCID: PMC5054728 DOI: 10.1167/iovs.16-19973] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Purpose Zebrafish neurons regenerate from Müller glia following retinal lesions. Genes and signaling pathways important for retinal regeneration in zebrafish have been described, but our understanding of how Müller glial stem cell properties are regulated is incomplete. Mammalian Müller glia possess a latent neurogenic capacity that might be enhanced in regenerative therapies to treat degenerative retinal diseases. Methods To identify transcriptional changes associated with stem cell properties in zebrafish Müller glia, we performed a comparative transcriptome analysis from isolated cells at 8 and 16 hours following an acute photic lesion, prior to the asymmetric division that produces retinal progenitors. Results We report a rapid, dynamic response of zebrafish Müller glia, characterized by activation of pathways related to stress, nuclear factor–κB (NF-κB) signaling, cytokine signaling, immunity, prostaglandin metabolism, circadian rhythm, and pluripotency, and an initial repression of Wnt signaling. When we compared publicly available transcriptomes of isolated mouse Müller glia from two retinal degeneration models, we found that mouse Müller glia showed evidence of oxidative stress, variable responses associated with immune regulation, and repression of pathways associated with pluripotency, development, and proliferation. Conclusions Categories of biological processes/pathways activated following photoreceptor loss in regeneration-competent zebrafish Müller glia, which distinguished them from mouse Müller glia in retinal degeneration models, included cytokine signaling (notably NF-κB), prostaglandin E2 synthesis, expression of core clock genes, and pathways/metabolic states associated with pluripotency. These regulatory mechanisms are relatively unexplored as potential mediators of stem cell properties likely to be important in Müller glial cells for successful retinal regeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher J Sifuentes
- Department of Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, United States
| | - Jung-Woong Kim
- Department of Life Science, College of Natural Sciences, Chung-Ang University, Seoul, Korea 3Neurobiology-Neurodegeneration and Repair Laboratory, National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, United States
| | - Anand Swaroop
- Neurobiology-Neurodegeneration and Repair Laboratory, National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, United States
| | - Pamela A Raymond
- Department of Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, United States
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Schnabolk G, Beon MK, Tomlinson S, Rohrer B. New Insights on Complement Inhibitor CD59 in Mouse Laser-Induced Choroidal Neovascularization: Mislocalization After Injury and Targeted Delivery for Protein Replacement. J Ocul Pharmacol Ther 2017; 33:400-411. [PMID: 28333572 DOI: 10.1089/jop.2016.0101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE The membrane attack complex (MAC) in choriocapillaris (CC) and retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) increase with age and disease (age-related macular degeneration). MAC assembly can be inhibited by CD59, a membrane-bound regulator. Here we further investigated the role of CD59 in murine choroidal neovascularization (CNV), a model involving both CC and RPE, and tested whether CR2-CD59, a soluble targeted form of CD59, provides protection. METHODS Laser-induced CNV was generated in wild type and CD59a-deficient mice (CD59-/-). CNV size was measured by optical coherence tomography, and CR2-CD59 was injected intraperitoneally. Endogenous CD59 localization and MAC deposition were identified by immunohistochemistry and quantified by confocal microscopy. Cell-type-specific responses to MAC were examined in retinal pigment epithelial cells (ARPE-19) and microvascular endothelial cells (HMEC-1). RESULTS CD59 levels were severely reduced and protein was mislocalized in the RPE surrounding the lesion. CNV lesion size and subretinal fluid accumulation were exacerbated in CD59-/- when compared with those in WT mice, and an increase in MAC deposition was noted. In contrast, CR2-CD59 significantly reduced both structural features of CNV severity. In vitro, MAC inhibition in ARPE-19 cells prevented barrier function loss and accelerated wound healing and cell adhesion, whereas in HMEC-1 cells, CR2-CD59 decelerated wound healing and cell adhesion. CONCLUSION These data further support the importance of CD59 in controlling ocular injury responses and indicate that pharmacological inhibition of the MAC with CR2-CD59 may be a viable therapeutic approach for reducing complement-mediated ocular pathology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gloriane Schnabolk
- 1 Division of Research, Ralph H. Johnson VA Medical Center , Charleston, South Carolina.,2 Department of Opthalmology, Medical University of South Carolina , Charleston, South Carolina
| | - Mee Keong Beon
- 2 Department of Opthalmology, Medical University of South Carolina , Charleston, South Carolina
| | - Stephen Tomlinson
- 1 Division of Research, Ralph H. Johnson VA Medical Center , Charleston, South Carolina.,3 Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Medical University of South Carolina , Charleston, South Carolina
| | - Bärbel Rohrer
- 1 Division of Research, Ralph H. Johnson VA Medical Center , Charleston, South Carolina.,2 Department of Opthalmology, Medical University of South Carolina , Charleston, South Carolina.,4 Department of Neurosciences Division of Research, Medical University of South Carolina , Charleston, South Carolina
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Mortensen SA, Skov LL, Kjaer-Sorensen K, Hansen AG, Hansen S, Dagnæs-Hansen F, Jensenius JC, Oxvig C, Thiel S, Degn SE. Endogenous Natural Complement Inhibitor Regulates Cardiac Development. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2017; 198:3118-3126. [PMID: 28258200 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1601958] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2016] [Accepted: 02/09/2017] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
Congenital heart defects are a major cause of perinatal mortality and morbidity, affecting >1% of all live births in the Western world, yet a large fraction of such defects have an unknown etiology. Recent studies demonstrated surprising dual roles for immune-related molecules and their effector mechanisms during fetal development and adult homeostasis. In this article, we describe the function of an endogenous complement inhibitor, mannan-binding lectin (MBL)-associated protein (MAp)44, in regulating the composition of a serine protease-pattern recognition receptor complex, MBL-associated serine protease (MASP)-3/collectin-L1/K1 hetero-oligomer, which impacts cardiac neural crest cell migration. We used knockdown and rescue strategies in zebrafish, a model allowing visualization and assessment of heart function, even in the presence of severe functional defects. Knockdown of embryonic expression of MAp44 caused impaired cardiogenesis, lowered heart rate, and decreased cardiac output. These defects were associated with aberrant neural crest cell behavior. We found that MAp44 competed with MASP-3 for pattern recognition molecule interaction, and knockdown of endogenous MAp44 expression could be rescued by overexpression of wild-type MAp44. Our observations provide evidence that immune molecules are centrally involved in the orchestration of cardiac tissue development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simon A Mortensen
- Department of Biomedicine, Aarhus University, DK-8000 Aarhus C, Denmark
| | - Louise L Skov
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Aarhus University, DK-8000 Aarhus C, Denmark
| | - Kasper Kjaer-Sorensen
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Aarhus University, DK-8000 Aarhus C, Denmark
| | - Annette G Hansen
- Department of Biomedicine, Aarhus University, DK-8000 Aarhus C, Denmark
| | - Søren Hansen
- Department of Cancer and Inflammation Research, University of Southern Denmark, DK-5000 Odense, Denmark; and
| | | | - Jens C Jensenius
- Department of Biomedicine, Aarhus University, DK-8000 Aarhus C, Denmark
| | - Claus Oxvig
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Aarhus University, DK-8000 Aarhus C, Denmark
| | - Steffen Thiel
- Department of Biomedicine, Aarhus University, DK-8000 Aarhus C, Denmark
| | - Søren E Degn
- Department of Biomedicine, Aarhus University, DK-8000 Aarhus C, Denmark; .,Program in Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA 02115
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Kolev M, Kemper C. Keeping It All Going-Complement Meets Metabolism. Front Immunol 2017; 8:1. [PMID: 28149297 PMCID: PMC5241319 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2017.00001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 91] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2016] [Accepted: 01/03/2017] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
The complement system is an evolutionary old and crucial component of innate immunity, which is key to the detection and removal of invading pathogens. It was initially discovered as a liver-derived sentinel system circulating in serum, the lymph, and interstitial fluids that mediate the opsonization and lytic killing of bacteria, fungi, and viruses and the initiation of the general inflammatory responses. Although work performed specifically in the last five decades identified complement also as a critical instructor of adaptive immunity—indicating that complement’s function is likely broader than initially anticipated—the dominant opinion among researchers and clinicians was that the key complement functions were in principle defined. However, there is now a growing realization that complement activity goes well beyond “classic” immune functions and that this system is also required for normal (neuronal) development and activity and general cell and tissue integrity and homeostasis. Furthermore, the recent discovery that complement activation is not confined to the extracellular space but occurs within cells led to the surprising understanding that complement is involved in the regulation of basic processes of the cell, particularly those of metabolic nature—mostly via novel crosstalks between complement and intracellular sensor, and effector, pathways that had been overlooked because of their spatial separation. These paradigm shifts in the field led to a renaissance in complement research and provide new platforms to now better understand the molecular pathways underlying the wide-reaching effects of complement functions in immunity and beyond. In this review, we will cover the current knowledge about complement’s emerging relationship with the cellular metabolism machinery with a focus on the functional differences between serum-circulating versus intracellularly active complement during normal cell survival and induction of effector functions. We will also discuss how taking a closer look into the evolution of key complement components not only made the functional connection between complement and metabolism rather “predictable” but how it may also give clues for the discovery of additional roles for complement in basic cellular processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin Kolev
- Division of Transplant Immunology and Mucosal Biology, MRC Centre for Transplantation, King's College London, Guy's Hospital , London , UK
| | - Claudia Kemper
- Division of Transplant Immunology and Mucosal Biology, MRC Centre for Transplantation, King's College London, Guy's Hospital, London, UK; Laboratory of Molecular Immunology, The Immunology Center, National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (NHLBI), National Institutes of Health (NIH), Bethesda, MD, USA
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King BC, Blom AM. Non-traditional roles of complement in type 2 diabetes: Metabolism, insulin secretion and homeostasis. Mol Immunol 2016; 84:34-42. [PMID: 28012560 DOI: 10.1016/j.molimm.2016.12.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2016] [Revised: 12/01/2016] [Accepted: 12/06/2016] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Type 2 Diabetes (T2D) is a disease of increasing importance and represents a growing burden on global healthcare and human health. In T2D, loss of effectiveness of insulin signaling in peripheral tissues cannot be compensated for by adequate insulin secretion, leading to hyperglycemia and resultant complications. In recent years, inflammation has been identified as a central component of T2D, both in inducing peripheral insulin resistance as well as in the pancreatic islet, where it contributes to loss of insulin secretion and death of insulin-secreting beta cells. In this review we will focus on non-traditional roles of complement proteins which have been identified in T2D-associated inflammation, beta cell secretory function, and in maintaining homeostasis of the pancreatic islet. Improved understanding of both traditional and novel roles of complement proteins in T2D may lead to new therapeutic approaches for this global disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ben C King
- Lund University, Department of Translation Medicine, Division of Medical Protein Chemistry, Skåne University Hospital, Malmö, Sweden.
| | - Anna M Blom
- Lund University, Department of Translation Medicine, Division of Medical Protein Chemistry, Skåne University Hospital, Malmö, Sweden.
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Ricklin D, Reis ES, Mastellos DC, Gros P, Lambris JD. Complement component C3 - The "Swiss Army Knife" of innate immunity and host defense. Immunol Rev 2016; 274:33-58. [PMID: 27782325 PMCID: PMC5427221 DOI: 10.1111/imr.12500] [Citation(s) in RCA: 273] [Impact Index Per Article: 34.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
As a preformed defense system, complement faces a delicate challenge in providing an immediate, forceful response to pathogens even at first encounter, while sparing host cells in the process. For this purpose, it engages a tightly regulated network of plasma proteins, cell surface receptors, and regulators. Complement component C3 plays a particularly versatile role in this process by keeping the cascade alert, acting as a point of convergence of activation pathways, fueling the amplification of the complement response, exerting direct effector functions, and helping to coordinate downstream immune responses. In recent years, it has become evident that nature engages the power of C3 not only to clear pathogens but also for a variety of homeostatic processes ranging from tissue regeneration and synapse pruning to clearing debris and controlling tumor cell progression. At the same time, its central position in immune surveillance makes C3 a target for microbial immune evasion and, if improperly engaged, a trigger point for various clinical conditions. In our review, we look at the versatile roles and evolutionary journey of C3, discuss new insights into the molecular basis for C3 function, provide examples of disease involvement, and summarize the emerging potential of C3 as a therapeutic target.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Ricklin
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA.
| | - Edimara S Reis
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Dimitrios C Mastellos
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
- National Center for Scientific Research 'Demokritos', Athens, Greece
| | - Piet Gros
- Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - John D Lambris
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA.
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48
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The Immune System in Tissue Environments Regaining Homeostasis after Injury: Is "Inflammation" Always Inflammation? Mediators Inflamm 2016; 2016:2856213. [PMID: 27597803 PMCID: PMC4997018 DOI: 10.1155/2016/2856213] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2016] [Revised: 07/08/2016] [Accepted: 07/19/2016] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Inflammation is a response to infections or tissue injuries. Inflammation was once defined by clinical signs, later by the presence of leukocytes, and nowadays by expression of "proinflammatory" cytokines and chemokines. But leukocytes and cytokines often have rather anti-inflammatory, proregenerative, and homeostatic effects. Is there a need to redefine "inflammation"? In this review, we discuss the functions of "inflammatory" mediators/regulators of the innate immune system that determine tissue environments to fulfill the need of the tissue while regaining homeostasis after injury.
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Complement C3a Mobilizes Dental Pulp Stem Cells and Specifically Guides Pulp Fibroblast Recruitment. J Endod 2016; 42:1377-84. [PMID: 27497510 DOI: 10.1016/j.joen.2016.06.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2016] [Revised: 06/10/2016] [Accepted: 06/15/2016] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Complement activation is considered a major mechanism in innate immunity. Although it is mainly involved in initiating inflammation, recent data reported its involvement in other processes such as tissue regeneration. In the dental pulp, complement C5a fragment has been shown to be involved in the recruitment of dental pulp stem cells (DPSCs). This study sought to investigate the possible role of C3a, another complement fragment, in the early steps of dentin-pulp regeneration. METHODS Expression of C3a receptor (C3aR) was investigated by immunofluorescence and reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction on cultured pulp fibroblasts, STRO-1-sorted DPSCs, as well as on human tooth sections in vivo. The effect of C3a on proliferation of both DPSCs and pulp fibroblasts was investigated by MTT assay. Cell migration under a C3a gradient was investigated by using microfluidic chemotaxis chambers. RESULTS C3aR was expressed in vivo as well as in cultured pulp fibroblasts co-expressing fibroblast surface protein and in DPSCs co-expressing STRO-1. Addition of recombinant C3a induced a significant proliferation of both cell types. When subjected to a C3a gradient, DPSCs were mobilized but not specifically recruited, whereas pulp fibroblasts were specifically recruited following a C3a gradient. CONCLUSIONS These results provide the first demonstration of C3aR expression in the dental pulp and demonstrate that C3a is involved in increasing DPSCs and fibroblast proliferation, in mobilizing DPSCs, and in specifically guiding fibroblast recruitment. This provides an additional link to the tight correlation between inflammation and tissue regeneration.
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Zelinka CP, Volkov L, Goodman ZA, Todd L, Palazzo I, Bishop WA, Fischer AJ. mTor signaling is required for the formation of proliferating Müller glia-derived progenitor cells in the chick retina. Development 2016; 143:1859-73. [PMID: 27068108 PMCID: PMC4920162 DOI: 10.1242/dev.133215] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2015] [Accepted: 04/04/2016] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
We investigate the roles of mTor signaling in the formation of Müller glia-derived progenitor cells (MGPCs) in the chick retina. During embryonic development, pS6 (a readout of active mTor signaling) is present in early-stage retinal progenitors, differentiating amacrine and ganglion cells, and late-stage progenitors or maturing Müller glia. By contrast, pS6 is present at low levels in a few scattered cell types in mature, healthy retina. Following retinal damage, in which MGPCs are known to form, mTor signaling is rapidly activated in Müller glia. Inhibition of mTor in damaged retinas prevented the accumulation of pS6 in Müller glia and reduced numbers of proliferating MGPCs. Inhibition of mTor had no effect on MAPK signaling or on upregulation of the stem cell factor Klf4, whereas Pax6 upregulation was significantly reduced. Inhibition of mTor potently blocked the MGPC-promoting effects of Hedgehog, Wnt and glucocorticoid signaling in damaged retinas. In the absence of retinal damage, insulin, IGF1 and FGF2 induced pS6 in Müller glia, and this was blocked by mTor inhibitor. In FGF2-treated retinas, in which MGPCs are known to form, inhibition of mTor blocked the accumulation of pS6, the upregulation of Pax6 and the formation of proliferating MGPCs. We conclude that mTor signaling is required, but not sufficient, to stimulate Müller glia to give rise to proliferating progenitors, and the network of signaling pathways that drive the formation of MGPCs requires activation of mTor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher P Zelinka
- Department of Neuroscience, College of Medicine, The Ohio State University, 4190 Graves Hall, 333 West 10th Avenue, Columbus, OH 43210-1239, USA
| | - Leo Volkov
- Department of Neuroscience, College of Medicine, The Ohio State University, 4190 Graves Hall, 333 West 10th Avenue, Columbus, OH 43210-1239, USA
| | - Zachary A Goodman
- Department of Neuroscience, College of Medicine, The Ohio State University, 4190 Graves Hall, 333 West 10th Avenue, Columbus, OH 43210-1239, USA
| | - Levi Todd
- Department of Neuroscience, College of Medicine, The Ohio State University, 4190 Graves Hall, 333 West 10th Avenue, Columbus, OH 43210-1239, USA
| | - Isabella Palazzo
- Department of Neuroscience, College of Medicine, The Ohio State University, 4190 Graves Hall, 333 West 10th Avenue, Columbus, OH 43210-1239, USA
| | - William A Bishop
- Department of Neuroscience, College of Medicine, The Ohio State University, 4190 Graves Hall, 333 West 10th Avenue, Columbus, OH 43210-1239, USA
| | - Andy J Fischer
- Department of Neuroscience, College of Medicine, The Ohio State University, 4190 Graves Hall, 333 West 10th Avenue, Columbus, OH 43210-1239, USA
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