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Saadh MJ, Allela OQB, Sattay ZJ, Al Zuhairi RAH, Ahmad H, Eldesoky GE, Adil M, Ali MS. Deciphering the functional landscape and therapeutic implications of noncoding RNAs in the TGF-β signaling pathway in colorectal cancer: A comprehensive review. Pathol Res Pract 2024; 255:155158. [PMID: 38320438 DOI: 10.1016/j.prp.2024.155158] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2023] [Revised: 01/18/2024] [Accepted: 01/18/2024] [Indexed: 02/08/2024]
Abstract
Colorectal cancer (CRC) remains a major global health concern, necessitating an in-depth exploration of the intricate molecular mechanisms underlying its progression and potential therapeutic interventions. Transforming Growth Factor-β (TGF-β) signaling, a pivotal pathway implicated in CRC plays a dual role as a tumor suppressor in the early stages and a promoter of tumor progression in later stages. Recent research has shed light on the critical involvement of noncoding RNAs (ncRNAs) in modulating the TGF-β signaling pathway, introducing a new layer of complexity to our understanding of CRC pathogenesis. This comprehensive review synthesizes the current state of knowledge regarding the function and therapeutic potential of various classes of ncRNAs, including microRNAs (miRNAs), long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs), and circular RNAs (circRNAs), in the context of TGF-β signaling in CRC. The intricate interplay between these ncRNAs and key components of the TGF-β pathway is dissected, revealing regulatory networks that contribute to the dynamic balance between tumor suppression and promotion. Emphasis is placed on how dysregulation of specific ncRNAs can disrupt this delicate equilibrium, fostering CRC initiation, progression, and metastasis. Moreover, the review provides a critical appraisal of the emerging therapeutic strategies targeting ncRNAs associated with TGF-β signaling in CRC. The potential of these ncRNAs as diagnostic and prognostic biomarkers is discussed, highlighting their clinical relevance. Additionally, the challenges and prospects of developing RNA-based therapeutics, such as RNA interference and CRISPR/Cas-based approaches, are explored in the context of modulating TGF-β signaling for CRC treatment. In conclusion, this review offers a comprehensive overview of the intricate interplay between ncRNAs and the TGF-β signaling pathway in CRC. By unraveling the functional significance of these regulatory elements, we gain valuable insights into the molecular landscape of CRC, paving the way for the development of novel and targeted therapeutic interventions aimed at modulating the TGF-β signaling cascade through the manipulation of ncRNAs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohamed J Saadh
- Faculty of Pharmacy, Middle East University, Amman 11831, Jordan
| | | | - Zahraa Jasim Sattay
- Department of Medical Laboratory Technology l, University of imam Jaafar Al-Sadiq, Iraq
| | | | - Hijaz Ahmad
- Section of Mathematics, International Telematic University Uninettuno, Corso Vittorio Emanuele II, 39, Rome 00186, Italy; Center for Applied Mathematics and Bioinformatics, Gulf University for Science and Technology, Kuwait; Department of Computer Science and Mathematics, Lebanese American University, Beirut, Lebanon
| | - Gaber E Eldesoky
- Chemistry Department, College of Science, King Saud University, Riyadh 11451, Saudi Arabia
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2
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Luo J, Mao K, Zhu Z, Ye J, Li L, Wang D, Zhou J, Lin F, Li J, Ye J. FUT1-mediated terminal fucosylation acts as a new target to attenuate renal fibrosis. Mol Med 2023; 29:55. [PMID: 37085770 PMCID: PMC10122342 DOI: 10.1186/s10020-023-00639-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2022] [Accepted: 03/19/2023] [Indexed: 04/23/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUNDS Renal fibrosis is a common pathologic process of most chronic kidney diseases (CKDs), becoming one of the major public health problems worldwide. Terminal fucosylation plays an important role in physiological homeostasis and pathological development. The present study aimed to explore the role of terminal fucosylation during kidney fibrogenesis and propose a possible anti-fibrosis treatment via suppressing aberrant terminal fucosylation. METHODS We investigated the expression level of fucosyltransferase1 (FUT1) in CKD patients by using public database. Then, we further confirmed the level of terminal fucosylation by UEA-I staining and FUT1 expression in unilateral ureteral obstruction (UUO)-induced renal fibrosis mice. Immunostaining, qPCR, western blotting and wound healing assay were applied to reveal the effect of FUT1 overexpression in human kidney proximal tubular epithelial cell (HK-2). What's more, we applied terminal fucosylation inhibitor, 2-Deoxy-D-galactose (2-D-gal), to determine whether suppressing terminal fucosylation ameliorates renal fibrosis progression in vitro and in vivo. RESULTS Here, we found that the expression of FUT1 significantly increased during renal fibrosis. In vitro experiments showed upregulation of epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) after over-expression of FUT1 in HK-2. Furthermore, in vivo and in vitro experiments indicated that suppression of terminal fucosylation, especially on TGF-βR I and II, could alleviate fibrogenesis via inhibiting transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β)/Smad signaling. CONCLUSIONS The development of kidney fibrosis is attributed to FUT1-mediated terminal fucosylation, shedding light on the inhibition of terminal fucosylation as a potential therapeutic treatment against renal fibrosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jialiang Luo
- Department of Dermatology, the Fifth Affiliated Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, 510900, China.
| | - Kaifeng Mao
- Department of Kidney Transplantation, Nanfang Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Zhengyumeng Zhu
- Department of Medical Laboratory, School of Laboratory Medicine and Biotechnology, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Junli Ye
- Department of Physiology and Pathophysiology, School of Basic Medicine, Medical College, Qingdao University, Qingdao, China
| | - Lei Li
- Department of Medical Laboratory, School of Laboratory Medicine and Biotechnology, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Di Wang
- Department of Dermatology, Dermatology Hospital of Southern Medical University, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Jia Zhou
- Department of Immunology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Fenwang Lin
- Department of Kidney Transplantation, Beijing Tsinghua Changgung Hospital, School of Clinical Medicine, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 102218, China
| | - Juan Li
- School of Nursing, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, 510900, China.
| | - Junsheng Ye
- Department of Kidney Transplantation, Beijing Tsinghua Changgung Hospital, School of Clinical Medicine, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 102218, China.
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3
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Yang J, Xu C, Wu M, Wu Y, Jia X, Zhou C, Zhang X, Ge S, Li Z, Zhang L. MicroRNA-124 inhibits hepatic stellate cells inflammatory cytokines secretion by targeting IQGAP1 through NF-κB pathway. Int Immunopharmacol 2021; 95:107520. [PMID: 33743313 DOI: 10.1016/j.intimp.2021.107520] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2020] [Revised: 02/17/2021] [Accepted: 02/17/2021] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Liver fibrosis is a health concern that leads to organ failure mediated via production of inflammatory cytokines and fibrotic biomarkers. To date, there was no direct approved antifibrotic therapy, and current treatment was mainly the removal of the causative factor. Recent studies demonstrated that aberrant expression of miR-124 was involved in the progression of various liver diseases including hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). However, whether miR-124 could function as a transcriptional regulator in the inflammatory cytokines secretion of liver fibrosis remains unclear. In this study, we demonstrated that the expression of miR-124 was downregulated in liver fibrosis tissues and TNF-α-induced LX-2 cells, concomitant with the upregulated expression of IQGAP1, suggesting that miR-124 and IQGAP1 might be associated with the development of inflammation in liver fibrosis. Therefore, we demonstrated that the overexpression of miR-124 and knockdown of IQGAP1 could lead to the downregulation of TNF-α, IL-1β and IL-6. While knockdown of miR-124 or overexpression of IQGAP1 showed reversed results. Moreover, dual luciferase reporter assays demonstrated that miR-124 specifically targeted the 3'-UTR of IQGAP1, and thus inhibited the expression of IQGAP1. Mechanistically, we found that the expression changes of miR-124 and IQGAP1 could be involved in inhibition or activation of NF-κB signaling pathway in response to TNF-α. In conclusion, these results indicated that miR-124 plays a crucial role in TNF-α-induced LX-2 cells via regulating NF-κB signaling pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Junfa Yang
- Key Laboratory of Anti-inflammatory and Immune Medicine, Ministry of Education, Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China; School of Pharmacy, Anhui Medical University, Hefei 230032, China
| | - Changqing Xu
- The Third People's Hospital of Hefei (Hefei Third Clinical College of Anhui Medical University), Hefei, Anhui Province, China
| | - Maomao Wu
- Department of Pharmacy, Anhui Chest Hospital, Hefei, Anhui Province, China
| | - Ying Wu
- The First Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Hefei, Anhui Province, China
| | - Xiaodi Jia
- Fujian Normal University, Fuzhou 350007, China
| | - Chang Zhou
- School of Basic Medical Science, Anhui Medical University, Hefei 230032, China
| | - Xianzheng Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Anti-inflammatory and Immune Medicine, Ministry of Education, Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China
| | - Shenglin Ge
- The First Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Hefei, Anhui Province, China.
| | - Zeng Li
- School of Pharmacy, Anhui Medical University, Hefei 230032, China.
| | - Lingling Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Anti-inflammatory and Immune Medicine, Ministry of Education, Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China.
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4
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Ashok P, Parikh A, Du C, Tzanakakis ES. Xenogeneic-Free System for Biomanufacturing of Cardiomyocyte Progeny From Human Pluripotent Stem Cells. Front Bioeng Biotechnol 2020; 8:571425. [PMID: 33195131 PMCID: PMC7644809 DOI: 10.3389/fbioe.2020.571425] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2020] [Accepted: 09/28/2020] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Functional heart cells and tissues sourced from human pluripotent stem cells (hPSCs) have great potential for substantially advancing treatments of cardiovascular maladies. Realization of this potential will require the development of cost-effective and tunable bioprocesses for manufacturing hPSC-based cell therapeutics. Here, we report the development of a xeno-free platform for guiding the cardiogenic commitment of hPSCs. The system is based on a fully defined, open-source formulation without complex supplements, which have varied and often undetermined effects on stem cell physiology. The formulation was used to systematically investigate factors inducing the efficient commitment to cardiac mesoderm of three hPSC lines. Contractile clusters of cells appeared within a week of differentiation in planar cultures and by day 13 over 80% of the cells expressed cardiac progeny markers such as TNNT2. In conjunction with expansion, this differentiation strategy was employed in stirred-suspension cultures of hPSCs. Scalable differentiation resulted in 0.4-2 million CMs/ml or ∼5-20 TNNT2-positive cells per seeded hPSC without further enrichment. Our findings will contribute to the engineering of bioprocesses advancing the manufacturing of stem cell-based therapeutics for heart diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Preeti Ashok
- Chemical and Biological Engineering, Tufts University, Medford, MA, United States
| | | | - Chuang Du
- Biomedical Engineering, Tufts University, Medford, MA, United States
| | - Emmanuel S. Tzanakakis
- Chemical and Biological Engineering, Tufts University, Medford, MA, United States
- Clinical and Translational Science Institute, Tufts Medical Center, Boston, MA, United States
- Developmental Molecular and Chemical Biology, Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Tufts University School of Medicine, Boston, MA, United States
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5
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Liao X, Zhan W, Tian T, Yu L, Li R, Yang Q. MicroRNA-326 attenuates hepatic stellate cell activation and liver fibrosis by inhibiting TLR4 signaling. J Cell Biochem 2020; 121:3794-3803. [PMID: 31692098 DOI: 10.1002/jcb.29520] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2019] [Accepted: 10/10/2019] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Hepatic fibrosis is a chronic inflammatory and reversible repair reaction of the liver under the continuous action of virus or various injuries. In this study, we aimed at identifying the role of miR-326 in the hepatic stellate cell (HSC) activation and liver fibrosis and its potential mechanism. In this study, the liver fibrosis mouse model was developed by injecting CCl4 . Liver tissue morphology was observed and the expression level of α-smooth muscle actin, collagen1α1 and miR-326 was measured. Target gene identification was performed by loss-of-function and gain-of-function. The effect of miR-326 on the expression level of the cytokines associated with the TLR4/MyD88/nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) pathway was assessed in vitro and in vivo. We show that miR-326 was downregulated in CCl4 -induced fibrotic mice and activated HSCs. The target gene of miR-326 is TLR4. Moreover, miR-326 inhibited the activation of HSCs in vitro through TLR4/MyD88/NF-κB signaling. miR-326 attenuated hepatic fibrosis and inflammation of CCl4 -induced mice in vivo. Our results demonstrate for the first time that miR-326 inhibits HSC activation through TLR4/MyD88/NF-κB signaling. Furthermore, miR-326 plays critical roles in attenuating liver fibrosis and inflammation, suggesting the therapeutic potential of miRNAs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xin Liao
- Department of Imaging, Affiliated Hospital of Guizhou Medical University, Guiyang, Guizhou, China
| | - Wei Zhan
- Surgery of Colorectal, Affiliated Hospital of Guizhou Medical University, Guiyang, Guizhou, China
| | - Tian Tian
- Doctoral Graduate Student of Pathophysiology, Guizhou Medical University, Guiyang, Guizhou, China
| | - Lei Yu
- Department of Pathology, Guiyang Maternal and Child Health Hospital, Guiyang, Guizhou, China
| | - Rui Li
- Department of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Guizhou Provincial People's Hospital, Guiyang, Guizhou, China
| | - Qin Yang
- Department of Pathology and Pathophysiology, Guizhou Medical University, Guiyang, Guizhou, China
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6
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New Insights into the Role of Epithelial⁻Mesenchymal Transition during Aging. Int J Mol Sci 2019; 20:ijms20040891. [PMID: 30791369 PMCID: PMC6412502 DOI: 10.3390/ijms20040891] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2019] [Revised: 02/08/2019] [Accepted: 02/15/2019] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Epithelial–mesenchymal transition (EMT) is a cellular process by which differentiated epithelial cells undergo a phenotypic conversion to a mesenchymal nature. The EMT has been increasingly recognized as an essential process for tissue fibrogenesis during disease and normal aging. Higher levels of EMT proteins in aged tissues support the involvement of EMT as a possible cause and/or consequence of the aging process. Here, we will highlight the existing understanding of EMT supporting the phenotypical alterations that occur during normal aging or pathogenesis, covering the impact of EMT deregulation in tissue homeostasis and stem cell function.
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7
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Genetic Adjuvantation of a Cell-Based Therapeutic Vaccine for Amelioration of Chagasic Cardiomyopathy. Infect Immun 2017; 85:IAI.00127-17. [PMID: 28674032 DOI: 10.1128/iai.00127-17] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2017] [Accepted: 06/21/2017] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Chagas disease, caused by infection with the protozoan parasite Trypanosoma cruzi, is a leading cause of heart disease ("chagasic cardiomyopathy") in Latin America, disproportionately affecting people in resource-poor areas. The efficacy of currently approved pharmaceutical treatments is limited mainly to acute infection, and there are no effective treatments for the chronic phase of the disease. Preclinical models of Chagas disease have demonstrated that antigen-specific CD8+ gamma interferon (IFN-γ)-positive T-cell responses are essential for reducing parasite burdens, increasing survival, and decreasing cardiac pathology in both the acute and chronic phases of Chagas disease. In the present study, we developed a genetically adjuvanted, dendritic cell-based immunotherapeutic for acute Chagas disease in an attempt to delay or prevent the cardiac complications that eventually result from chronic T. cruzi infection. Dendritic cells transduced with the adjuvant, an adenoviral vector encoding a dominant negative isoform of Src homology region 2 domain-containing tyrosine phosphatase 1 (SHP-1) along with the T. cruzi Tc24 antigen and trans-sialidase antigen 1 (TSA1), induced significant numbers of antigen-specific CD8+ IFN-γ-positive cells following injection into BALB/c mice. A vaccine platform transduced with the adenoviral vector and loaded in tandem with the recombinant protein reduced parasite burdens by 76% to >99% in comparison to a variety of different controls and significantly reduced cardiac pathology in a BALB/c mouse model of live Chagas disease. Although no statistical differences in overall survival rates among cohorts were observed, the data suggest that immunotherapeutic strategies for the treatment of acute Chagas disease are feasible and that this approach may warrant further study.
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8
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Jung B, Staudacher JJ, Beauchamp D. Transforming Growth Factor β Superfamily Signaling in Development of Colorectal Cancer. Gastroenterology 2017; 152:36-52. [PMID: 27773809 PMCID: PMC5550896 DOI: 10.1053/j.gastro.2016.10.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 172] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2016] [Revised: 09/29/2016] [Accepted: 10/11/2016] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Transforming growth factor (TGF)-β cytokines signal via a complex network of pathways to regulate proliferation, differentiation, adhesion, migration, and other functions in many cell types. A high percentage of colorectal tumors contain mutations that disrupt TGF-β family member signaling. We review how TGF-β family member signaling is altered during development of colorectal cancer, models of study, interaction of pathways, and potential therapeutic strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Barbara Jung
- University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, Illinois.
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9
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Udoko AN, Johnson CA, Dykan A, Rachakonda G, Villalta F, Mandape SN, Lima MF, Pratap S, Nde PN. Early Regulation of Profibrotic Genes in Primary Human Cardiac Myocytes by Trypanosoma cruzi. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2016; 10:e0003747. [PMID: 26771187 PMCID: PMC4714843 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0003747] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2015] [Accepted: 10/16/2015] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The molecular mechanisms of Trypanosoma cruzi induced cardiac fibrosis remains to be elucidated. Primary human cardiomyoctes (PHCM) exposed to invasive T. cruzi trypomastigotes were used for transcriptome profiling and downstream bioinformatic analysis to determine fibrotic-associated genes regulated early during infection process (0 to 120 minutes). The identification of early molecular host responses to T. cruzi infection can be exploited to delineate important molecular signatures that can be used for the classification of Chagasic patients at risk of developing heart disease. Our results show distinct gene network architecture with multiple gene networks modulated by the parasite with an incline towards progression to a fibrogenic phenotype. Early during infection, T. cruzi significantly upregulated transcription factors including activator protein 1 (AP1) transcription factor network components (including FOSB, FOS and JUNB), early growth response proteins 1 and 3 (EGR1, EGR3), and cytokines/chemokines (IL5, IL6, IL13, CCL11), which have all been implicated in the onset of fibrosis. The changes in our selected genes of interest did not all start at the same time point. The transcriptome microarray data, validated by quantitative Real-Time PCR, was also confirmed by immunoblotting and customized Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assays (ELISA) array showing significant increases in the protein expression levels of fibrogenic EGR1, SNAI1 and IL 6. Furthermore, phosphorylated SMAD2/3 which induces a fibrogenic phenotype is also upregulated accompanied by an increased nuclear translocation of JunB. Pathway analysis of the validated genes and phospho-proteins regulated by the parasite provides the very early fibrotic interactome operating when T. cruzi comes in contact with PHCM. The interactome architecture shows that the parasite induces both TGF-β dependent and independent fibrotic pathways, providing an early molecular foundation for Chagasic cardiomyopathy. Examining the very early molecular events of T. cruzi cellular infection may provide disease biomarkers which will aid clinicians in patient assessment and identification of patient subpopulation at risk of developing Chagasic cardiomyopathy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aniekanabassi N. Udoko
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Meharry Medical College, Nashville, Tennessee, United States of America
| | - Candice A. Johnson
- Food and Drug Administration, Silver Spring, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Andrey Dykan
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Meharry Medical College, Nashville, Tennessee, United States of America
| | - Girish Rachakonda
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Meharry Medical College, Nashville, Tennessee, United States of America
| | - Fernando Villalta
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Meharry Medical College, Nashville, Tennessee, United States of America
| | - Sammed N. Mandape
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Meharry Medical College, Nashville, Tennessee, United States of America
| | - Maria F. Lima
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Meharry Medical College, Nashville, Tennessee, United States of America
- School of Graduate Studies and Research, Bioinformatics and Molecular Biology Core, Meharry Medical College, Nashville, Tennessee, United States of America
| | - Siddharth Pratap
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Meharry Medical College, Nashville, Tennessee, United States of America
- School of Graduate Studies and Research, Bioinformatics and Molecular Biology Core, Meharry Medical College, Nashville, Tennessee, United States of America
| | - Pius N. Nde
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Meharry Medical College, Nashville, Tennessee, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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Convenient formulation and application of a supramolecular ureido-pyrimidinone modified poly(ethylene glycol) carrier for intrarenal growth factor delivery. Eur Polym J 2015. [DOI: 10.1016/j.eurpolymj.2015.07.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
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11
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Gressner OA, Gao C. Monitoring fibrogenic progression in the liver. Clin Chim Acta 2014; 433:111-22. [PMID: 24607331 DOI: 10.1016/j.cca.2014.02.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2013] [Revised: 02/21/2014] [Accepted: 02/23/2014] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
The clinical course of chronic liver diseases is significantly dependent on the progression rate of fibrosis which is the unstructured replacement of injured parenchyma by extracellular matrix. Despite intensive studies, the clinical opportunities for patients with fibrosing liver diseases have not improved. This will be changed by increasing knowledge of new pathogenetic mechanisms, which complement the "canonical principle" of fibrogenesis. The latter is based on the activation of hepatic stellate cells and their transdifferentiation to myofibroblasts induced by hepatocellular injury and consecutive inflammatory mediators such as TGF-β. Stellate cells express a broad spectrum of matrix components. New mechanisms indicate that the heterogeneous pool of (myo-)fibroblasts can be supplemented by epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) from cholangiocytes and potentially also from hepatocytes to fibroblasts, by influx of bone marrow-derived fibrocytes in the damaged liver tissue and by differentiation of a subgroup of monocytes to fibroblasts after homing in the damaged tissue. These processes are regulated by the cytokines TGF-β and BMP-7, chemokines, colony-stimulating factors, metalloproteinases and numerous trapping proteins. They offer innovative diagnostic and therapeutic options. As an example, modulation of TGF-β/BMP-7 ratio changes the rate of EMT, and so the simultaneous determination of these parameters and of the connective tissue growth factor (CTGF) in serum might provide information on fibrogenic activity. Also, proteomic and glycomic approaches of serum are under investigation to set up specific protein profiles in patients with liver fibrosis. The aim of this article is to present the current pathogenetic concepts of liver fibrosis and to discuss established and novel diagnostic approaches to reflect the process of hepatic fibrogenesis in the medical laboratory.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Chunfang Gao
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Eastern Hepatobiliary Surgical Hospital, Second Military Medical University, Shanghai, China.
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12
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Hong JP, Li XM, Li MX, Zheng FL. VEGF suppresses epithelial-mesenchymal transition by inhibiting the expression of Smad3 and miR‑192, a Smad3-dependent microRNA. Int J Mol Med 2013; 31:1436-42. [PMID: 23588932 DOI: 10.3892/ijmm.2013.1337] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2013] [Accepted: 03/27/2013] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Transforming growth factor-β1 (TGF-β1)‑induced epithelial‑mesenchymal transition (EMT) is one of the important cellular and molecular mechanisms involved in renal fibrosis. Smad3 and miR-192 (a Smad3-dependent microRNA) are involved in TGF-β1-mediated EMT. Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) is a renal tubular epithelial survival factor. Therefore, in the present study, we investigated the role of Smad3 and miR‑192 in the effects of VEGF on TGF‑β1‑mediated tubular EMT. A human kidney cortex (HKC) cell line stably overexpressing VEGF (HKC-SOEV) was established. The normal HKC cells and HKC‑SOEV cells were treated with TGF-β1 (5 µg/l) or/and LY294002 (20 µmol/l) for 24 and 48 h (LY294002 blocks the effect of VEGF). The protein expression of Smad2, Smad3, Smad4 and phosphorylated Smad3 (p‑Smad3) were measured by western blot analysis. The expression of Smad3 and miR-192 was determined by real‑time PCR. E-cadherin and α-smooth muscle actin (α-SMA) expression was detected by western blot analysis and laser scanning confocal microscopy (LSCM). TGF-β1 was found to induce the expression of α-SMA in the HKC cells. TGF-β1 also induced Smad3, miR-192 and p-Smad3 expression, but suppressed E‑cadherin expression. However, in the HKC-SOEV cells, the expression levels of α-SMA, Smad3, miR-192 and p‑Smad3 upon TGF-β1 stimulation were significantly reduced. In these cells, the suppressive effect of TGF-β1 on E‑cadherin was also reduced. Importantly, treatment with LY294002 significantly diminished the effect of VEGF. VEGF suppressed Smad3 and miR‑192, and subsequently inhibited EMT induced by TGF-β1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jun-Ping Hong
- Peking Union Medical College Hospital, Beijing, People's Republic of China
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13
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The Dual Role of Epithelial-to-Mesenchymal Transition in Chronic Allograft Injury in Pediatric Renal Transplantation. Transplantation 2011; 92:787-95. [DOI: 10.1097/tp.0b013e31822d092c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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14
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From kidney development to drug delivery and tissue engineering strategies in renal regenerative medicine. J Control Release 2011; 152:177-85. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2011.01.034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2010] [Accepted: 01/28/2011] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
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15
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Semedo P, Donizetti-Oliveira C, Burgos-Silva M, Cenedeze MA, Avancini Costa Malheiros DM, Pacheco-Silva A, Câmara NOS. Bone marrow mononuclear cells attenuate fibrosis development after severe acute kidney injury. J Transl Med 2010; 90:685-95. [PMID: 20308984 DOI: 10.1038/labinvest.2010.45] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
One of the early phases that lead to fibrosis progression is inflammation. Once this stage is resolved, fibrosis might be prevented. Bone marrow mononuclear cells (BMMCs) are emerging as a new therapy for several pathologies, including autoimmune diseases, because they enact immunosuppression. In this study we aimed to evaluate the role of BMMC administration in a model of kidney fibrosis induced by an acute injury. C57Bl6 mice were subjected to unilateral severe ischemia by clamping the left renal pedicle for 1h. BMMCs were isolated from femurs and tibia, and after 6h of reperfusion, 1 x 10(6) cells were administrated intraperitoneally. At 24h after surgery, treated animals showed a significant decrease in creatinine and urea levels when compared with untreated animals. Different administration routes were tested. Moreover, interferon (IFN) receptor knockout BMMCs were used, as this receptor is necessary for BMMC activation. Labeled BMMCs were found in ischemic kidney on FACS analysis. This improved outcome was associated with modulation of inflammation in the kidney and systemic modulation, as determined by cytokine expression profiling. Despite non-amelioration of functional parameters, kidney mRNA expression of interleukin (IL)-6 at 6 weeks was lower in BMMC-treated animals, as were levels of collagen 1, connective tissue growth factor (CTGF), transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-beta) and vimentin. Protective molecules, such as IL-10, heme oxygenase 1 (HO-1) and bone morphogenetic 7 (BMP-7), were increased in treated animals after 6 weeks. Moreover, Masson and Picrosirius red staining analyses showed less fibrotic areas in the kidneys of treated animals. Thus, early modulation of inflammation by BMMCs after an ischemic injury leads to reduced fibrosis through modulation of early inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patricia Semedo
- Experimental and Clinical Immunology Laboratory, Division of Nephrology, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, Escola Paulista de Medicina, São Paulo, Brazil
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16
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Dessein A, Chevillard C, Arnaud V, Hou X, Hamdoun AA, Dessein H, He H, Abdelmaboud SA, Luo X, Li J, Varoquaux A, Mergani A, Abdelwahed M, Zhou J, Monis A, Pitta MGR, Gasmelseed N, Cabantous S, Zhao Y, Prata A, Brandt C, Elwali NE, Argiro L, Li Y. Variants of CTGF are associated with hepatic fibrosis in Chinese, Sudanese, and Brazilians infected with schistosomes. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2009; 206:2321-8. [PMID: 19822645 PMCID: PMC2768853 DOI: 10.1084/jem.20090383] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Abnormal fibrosis occurs during chronic hepatic inflammations and is the principal cause of death in hepatitis C virus and schistosome infections. Hepatic fibrosis (HF) may develop either slowly or rapidly in schistosome-infected subjects. This depends, in part, on a major genetic control exerted by genes of chromosome 6q23. A gene (connective tissue growth factor [CTGF]) is located in that region that encodes a strongly fibrogenic molecule. We show that the single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) rs9402373 that lies close to CTGF is associated with severe HF (P = 2 x 10(-6); odds ratio [OR] = 2.01; confidence interval of OR [CI] = 1.51-2.7) in two Chinese samples, in Sudanese, and in Brazilians infected with either Schistosoma japonicum or S. mansoni. Furthermore, SNP rs12526196, also located close to CTGF, is independently associated with severe fibrosis (P = 6 x 10(-4); OR = 1.94; CI = 1.32-2.82) in the Chinese and Sudanese subjects. Both variants affect nuclear factor binding and may alter gene transcription or transcript stability. The identified variants may be valuable markers for the prediction of disease progression, and identify a critical step in the development of HF that could be a target for chemotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alain Dessein
- Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, U906, 13385 Marseille, France.
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17
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A case report suggesting the occurrence of epithelial-mesenchymal transition in obstructive nephropathy. Clin Exp Nephrol 2009; 13:385-388. [PMID: 19365706 DOI: 10.1007/s10157-009-0168-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2008] [Accepted: 02/16/2009] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) has been well investigated using cultured kidney epithelial cell lines and the mouse obstructive nephropathy model. The role of EMT in the genesis or progression of human renal fibrosis remains controversial. We report a case of obstructive nephropathy that occurred in a pregnant woman. Renal tissue obtained by percutaneous renal biopsy after the delivery showed marked interstitial fibrosis and obstructive tubuli. Immunofluorescence images clearly demonstrated S100A4-positive tubular epithelial cells in these specimens. With regard to human obstructive nephropathy, this is the first report which proves that tubular epithelial cells become positive for the fibroblast-specific marker. EMT is probably a common event not only in mouse but also in human.
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18
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Gressner OA, Lahme B, Siluschek M, Rehbein K, Herrmann J, Weiskirchen R, Gressner AM. Activation of TGF-beta within cultured hepatocytes and in liver injury leads to intracrine signaling with expression of connective tissue growth factor. J Cell Mol Med 2008; 12:2717-30. [PMID: 18266973 PMCID: PMC3828886 DOI: 10.1111/j.1582-4934.2008.00260.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2007] [Accepted: 01/23/2008] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Recently, synthesis and secretion of connective tissue growth factor (CTGF)/CYR61/CTGF/NOV-family member 2 (CCN2) in cultures of hepatocytes were shown, which are sensitively up-regulated by exogenous TGF-beta. In this study TGF-beta-dependent CTGF/CCN2 expression in hepatocytes cultured under completely TGF-beta-free conditions was analysed by Western-blots, metabolic labelling, and CTGF-reporter gene assays. In alkaline phosphatase monoclonal anti-alkaline phosphatase complex (APAAP)-staining of cultured hepatocytes it was demonstrated that latent TGF-beta within the hepatocytes becomes rapidly detectable during culture indicating an intracellular demasking of the mature TGF-beta antigen. Subsequent signaling to theCTGF/CCN2 promoter occurs via p-Smad2, whereas p-Smad3 does not seem to be involved. Cycloheximide did not abolish the rapid immunocytochemical appearance of mature TGF-beta, but calpain inhibitors partially suppressed intracellular TGF-beta activation and subsequently CTGF up-regulation. Calpain treatment had the reverse effect. None of the inhibitors of extracellular TGF-beta signalling was effective in the reduction of spontaneous CTGF synthesis, but intracellularly acting Alk 4-/Alk 5-specific inhibitor SB-431542 was able to diminish CTGF expression. The assumption that latent intracellular TGF-beta is activated by calpains during culture-induced stress or injurious conditions in the liver in vivo was further validated by a direct effect of calpains on the activation of recombinant latent TGF-beta. In conclusion, these data are the first to suggest the possibility of intracrine TGF-beta signalling due to calpain-dependent intracellular proteolytic activation leading to transcriptional activation of CTGF/CCN2 as a TGF-beta-sensitive reporter gene. This mechanism might be deleterious for keeping long-term hepatocyte cultures due to TGF-beta-induced apoptosis and, further, might be of relevance for induction of apoptosis or epithelial-mesenchymal transition of hepatocytes in injured liver.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olav A Gressner
- Institute of Clinical Chemistry and Pathobiochemistry, RWTH-University Hospital, Aachen, Germany.
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19
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Sato M, Keshavjee S. Bronchiolitis obliterans syndrome: alloimmune-dependent and -independent injury with aberrant tissue remodeling. Semin Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 2008; 20:173-82. [PMID: 18707652 DOI: 10.1053/j.semtcvs.2008.05.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 05/28/2008] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Long-term success in lung transplantation continues to be challenged by chronic graft dysfunction, which is manifest as bronchiolitis obliterans syndrome (BOS). The mechanisms of BOS involve both immune-mediated pathways (rejection, autoimmune-like mechanisms), and alloimmune-independent pathways (infection, aspiration, ischemia, primary graft failure), which lead to a fibroproliferative responses. BOS correlates histologically with obliterative bronchiolitis in terminal bronchioles and evidence of aberrant remodeling in the airway epithelium, vasculature, stroma, and lymphoid system. A potentially important mechanism that supports the progressive and therapy-resistant nature of BOS is a continuous cycle of ongoing injury and aberrant remodeling. Namely, anatomical and functional abnormalities induce and exacerbate immune-mediated and alloimmune-independent pathways through various mechanisms (e.g., epithelial remodeling decreases mucociliary clearance that exacerbates aspiration-related injury). From this viewpoint, we review current therapeutic strategies and revisit the role of transplant surgeons in attenuating the initial transplant-related injuries to prevent the lung grafts from entering the remodeling-injury cycle.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masaaki Sato
- Latner Thoracic Surgery Research Laboratories, Toronto General Research Institute, University Health Network, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
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20
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Abstract
Connective tissue growth factor (CTGF=CCN2), one of six members of cysteine-rich, secreted, heparin-binding proteins with a modular structure, is recognized as an important player in fibrogenic pathways as deduced from findings in non-hepatic tissues and emerging results from liver fibrosis. Collectively, the data show strongly increased expression in fibrosing tissues and transforming growth factor (TGF-beta)-stimulated expression in hepatocytes, biliary epithelial cells and stellate cells. Functional activity as a mediator of fibre-fibre, fibre-matrix and matrix-matrix interactions, as an enhancer of profibrogenic TGF-beta and several secondary effects owing to TGF-beta enhancement, and as a down-modulator of the bioactivity of bone morphogenetic protein-7 has been proposed. By changing the activity ratio of TGF-beta to its antagonist bone-morphogenetic protein-7, CTGF is proposed as a fibrogenic master switch for epithelial-mesenchymal transition. Consequently, knockdown of CTGF considerably attenuates experimental liver fibrosis. The spill-over of CTGF from the liver into the blood stream proposes this protein as a non-invasive reporter of TGF-beta bioactivity in this organ. Indeed, CTGF-levels in sera correlate significantly with fibrogenic activity. The data suggest CTGF as a multifaceted regulatory protein in fibrosis, which offers important translational aspects for diagnosis and follow-up of hepatic fibrogenesis and as a target for therapeutic interventions. In addition, CTGF-promoter polymorphism might be of importance as a prognostic genetic marker to predict the progression of fibrosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olav A Gressner
- Institute of Clinical Chemistry and Pathobiochemistry, RWTH-University Hospital, Aachen, Germany
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21
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Vitalone MJ, O'Connell PJ, Jimenez-Vera E, Yuksel A, Wavamunno M, Fung CLS, Chapman JR, Nankivell BJ. Epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition in early transplant tubulointerstitial damage. J Am Soc Nephrol 2008; 19:1571-83. [PMID: 18480317 PMCID: PMC2488255 DOI: 10.1681/asn.2007050580] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2007] [Accepted: 02/13/2008] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
It is unknown whether epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) leads to tubulointerstitial fibrosis in renal transplants. In this study, interstitial fibrosis and markers of EMT were followed in protocol transplant biopsies in 24 patients. Tubulointerstitial damage (TID) increased from 34 to 54% between 1 and 3 mo after transplantation. Detection of EMT depended on the marker used; low levels of alpha-smooth muscle actin were found in 61% of biopsies, but the less specific marker S100 calcium binding protein-A4 (also known as Fsp1) suggested a higher incidence of EMT. The presence or development of TID did not correlate with EMT but instead significantly correlated with subclinical immune activity (P < 0.05). Among biopsies showing TID, microarray analysis revealed differential regulation of 127 genes at 1 mo and 67 genes at 3 mo compared with baseline; these genes were predominantly associated with fibrosis, tissue remodeling, and immune response. Of the 173 EMT-associated genes interrogated, however, only 8.1% showed an expression pattern consistent with EMT at 1 mo and 6.3% at 3 mo. The remainder were not differentially altered, or their changes in expression were opposite those expected to promote EMT. Quantitative reverse transcriptase-PCR revealed that the expression pattern of 12 EMT-associated genes was inconsistent over time, opposite that expected, or consistent with subclinical rejection or inflammation. In conclusion, EMT does not seem to play a significant role in the development of early allograft fibrosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew J Vitalone
- Centre for Transplant and Renal Research, University of Sydney, Westmead Hospital, Sydney, Australia
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22
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Smith JJ, Deane NG, Dhawan P, Beauchamp RD. Regulation of metastasis in colorectal adenocarcinoma: a collision between development and tumor biology. Surgery 2008; 144:353-66. [PMID: 18707034 DOI: 10.1016/j.surg.2008.05.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2008] [Accepted: 05/08/2008] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- J Joshua Smith
- Department of Surgery, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN 37232-2730, USA
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23
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Nguyen TQ, Roestenberg P, van Nieuwenhoven FA, Bovenschen N, Li Z, Xu L, Oliver N, Aten J, Joles JA, Vial C, Brandan E, Lyons KM, Goldschmeding R. CTGF inhibits BMP-7 signaling in diabetic nephropathy. J Am Soc Nephrol 2008; 19:2098-107. [PMID: 18632843 DOI: 10.1681/asn.2007111261] [Citation(s) in RCA: 104] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
In diabetic nephropathy, connective tissue growth factor (CTGF) is upregulated and bone morphogenetic protein 7 (BMP-7) is downregulated. CTGF is known to inhibit BMP-4, but similar cross-talk between BMP-7 and CTGF has not been studied. In this study, it was hypothesized that CTGF acts as an inhibitor of BMP-7 signaling activity in diabetic nephropathy. Compared with diabetic wild-type CTGF(+/+) mice, diabetic CTGF(+/-) mice had approximately 50% lower CTGF mRNA and protein, less severe albuminuria, no thickening of the glomerular basement membrane, and preserved matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) activity. Although the amount of BMP-7 mRNA was similar in the kidneys of diabetic CTGF(+/+) and CTGF(+/-) mice, phosphorylation of the BMP signal transduction protein Smad1/5 and expression of the BMP target gene Id1 were lower in diabetic CTGF(+/+) mice. Moreover, renal Id1 mRNA expression correlated with albuminuria (R = -0.86) and MMP activity (R = 0.76). In normoglycemic mice, intraperitoneal injection of CTGF led to a decrease of pSmad1/5 in the renal cortex. In cultured renal glomerular and tubulointerstitial cells, CTGF diminished BMP-7 signaling activity, evidenced by lower levels of pSmad1/5, Id1 mRNA, and BMP-responsive element-luciferase activity. Co-immunoprecipitation, solid-phase binding assay, and surface plasmon resonance analysis showed that CTGF binds BMP-7 with high affinity (Kd approximately 14 nM). In conclusion, upregulation of CTGF inhibits BMP-7 signal transduction in the diabetic kidney and contributes to altered gene transcription, reduced MMP activity, glomerular basement membrane thickening, and albuminuria, all of which are hallmarks of diabetic nephropathy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tri Q Nguyen
- Department of Pathology, University Medical Center Utrecht, H04.312, Heidelberglaan 100, 3584 CX, Utrecht, Netherlands
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24
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Gressner OA, Rizk MS, Kovalenko E, Weiskirchen R, Gressner AM. Changing the pathogenetic roadmap of liver fibrosis? Where did it start; where will it go? J Gastroenterol Hepatol 2008; 23:1024-35. [PMID: 18505415 DOI: 10.1111/j.1440-1746.2008.05345.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
The pathophysiology of liver injury has attracted the interest of experimentalists and clinicians over many centuries. With the discovery of liver-specific pericytes - formerly called fat-storing cells, Ito-cells, lipocytes, and currently designated as hepatic stellate cells (HSC) - the insight into the cellular and molecular pathobiology of liver fibrosis has evolved and the pivotal role of HSC as a precursor cell-type for extracellular matrix-producing myofibroblasts has been established. Although activation and transdifferentiation of HSC to myofibroblasts is still regarded as the pathogenetic key mechanism of fibrogenesis, recent studies point to a prominent heterogeneity of the origin of myofibroblasts. Currently, the generation of matrix-synthesizing fibroblasts by epithelial-mesenchymal transition, by influx of bone marrow-derived fibrocytes into damaged liver tissue, and by differentiation of circulating monocytes to fibroblasts after homing in the injured liver are discussed as important complementary mechanisms to enlarge the pool of (myo-)fibroblasts in the fibrosing liver. Among the molecular mediators, transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-beta) plays a central role, which is controlled by the bone-morphogenetic protein (BMP)-7, an important antagonist of TGF-beta action. The newly discovered pathways supplement the linear concept of HSC activation to myofibroblasts, point to fibrosis as a systemic response involving extrahepatic organs and reactions, add further evidence to a more or less uniform concept of organ fibrosis in general (e.g. liver, lung, kidney), and offer innovative approaches for the development of non-invasive biomarkers and antifibrotic trials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olav A Gressner
- Institute of Clinical Chemistry and Pathobiochemistry, RWTH-University Hospital, Aachen, Germany.
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25
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Szeto CC, Chow KM, Kwan BCH, Lai KB, Chung KY, Leung CB, Li PKT. The relationship between bone morphogenic protein-7 and peritoneal transport characteristics. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2008; 23:2989-94. [DOI: 10.1093/ndt/gfn188] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
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26
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Lange-Sperandio B, Trautmann A, Eickelberg O, Jayachandran A, Oberle S, Schmidutz F, Rodenbeck B, Hömme M, Horuk R, Schaefer F. Leukocytes induce epithelial to mesenchymal transition after unilateral ureteral obstruction in neonatal mice. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PATHOLOGY 2007; 171:861-71. [PMID: 17675578 PMCID: PMC1959504 DOI: 10.2353/ajpath.2007.061199] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Urinary tract obstruction during renal development leads to tubular apoptosis, tubular atrophy, and interstitial fibrosis. Epithelial to mesenchymal transition (EMT) has been proposed as a key mechanism of myofibroblast accumulation in renal fibrosis. We studied the interplay of leukocyte infiltration, tubular apoptosis, and EMT in renal fibrosis induced by unilateral ureteral obstruction (UUO) in neonatal mice. We show that leukocytes mediate tubular apoptosis and EMT in the developing kidney with obstructive nephropathy. Blocking leukocyte recruitment by using the chemokine receptor-1 antagonist BX471 protected against tubular apoptosis and interstitial fibrosis, as evidenced by reduced monocyte influx, a decrease in EMT, and attenuated collagen deposition. EMT was rapidly induced within 24 hours after UUO along with up-regulation of the transcription factors Snail1 and Snail2/Slug, preceding the induction of alpha-smooth muscle actin and vimentin. In the presence of BX471, the expression of chemokines, as well as of Snail1 and Snail2/Slug, in the obstructed kidney was completely attenuated. This was associated with reduced macrophage and T-cell infiltration, tubular apoptosis, and interstitial fibrosis in the developing kidney. Our findings provide evidence that leukocytes induce EMT and renal fibrosis after UUO and suggest that chemokine receptor-1 antagonism may prove beneficial in obstructive nephropathy.
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27
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Gressner OA, Weiskirchen R, Gressner AM. Evolving concepts of liver fibrogenesis provide new diagnostic and therapeutic options. COMPARATIVE HEPATOLOGY 2007; 6:7. [PMID: 17663771 PMCID: PMC1994681 DOI: 10.1186/1476-5926-6-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 107] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2007] [Accepted: 07/30/2007] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Despite intensive studies, the clinical opportunities for patients with fibrosing liver diseases have not improved. This will be changed by increasing knowledge of new pathogenetic mechanisms, which complement the "canonical principle" of fibrogenesis. The latter is based on the activation of hepatic stellate cells and their transdifferentiation to myofibroblasts induced by hepatocellular injury and consecutive inflammatory mediators such as TGF-beta. Stellate cells express a broad spectrum of matrix components. New mechanisms indicate that the heterogeneous pool of (myo-)fibroblasts can be supplemented by epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) from cholangiocytes and potentially also from hepatocytes to fibroblasts, by influx of bone marrow-derived fibrocytes in the damaged liver tissue and by differentiation of a subgroup of monocytes to fibroblasts after homing in the damaged tissue. These processes are regulated by the cytokines TGF-beta and BMP-7, chemokines, colony-stimulating factors, metalloproteinases and numerous trapping proteins. They offer innovative diagnostic and therapeutic options. As an example, modulation of TGF-beta/BMP-7 ratio changes the rate of EMT, and so the simultaneous determination of these parameters and of connective tissue growth factor (CTGF) in serum might provide information on fibrogenic activity. The extension of pathogenetic concepts of fibrosis will provide new therapeutic possibilities of interference with the fibrogenic mechanism in liver and other organs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olav A Gressner
- Institute of Clinical Chemistry and Pathobiochemistry, RWTH-University Hospital, Aachen, Germany
| | - Ralf Weiskirchen
- Institute of Clinical Chemistry and Pathobiochemistry, RWTH-University Hospital, Aachen, Germany
| | - Axel M Gressner
- Institute of Clinical Chemistry and Pathobiochemistry, RWTH-University Hospital, Aachen, Germany
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28
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Neilson EG. Plasticity, nuclear diapause, and a requiem for the terminal differentiation of epithelia. J Am Soc Nephrol 2007; 18:1995-8. [PMID: 17568015 DOI: 10.1681/asn.2007040457] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Eric G Neilson
- Department of Medicine, D-3100 Medical Center North, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN 37232-2358, USA.
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29
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Yanjia H, Xinchun J. The role of epithelial-mesenchymal transition in oral squamous cell carcinoma and oral submucous fibrosis. Clin Chim Acta 2007; 383:51-6. [PMID: 17537414 DOI: 10.1016/j.cca.2007.04.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2006] [Revised: 04/09/2007] [Accepted: 04/13/2007] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) is an indispensable mechanism during morphogenesis. Interest and research in EMT are currently at a high level due to its important role in cancer and fibrosis. Emerging evidence suggests that EMT is also a crucial event in oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC). Oral submucous fibrosis (OSF) is a chronic debilitating disease and a premalignant condition of the oral cavity. It is characterized by a generalized submucosal fibrosis. The pathogenesis of the disease is not well established. Epidemiological evidence strongly indicates an association between the betel quid (BQ) chewing habit and OSF. In a simplistic view, OSF represents a failed wound-healing process of the oral mucosa after chronic, sustained injury. This review highlights the signaling pathways involved in EMT, recent advances in the study of EMT in OSCC, and summarizes the evidence supporting a role for EMT in the pathogenesis of OSF.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hu Yanjia
- Xiang Ya Hospital, Central South University, China.
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30
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Lee SI, Kim HJ, Baek MC, Park KM, Park Y, Yoon CH, Boo YC. Wen-pi-tang-Hab-Wu-ling-san, an oriental herbal prescription, attenuates epithelial-mesenchymal transdifferentiation stimulated by TGF-β1 in kidney cells. Phytother Res 2007; 21:548-53. [PMID: 17273984 DOI: 10.1002/ptr.2106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Wen-pi-tang-Hab-Wu-ling-san (WHW), an oriental herbal prescription, is currently used in oriental clinics for the treatment of chronic renal failure (CRF). While its effectiveness has been supported by a series of modern studies, the underlying mechanism remains poorly understood. CRF progression involves tubulointerstitial fibrosis where transforming growth factor-beta1 (TGF-beta1) plays a critical role by inducing epithelial-mesenchymal transdifferentiation (EMT). This study examined whether WHW extract attenuated the TGF-beta1-induced EMT in Madin-Darby canine kidney cells. When the cells were stimulated by TGF-beta1 (2.5 ng/mL), they exhibited an elongated, spindle-shaped appearance but this morphological change was significantly suppressed by WHW extract (1 mg/mL). The WHW extract did not show notable cytotoxicity and even mitigated the cytotoxic effects of TGF-beta1. It inhibited the expression of alpha-smooth muscle actin (alpha-SMA), a marker of EMT, but not the secretion of matrix metalloproteinases stimulated by TGF-beta1. The WHW extract also inhibited the phosphorylation of Smad2 that mediates TGF-beta1 signaling leading to alpha-SMA expression. The present study suggests that WHW extract may provide renal protective effects through modulation of the TGF-beta1/Smad2/alpha-SMA pathway involved in fibrosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sang Il Lee
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Kyungpook National University School of Medicine, 101 Dongin-dong 2-ga, Junggu, Daegu, 700-422, Republic of Korea
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31
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Neilson EG. Mechanisms of disease: Fibroblasts--a new look at an old problem. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2006; 2:101-8. [PMID: 16932401 DOI: 10.1038/ncpneph0093] [Citation(s) in RCA: 161] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2005] [Accepted: 11/04/2005] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Fibroblasts are one of the most important and episodically active cell types in the kidney. Under normal conditions, these cells provide a delicate collagenous matrix that partitions the interstitial spaces between nephrons, blood vessels and the renal capsule. Fibroblasts also remodel the interstitium as kidneys grow with age. This episodic activity of various fibroblast populations has a biological basis. Most fibroblasts are created locally through a process called epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) and, once formed, they can proliferate in response to local mitogens. EMT is driven by an alteration in the balance of local cytokine concentrations that reverses the differentiation of selected epithelia along tubular nephrons. During persistent injury and inflammation, fibroblasts further increase their numbers and secrete excess interstitial collagens, and EMT is particularly aggressive in this setting. The mechanisms by which fibroblasts simultaneously destroy normal interstitial architecture and disable epithelial nephrons are more comprehensible today. Recent therapeutic clues for attenuating fibroblast formation during renal fibrogenesis also suggest an advantage in shifting local cytokine balance to favor mesenchymal-epithelial transition. This review examines these issues and identifies new targets for the treatment of one of the most difficult problems facing clinical nephrology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric G Neilson
- Department of Medicine, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN 37232-2358, USA.
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32
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Gressner AM, Weiskirchen R. Modern pathogenetic concepts of liver fibrosis suggest stellate cells and TGF-beta as major players and therapeutic targets. J Cell Mol Med 2006. [PMID: 16563223 DOI: 10.1634/stemcells.2007-0252"> [doi: 10.1111/j.1582-4934.2006.tb00292.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Hepatic fibrosis is a scarring process that is associated with an increased and altered deposition of extracellular matrix in liver. At the cellular and molecular level, this progressive process is mainly characterized by cellular activation of hepatic stellate cells and aberrant activity of transforming growth factor-beta1 and its downstream cellular mediators. Although the cellular responses to this cytokine are complex, the signalling pathways of this pivotal cytokine during the fibrogenic response and its connection to other signal cascades are now understood in some detail. Based on the current advances in understanding the pleiotropic reactions during fibrogenesis, various inhibitors of transforming growth factor-beta were developed and are now being investigated as potential drug candidates in experimental models of hepatic injury. Although it is too early to favour one of these antagonists for the treatment of hepatic fibrogenesis in human, the experimental results obtained yet provide stimulatory impulses for the development of an effective treatment of choice in the not too distant future. The present review summarises the actual knowledge on the pathogenesis of hepatic fibrogenesis, the role of transforming growth factor-beta and its signalling pathways in promoting the fibrogenic response, and the therapeutic modalities that are presently in the spotlight of many investigations and are already on the way to take the plunge into clinical studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- A M Gressner
- Institute of Clinical Chemistry and Pathobiochemistry, RWTH Aachen University--Hospital, D-52074 Aachen, Germany.
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Gressner AM, Weiskirchen R. Modern pathogenetic concepts of liver fibrosis suggest stellate cells and TGF-beta as major players and therapeutic targets. J Cell Mol Med 2006; 10:76-99. [PMID: 16563223 PMCID: PMC3933103 DOI: 10.1111/j.1582-4934.2006.tb00292.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 604] [Impact Index Per Article: 33.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Hepatic fibrosis is a scarring process that is associated with an increased and altered deposition of extracellular matrix in liver. At the cellular and molecular level, this progressive process is mainly characterized by cellular activation of hepatic stellate cells and aberrant activity of transforming growth factor-beta1 and its downstream cellular mediators. Although the cellular responses to this cytokine are complex, the signalling pathways of this pivotal cytokine during the fibrogenic response and its connection to other signal cascades are now understood in some detail. Based on the current advances in understanding the pleiotropic reactions during fibrogenesis, various inhibitors of transforming growth factor-beta were developed and are now being investigated as potential drug candidates in experimental models of hepatic injury. Although it is too early to favour one of these antagonists for the treatment of hepatic fibrogenesis in human, the experimental results obtained yet provide stimulatory impulses for the development of an effective treatment of choice in the not too distant future. The present review summarises the actual knowledge on the pathogenesis of hepatic fibrogenesis, the role of transforming growth factor-beta and its signalling pathways in promoting the fibrogenic response, and the therapeutic modalities that are presently in the spotlight of many investigations and are already on the way to take the plunge into clinical studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- A M Gressner
- Institute of Clinical Chemistry and Pathobiochemistry, RWTH Aachen University - HospitalAachen, Germany
- *Correspondence to: A. M. GRESSNER/R. WEISKIRCHEN Institute of Clinical Chemistry and Pathobiochemistry, RWTH Aachen University Hospital, D-52074 Aachen, Germany. Tel.: +49-241-8088678/9 Fax: +49-241-8082512 E-mails:
| | - R Weiskirchen
- Institute of Clinical Chemistry and Pathobiochemistry, RWTH Aachen University - HospitalAachen, Germany
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Gressner AM, Weiskirchen R. Modern pathogenetic concepts of liver fibrosis suggest stellate cells and TGF-beta as major players and therapeutic targets. J Cell Mol Med 2006. [PMID: 16563223 DOI: 10.1111/j.1528-4934.2006.th00292.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Hepatic fibrosis is a scarring process that is associated with an increased and altered deposition of extracellular matrix in liver. At the cellular and molecular level, this progressive process is mainly characterized by cellular activation of hepatic stellate cells and aberrant activity of transforming growth factor-beta1 and its downstream cellular mediators. Although the cellular responses to this cytokine are complex, the signalling pathways of this pivotal cytokine during the fibrogenic response and its connection to other signal cascades are now understood in some detail. Based on the current advances in understanding the pleiotropic reactions during fibrogenesis, various inhibitors of transforming growth factor-beta were developed and are now being investigated as potential drug candidates in experimental models of hepatic injury. Although it is too early to favour one of these antagonists for the treatment of hepatic fibrogenesis in human, the experimental results obtained yet provide stimulatory impulses for the development of an effective treatment of choice in the not too distant future. The present review summarises the actual knowledge on the pathogenesis of hepatic fibrogenesis, the role of transforming growth factor-beta and its signalling pathways in promoting the fibrogenic response, and the therapeutic modalities that are presently in the spotlight of many investigations and are already on the way to take the plunge into clinical studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- A M Gressner
- Institute of Clinical Chemistry and Pathobiochemistry, RWTH Aachen University--Hospital, D-52074 Aachen, Germany.
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Roxburgh SA, Murphy M, Pollock CA, Brazil DP. Recapitulation of Embryological Programmes in Renal Fibrosis – The Importance of Epithelial Cell Plasticity and Developmental Genes. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2006; 103:p139-48. [PMID: 16582577 DOI: 10.1159/000092453] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Chronic fibrosis represents the final common pathway in progressive renal disease. Myofibroblasts deposit the constituents of renal scar, thus crippling renal function. It has recently emerged that an important source of these pivotal effector cells is the injured renal epithelium. This review concentrates on the process of epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) and its regulation. The role of the developmental gene, gremlin, which is reactivated in adult renal disease, is the subject of particular focus. This member of the cysteine knot protein superfamily is critical to the process of nephrogenesis but quiescent in normal adult kidney. There is increasing evidence that gremlin expression reactivates in diabetic nephropathy, and in the diseased fibrotic kidney per se. Known to antagonize members of the bone morphogenic protein (BMP) family, gremlin may also act downstream of TGF-beta in induction of EMT. An increased understanding of the extracellular modulation of EMT and, in particular, of the gremlin-BMP axis may result in strategies that can halt or reverse the devastating progression of chronic renal fibrosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah A Roxburgh
- UCD School of Medicine and Medical Science, UCD Conway Institute, University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
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Lee JM, Dedhar S, Kalluri R, Thompson EW. The epithelial-mesenchymal transition: new insights in signaling, development, and disease. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2006; 172:973-81. [PMID: 16567498 PMCID: PMC2063755 DOI: 10.1083/jcb.200601018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1573] [Impact Index Per Article: 87.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
The conversion of an epithelial cell to a mesenchymal cell is critical to metazoan embryogenesis and a defining structural feature of organ development. Current interest in this process, which is described as an epithelial–mesenchymal transition (EMT), stems from its developmental importance and its involvement in several adult pathologies. Interest and research in EMT are currently at a high level, as seen by the attendance at the recent EMT meeting in Vancouver, Canada (October 1–3, 2005). The meeting, which was hosted by The EMT International Association, was the second international EMT meeting, the first being held in Port Douglas, Queensland, Australia in October 2003. The EMT International Association was formed in 2002 to provide an international body for those interested in EMT and the reverse process, mesenchymal–epithelial transition, and, most importantly, to bring together those working on EMT in development, cancer, fibrosis, and pathology. These themes continued during the recent meeting in Vancouver. Discussion at the Vancouver meeting spanned several areas of research, including signaling pathway activation of EMT and the transcription factors and gene targets involved. Also covered in detail was the basic cell biology of EMT and its role in cancer and fibrosis, as well as the identification of new markers to facilitate the observation of EMT in vivo. This is particularly important because the potential contribution of EMT during neoplasia is the subject of vigorous scientific debate (Tarin, D., E.W. Thompson, and D.F. Newgreen. 2005. Cancer Res. 65:5996–6000; Thompson, E.W., D.F. Newgreen, and D. Tarin. 2005. Cancer Res. 65:5991–5995).
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan M Lee
- Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology, and Immunology, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario K1N 6N5, Canada
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Coffey RJ, Beauchamp RD. Roles for transforming growth factor-α and transforming growth factor-ß in colorectal cancer. CURRENT COLORECTAL CANCER REPORTS 2006. [DOI: 10.1007/s11888-006-0005-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Abstract
Various disciplines within nephrology investigate the mechanisms by which kidneys fail. Progress in the areas of glomerular hemodynamics, proteinuria, tubular biology, interstitial nephritis, fibroblast formation, and fibrosis have added kernels of information that together support a unified theory of renal progression. Prevention of progression to end-stage disease has largely focused on control of systemic and glomerular hypertension. Current success in delaying a decline in glomerular filtration rate underlines the promise of a more comprehensive approach. New knowledge about the cell biology of progression also suggests that other adjunctive therapies may be possible. We describe the progress and highlight those spheres where new-targeted interventions may arise.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raymond C Harris
- Department of Medicine, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, Tennessee 37232, USA.
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Yanagita M, Okuda T, Endo S, Tanaka M, Takahashi K, Sugiyama F, Kunita S, Takahashi S, Fukatsu A, Yanagisawa M, Kita T, Sakurai T. Uterine sensitization-associated gene-1 (USAG-1), a novel BMP antagonist expressed in the kidney, accelerates tubular injury. J Clin Invest 2005; 116:70-9. [PMID: 16341262 PMCID: PMC1307562 DOI: 10.1172/jci25445] [Citation(s) in RCA: 116] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2005] [Accepted: 10/11/2005] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Dialysis dependency is one of the leading causes of morbidity and mortality in the world, and once end-stage renal disease develops, it cannot be reversed by currently available therapy. Although administration of large doses of bone morphogenetic protein-7 (BMP-7) has been shown to repair established renal injury and improve renal function, the pathophysiological role of endogenous BMP-7 and regulatory mechanism of its activities remain elusive. Here we show that the product of uterine sensitization-associated gene-1 (USAG1), a novel BMP antagonist abundantly expressed in the kidney, is the central negative regulator of BMP function in the kidney and that mice lacking USAG-1 (USAG1 mice) are resistant to renal injury. USAG1 mice exhibited prolonged survival and preserved renal function in acute and chronic renal injury models. Renal BMP signaling, assessed by phosphorylation of Smad proteins, was significantly enhanced in USAG1 mice with renal injury, indicating that the preservation of renal function is attributable to enhancement of endogenous BMP signaling. Furthermore, the administration of neutralizing antibody against BMP-7 abolished renoprotection in USAG1 mice, indicating that USAG-1 plays a critical role in the modulation of renoprotective action of BMP and that inhibition of USAG-1 is a promising means of development of novel treatment for renal diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Motoko Yanagita
- COE Formation for Genomic Analysis of Disease Model Animals with Multiple Genetic Alterations, Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan.
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Merkel P, Lo GH, Holbrook JT, Tibbs AK, Allen NB, Davis JC, Hoffman GS, McCune WJ, St Clair EW, Specks U, Spiera R, Petri M, Stone JH. Thromboembolism—Another Threat to the Polymorbid Patient with Vasculitis? J Am Soc Nephrol 2005. [DOI: 10.1681/asn.2005050528] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022] Open
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