Tetraspanins: push and pull in suppressing and promoting metastasis

Augmentation of antiviral immune response induced by perturbation of CD82 under microgravity condition

Exposure to microgravity has become the primary factor threatening astronauts' health. Immunity is dysregulated rapidly following spaceflight, and reactivation of latent virus has been observed. However, systematic studies and molecular mechanisms of the adverse impact of microgravity on the antiviral immune response are still elusive. As a member of the Tetraspanins family, CD82 participates in the biological process between the cell and the trafficking of cellular transmembrane proteins that interact with many viruses. Herein, we established a ground-based zebrafish model of microgravity to research the embryogenesis processes under space microgravity. In this study, we cloned and validated the open reading frame (ORF) sequence of CD82 homolog and explored the expression profile of CD82 homolog in various zebrafish tissues. Overexpression of zebrafish CD82a increased host IFN1 and vig1 transcription during the spring viremia of carp virus (SVCV) infection. Furthermore, a significant down-regulation of gene expression, including IFN1 and vig1, caused by knockdown of CD82a was observed. Additionally, the knockdown of CD82a significantly upregulated the SVCV replication in the EPC cells. Accordingly, CD82a positively induced the cellular antiviral responses triggered by the SVCV. Moreover, the mRNA level of CD82 homolog was upregulated in vivo and in vitro under simulated microgravity. Collectively, our studies further implied that the high expression of CD82a could modulate innate antiviral immunity in an IFN-independent manner during microgravity conditions.

IL-16 exerts anti-rabies virus effects through CD9 on the surface of viral particles

Rabies, caused by the rabies virus (RABV; scientific name Rabies lyssavirus), is invariably fatal, and currently, there is no specific drug for its treatment. Previous studies have demonstrated the relationship between CD9 and the RABV. However, it remains unclear whether CD9 and IL-16 affect the RABV life cycle. To verify the role of CD9 and IL-16 in the life cycle of the RABV and further explore drugs that can inhibit RABV replication. We examined the effects of overexpression or underexpression of CD9 and IL-16 on the RABV replication process. Subsequently, adeno-associated virus (AAV) vector-delivered single-chain antibodies against RABV glycoprotein (RABV-G) or IL-16, were utilized to specifically inhibit RABV replication and explore their therapeutic potential in a mouse model of rabies. Our study revealed that the CD9 protein significantly affected RABV replication in cells. Also, IL-16 could effectively inhibited the RABV replication in vitro and prolonged mouse survival in vivo. Single-chain antibodies against RABV and IL-16, delivered by AAV vectors carrying exocytotic peptides and membrane-penetrating peptides, inhibited RABV proliferation in vitro, and suppressed RABV replication in mice in vivo. The tetraspanin CD9 facilitates RABV infection, and like the RABV-G, it may also be a good therapeutic target for RABV infection. The CD9 ligand molecule IL-16 and single-chain antibodies against RABV carried by AAV delivery system are promising therapeutic approaches for RABV infection.

Acidity and hypoxia of tumor microenvironment, a positive interplay in extracellular vesicle release by tumor cells

The complex and continuously evolving features of the tumor microenvironment, varying between tumor histotypes, are characterized by the presence of host cells and tumor cells embedded in a milieu shaped by hypoxia and low pH, resulting from the frequent imbalance between vascularity and tumor cell proliferation. These microenvironmental metabolic stressors play a crucial role in remodeling host cells and tumor cells, contributing to the stimulation of cancer cell heterogeneity, clonal evolution, and multidrug resistance, ultimately leading to progression and metastasis. The extracellular vesicles (EVs), membrane-enclosed structures released into the extracellular milieu by tumor/host cells, are now recognized as critical drivers in the complex intercellular communication between tumor cells and the local cellular components in a hypoxic/acidic microenvironment. Understanding the intricate molecular mechanisms governing the interactions between tumor and host cells within a hypoxic and acidic microenvironment, triggered by the release of EVs, could pave the way for innovative strategies to disrupt the complex interplay of cancer cells with their microenvironment. This approach may contribute to the development of an efficient and safe therapeutic strategy to combat cancer progression. Therefore, we review the major findings on the release of EVs in a hypoxic/acidic tumor microenvironment to appreciate their role in tumor progression toward metastatic disease.

Developing anti-TDE vaccine for sensitizing cancer cells to treatment and metastasis control

Tumor-derived exosomes (TDEs) mediate oncogenic communication, which modifies target cells to reinforce a tumor-promoting microenvironment. TDEs support cancer progression by suppressing anti-tumor immune responses, promoting metastasis, and conferring drug resistance. Thus, targeting TDEs could improve the efficacy of anti-cancer treatments and control metastasis. Current strategies to inhibit TDE-mediated oncogenic communication including drug-based and genetic modification-based inhibition of TDE release and/or uptake, have proved to be inefficient. In this work, we propose TDE surface engineering to express foreign antigens that will trigger life-long anti-TDE immune responses. The possibility of combining the anti-TDE vaccines with other treatments such as chemotherapy, radiotherapy, targeted therapy, and surgery is also explored.

Role of the transmembrane polar residues on CD151 in cholesterol binding

Tetraspanins superfamily proteins have been shown to play an important role in several physiological processes and diseases such as cancer. Transmembrane polar residues of tetraspanins have an implication in regulating the process of cancer metastasis. Tetraspanin CD82 has been demonstrated to exert an anti-metastatic role while mutating polar residues in its transmembrane domains (TMDs) abrogates its metastasis inhibitory role. However, CD151, being pro-metastatic tetraspanin, the role of polar residues in TMDs of CD151 in cholesterol binding and its stability has not been investigated. In this study, we employed bioinformatics analysis of CD151 sequences to determine polar residue in TMDs, molecular docking, dynamics, and normal mode analysis studies to investigate the contribution of polar residues on cholesterol binding by modelling and comparing wild type with polar residue mutant of CD151. The study finds three polar residues viz Asn24, Glu104 and Gln234, in the TMD1, TMD2, and TMD4, respectively, in CD151 that are conserved in most vertebrates indicating their functional significance. Furthermore, we found that these polar residues are required for CD151 stability and facilitate stable interactions with cholesterol. Further cholesterol binding influenced the differences in the distance between large and small extracellular domains of CD151 indicating its important role in the open and closed conformation of the protein. In summary, CD151 exists in open and closed conformation by regulating its interactions with cholesterol. This interaction may modulate the cell membrane dynamics suggesting its potential implication in cancer metastasis.

Therapeutic Potential of Mesenchymal Stem Cell-Derived Exosomes in Spinal Cord Injury

Spinal cord injury (SCI) can lead to severe motor and sensory dysfunction, with a high rate of disability and mortality. Due to the complicated pathological process of SCI, there is no effective clinical treatment strategy at present. Although mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) are effective in the treatment of SCI, their application is limited by factors such as low survival rate, cell dedifferentiation, tumorigenesis, blood-brain barrier, and immune rejection. Fortunately, there is growing evidence that most of the biological and therapeutic effects of MSCs may be mediated by the release of paracrine factors, which are extracellular vesicles called exosomes. Exosomes are small endosomal vesicles with bilaminar membranes that have recently been recognized as key mediators for communication between cells and tissues through the transfer of proteins, lipids, nucleic acids, cytokines, and growth factors. Mesenchymal stem cell-derived exosomes (MSC-exos) play a critical role in SCI repair by promoting angiogenesis and axonal growth, regulating inflammation and immune response, inhibiting apoptosis, and maintaining the integrity of the blood-spinal cord barrier. Furthermore, they can be used to transport genetic material or drugs to target cells, and their relatively small size allows them to permeate the blood-brain barrier. Studies have demonstrated that some exosomal miRNAs derived from MSCs play a significant role in the treatment of SCI. In this review, we summarize recent research advances in MSC-exos and exosomal miRNAs in SCI therapy to better understand this emerging cell-free therapeutic strategy and discuss the advantages and challenges of MSC-exos in future clinical applications.

The proliferation/migration ability mediated by CD151/PI3K/AKT pathway determines the therapeutic effect of hUC-MSCs transplantation on rheumatoid arthritis

OBJECTIVE

To elucidate the underlying mechanism by which the proliferation and migration abilities of human umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cells (hUC-MSCs) determine their therapeutic efficacy in rheumatoid arthritis treatment.

METHODS

The DBA/1J mice were utilized to establish a collagen-induced RA (CIA) mouse model and to validate the therapeutic efficacy of hUC-MSCs transfected with CD151 siRNA. RNA-seq, QT-PCR and western blotting were utilized to evaluate the mRNA and protein levels of the PI3K/AKT pathway, respectively.

RESULTS

IFN-γ significantly enhanced the proliferation and migration abilities of hUC-MSCs, up-regulating the expression of CD151, a gene related to cell proliferation and migration. Effective inhibition of this effect was achieved through CD151 siRNA treatment. However, IFN-γ did not affect hUC-MSCs differentiation or changes in cell surface markers. Additionally, transplantation of CD151-interfered hUC-MSCs (siRNA-CD151-hUC-MSCs) resulted in decreased colonization in the toes of CIA mice and worse therapeutic effects compared to empty vector treatment (siRNA-NC-hUC-MSCs).

CONCLUSION

IFN-γ facilitates the proliferation and migration of hUC-MSCs through the CD151/PI3K/AKT pathway. The therapeutic efficacy of siRNA-CD151-hUC-MSCs was found to be inferior to that of siRNA-NC-hUC-MSCs.

The Role of Extracellular Vesicles and Microparticles in Central Nervous System Disorders: Mechanisms, Biomarkers, and Therapeutic Potential

Microscopic, membranous vesicles known as extracellular vesicles (EVs) have been proposed to play a role in the mechanisms underlying central nervous system (CNS) diseases. EVs are secreted by a variety of cells, including myeloid, endothelial, microglial, oligodendroglial, and mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs). Body fluids such as plasma, urine, and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) contain microparticles (MPs). The detection of MPs in CSF may indicate genetic or environmental susceptibility to conditions such as schizophrenia, schizoaffective disorder, and bipolar disorder. MPs of different origins can exhibit changes in specific biomarkers at various stages of the disease, aiding in the diagnosis and monitoring of neurological conditions. However, understanding the role and clinical applications of MPs is complicated by challenges such as their isolation and dual roles within the CNS. In this review, we discuss the history, characteristics, and roles of MPs in CNS diseases. We also provide practical insights for future research and highlight the challenges that obscure the therapeutic potential of MPs.

Roles of extracellular vesicles from mesenchymal stem cells in regeneration

Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) are highly valued in regenerative medicine due to their ability to self-renew and differentiate into various cell types. Their therapeutic benefits are primarily due to their paracrine effects, in particular through extracellular vesicles (EVs), which are related to intercellular communication. Recent advances in EV production and extraction technologies highlight the potential of MSC-derived EVs (MSC-EVs) in tissue engineering and regenerative medicine. MSC-EVs offer several advantages over traditional cell therapies, including reduced toxicity and immunogenicity compared with whole MSCs. EVs carrying functional molecules such as growth factors, cytokines, and miRNAs play beneficial roles in tissue repair, fibrosis treatment, and scar prevention by promoting angiogenesis, skin cell migration, proliferation, extracellular matrix remodeling, and reducing inflammation. Despite the potential of MSC-EVs, there are several limitations to their use, including variability in quality, the need for standardized methods, low yield, and concerns about the composition of EVs and the potential risks. Overall, MSC-EVs are a promising alternative to cell-based therapies, and ongoing studies aim to understand their actions and optimize their use for better clinical outcomes in wound healing and skin regeneration.

Viral miRNA delivered by exosomes from Marek's disease virus-transformed lymphoma cell line exerts regulatory function in internalized primary chicken embryo fibroblast cells

In the past decade, research has demonstrated that viral miRNAs encoded by a number of viral genomes, particularly by most of the herpesvirus including Marek's disease virus (MDV), play important regulatory roles in viral infection, replication, and regulation of tumorigenesis. As macrovesicles in cells, exosomes can deliver viral miRNAs and exert gene regulatory functions. Whether the exosomes play a role in the replication, pathogenesis/tumorigenesis of avian herpesviruses such as oncogenic Marek's disease virus (MDV) remains unclear. Herein we extracted and identified the exosomes from MDV-transformed T cell line MSB-1 and demonstrated high abundance of MDV-1 miRNA expression. Using dual luciferase-based reporter assay, we also demonstrated that the exosomes derived from MSB-1 can deliver functional miRNA successfully into primary chicken embryo fibroblasts. These findings provide new insights into the role of exosomes and the mechanisms of how virus-encoded miRNA function in MDV latency/activation switching, viral replication, pathogenesis and/or tumorigenesis.

A Direct Approach for Living Biomembrane Printing on a Nanoparticle

Biomembrane coating technologies have been developed to equip synthetic nanomaterials with natural biointerfaces. We report a one-step method for nondestructively coating the biomembranes of "living" cells onto nanoparticle surfaces. By using simple centrifugation, nanoparticles pass through a concentrated layer of living cells. This process mimics exosome release via endocytosis and exocytosis, preserving the membrane integrity of the source cells. The resulting silica nanoparticles were efficiently coated with membrane components from Raw264.7 cells. Nanoflow-liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry confirmed that the proteins composing the membrane originated from the source cells. Additionally, the biomembrane coating suppressed the phagocytosis of silica nanoparticles by Raw264.7 cells while enhancing their uptake by HeLa cells. Our simple and efficient method for living biomembrane coating holds promise for the development of nanoparticles for medical and pharmaceutical applications.

Stress-induced extracellular vesicles: insight into their altered proteomic composition and probable physiological role in cancer

EVs (extracellular vesicles) are phospholipid bilayer vesicles that can be released by both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells in normal as well as altered physiological conditions. These vesicles also termed as signalosomes, possess a distinctive cargo comprising nucleic acids, proteins, lipids, and metabolites, enabling them to play a pivotal role in both local and long-distance intercellular communication. The composition, origin, and release of EVs can be influenced by different physiological conditions and a variety of stress factors, consequently affecting the contents carried within these vesicles. Therefore, identifying the modified contents of EVs can provide valuable insights into their functional role in stress-triggered communication. Particularly, this is important when EVs released from tumor microenvironment are investigated for their role in the development and dissemination of cancer. This review article emphasizes the importance of differential EV shedding and altered proteomic content in response to reduced oxygen concentration, altered levels of glucose and glutamine, pH variations, oxidative stress and Ca2+ ion concertation and it is subsequent effects on the behavior of recipient cells.

Extracellular Vesicles Delivered by a Nanofiber-Hydrogel Composite Enhance Healing In Vivo in a Model of Crohn's Disease Perianal Fistula

Perianal fistulas represent a common, aggressive, and disabling complication of Crohn's disease (CD). Despite recent drug developments, novel surgical interventions as well as multidisciplinary treatment approaches, the outcome is dismal, with >50% therapy failure rates. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) derived from mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) offer potential therapeutic benefits for treating fistulizing CD, due to the pro-regenerative paracrine signals. However, a significant obstacle to clinical translation of EV-based therapy is the rapid clearance and short half-life of EVs in vivo. Here, an injectable, biodegradable nanofiber-hydrogel composite (NHC) microgel matrix that serves as a carrier to deliver MSC-derived EVs to a rat model of CD perianal fistula (PAF) is reported. It is found that EV-loaded NHC (EV-NHC) yields the best fistula healing when compared to other treatment arms. The MRI assessment reveals that the EV-NHC reduces inflammation at the fistula site and promotes tissue healing. The enhanced therapeutic outcomes are contributed by extended local retention and sustained release of EVs by NHC. In addition, the EV-NHC effectively reduces inflammation at the fistula site and promotes tissue healing and regeneration via macrophage polarization and neo-vascularization. This EV-NHC platform provides an off-the-shelf solution that facilitates its clinical translation.

Infertility: Focus on the therapeutic potential of extracellular vesicles

Infertility is a well-known problem that arises from a variety of reproductive diseases. Until now, researchers have tried various methods to restore fertility, including medication specific to the cause, hormone treatments, surgical removals, and assisted reproductive technologies. While these methods do produce results, they do not consistently lead to fertility restoration in every instance. The use of exosome therapy has significant potential in treating infertility in patients. This is because exosomes, microvesicles, and apoptotic bodies, which are different types of vesicles, play a crucial role in transferring bioactive molecules that aid in cell-to-cell communication. Reproductive fluids can transport a variety of molecular cargos, such as miRNAs, mRNAs, proteins, lipids, and DNA molecules. The percentage of these cargos in the fluids can be linked to their physiological and pathological status. EVs are involved in several physiological and pathological processes and offer interesting non-cellular therapeutic possibilities to treat infertility. EVs (extracellular vesicles) transplantation has been shown in many studies to be a key part of regenerating different parts of the reproductive system, including the production of oocytes and the start of sperm production. Nevertheless, the existing evidence necessitates testifying to the effectiveness of injecting EVs in resolving reproductive problems among humans. This review focuses on the current literature about infertility issues in both females and males, specifically examining the potential treatments involving extracellular vesicles (EVs).

Prostaglandin F2 Receptor Negative Regulator (PTGFRN) Expression Correlates With a Metastatic-like Phenotype in Epidermoid Carcinoma, Pediatric Medulloblastoma, and Mesothelioma

Prostaglandin F2 receptor negative regulator (PTGFRN) is a transmembrane protein associated with metastatic characteristics of certain cancer types. However, it remains poorly characterized and its direct function in cancer remains unclear. The study presented here aims to further examine whether PTGFRN expression affects a cancer cell's phenotype, as well as metastatic-like characteristics. We used stable shRNA and cDNA transfections to respectively knockdown and overexpress PTGFRN in three different cancer cell lines, two of which are representative of rare and aggressive cancers (Mesothelioma and Pediatric Medulloblastoma). We then examined the characteristics of the resulting clones and showed a decrease in proliferation, migration, colony formation, and spheroid growth capabilities in cells where PTGFRN expression had been inhibited, while cells overexpressing PTGFRN showed the opposite. In addition, we showed that PTGFRN displayed direct binding to two protein partners, Integrin β1 and E. Cadherin, the latter of which is a novel direct binding partner to PTGFRN. Furthermore, silencing PTGFRN expression impacted the cellular process of autophagy, thereby providing another avenue by which PTGFRN potentially contributes to a cancer cell phenotype. Our findings demonstrate the potential role of PTGFRN in cancer metastasis and suggest PTGFRN as a future target for drug development in the treatment of metastatic cancers.

New insights into the role of tetraspanin 6, 7, and 8 in physiology and pathology

BACKGROUND

The tetraspanin (TSPAN) family comprises 33 membrane receptors involved in various physiological processes in humans. Tetrasapanins are surface proteins expressed in cells of various organisms. They are localised to the cell membrane by four transmembrane domains (TM4SF). These domains bind several cell surface receptors and signalling proteins to tetraspanin-enriched lipid microdomains (TERM or TEM). Tetraspanins play a critical role in anchoring many proteins. They also act as a scaffold for cell signalling proteins.

AIM

To summarise how tetraspanins 6, 7 and 8 contribute to the carcinogenesis process in different types of cancer.

METHODS

To provide a comprehensive review of the role of tetraspanins 6, 7 and 8 in cancer biology, we conducted a thorough search in PubMed, Embase and performed manual search of reference list to collect and extract data.

DISCUSSION

The assembly of tetraspanins covers an area of approximately 100-400 nm. Tetraspanins are involved in various biological processes such as membrane fusion, aggregation, proliferation, adhesion, cell migration and differentiation. They can also regulate integrins, cell surface receptors and signalling molecules. Tetraspanins form direct bonds with proteins and other members of the tetraspanin family, forming a hierarchical network of interactions and are thought to be involved in cell and membrane compartmentalisation. Tetraspanins have been implicated in cancer progression and have been shown to have multiple binding partners and to promote cancer progression and metastasis. Clinical studies have documented a correlation between the level of tetraspanin expression and the prediction of cancer progression, including breast and lung cancer.

CONCLUSIONS

Tetraspanins are understudied in almost all cell types and their functions are not clearly defined. Fortunately, it has been possible to identify the basic mechanisms underlying the biological role of these proteins. Therefore, the purpose of this review is to describe the roles of tetraspanins 6, 7 and 8.

Fluorescent, phosphorescent, magnetic resonance contrast and radioactive tracer labelling of extracellular vesicles

This review focusses on the significance of fluorescent, phosphorescent labelling and tracking of extracellular vesicles (EVs) for unravelling their biology, pathophysiology, and potential diagnostic and therapeutic uses. Various labeling strategies, such as lipid membrane, surface protein, luminal, nucleic acid, radionuclide, quantum dot labels, and metal complex-based stains, are evaluated for visualizing and characterizing EVs. Direct labelling with fluorescent lipophilic dyes is simple but generally lacks specificity, while surface protein labelling offers selectivity but may affect EV-cell interactions. Luminal and nucleic acid labelling strategies have their own advantages and challenges. Each labelling approach has strengths and weaknesses, which require a suitable probe and technique based on research goals, but new tetranuclear polypyridylruthenium(II) complexes as phosphorescent probes have strong phosphorescence, selective staining, and stability. Future research should prioritize the design of novel fluorescent probes and labelling platforms that can significantly enhance the efficiency, accuracy, and specificity of EV labeling, while preserving their composition and functionality. It is crucial to reduce false positive signals and explore the potential of multimodal imaging techniques to gain comprehensive insights into EVs.

Overexpression of TSPAN8 in consensus molecular subtype 3 colorectal cancer

BACKGROUND

Recently, consensus molecular subtypes (CMSs) have been proposed as a robust transcriptome-based classification system for colorectal cancer (CRC). Tetraspanins (TSPANs) are transmembrane proteins. They have been associated with the development of numerous malignancies, including CRC, through their role as "master organizers" for multi-molecular membrane complexes. No previous study has investigated the correlation between TSPANs and CMS classification. Herein, we investigated the expression of TSPANs in patient-derived primary CRC tissues and their CMS classifications.

METHODS

RNA samples were derived from primary CRC tissues (n = 100 patients diagnosed with colorectal adenocarcinoma) and subjected to RNA sequencing for transcriptome-based CMS classification and TSPAN-relevant analyses. Immunohistochemistry (IHC) and immunofluorescence (IF) stains were conducted to observe the protein expression level. To evaluate the relative biological pathways, gene-set enrichment analysis was performed.

RESULTS

Of the highly expressed TSPAN genes in CRC tissues (TSPAN8, TSPAN29, and TSPAN30), TSPAN8 was notably overexpressed in CMS3-classified primary tissues. The overexpression of TSPAN8 protein in CMS3 CRC was also observed by IHC and IF staining. As a result of gene-set enrichment analysis, TSPAN8 may potentially play a role in organizing signaling complexes for kinase-based metabolic deregulation in CMS3 CRC.

CONCLUSIONS

The present study reports the overexpression of TSPAN8 in CMS3 CRC. This study proposes TSPAN8 as a subtype-specific biomarker for CMS3 CRC. This finding provides a foundation for future CMS-based studies of CRC, a complex disease and the second leading cause of cancer mortality worldwide.

The protein composition of exosomes released by prostate cancer cells is distinctly regulated by androgen receptor-antagonists and -agonist to stimulate growth of target cells

BACKGROUND

Prostate cancer (PCa) is a prevalent malignancy in men worldwide, ranking as the second leading cause of cancer-related death in Western countries. Various PCa hormone therapies, such as androgen receptor (AR)-antagonists or supraphysiological androgen level (SAL) reduce cancer cell proliferation. However, treated cells may influence the growth of neighboring cells through secreted exosomes in the tumor microenvironment (TME). Here, the change of protein content of exosomes secreted from PCa cells through treatment with different AR-antagonists or SAL has been analyzed.

METHODS

Isolation of exosomes via ultracentrifugation of treated human PCa LNCaP cells with AR-agonist and various AR-antagonists; analysis of cellular senescence by detection of senescence associated beta galactosidase activity (SA β-Gal); Western blotting and immunofluorescence staining; Mass spectrometry (MS-spec) of exosomes and bioinformatic analyses to identify ligand-specific exosomal proteins. Growth assays to analyze influence of exosomes on non-treated cells.

RESULTS

MS-spec analysis identified ligand-specific proteins in exosomes. One thousand seventy proteins were up- and 52 proteins downregulated by SAL whereas enzalutamide upregulated 151 proteins and downregulated 42 exosomal proteins. The bioinformatic prediction indicates an up-regulation of pro-proliferative pathways. AR ligands augment hub factors in exosomes that include AKT1, CALM1, PAK2 and CTNND1. Accordingly, functional assays confirmed that the isolated exosomes from AR-ligand treated cells promote growth of untreated PCa cells.

CONCLUSION

The data suggest that the cargo of exosomes is controlled by AR-agonist and -antagonists and distinct among the AR-antagonists. Further, exosomes promote growth that might influence the TME. This finding sheds light into the complex interplay between AR signaling and exosome-mediated communication between PCa cells.

Biological sex differences in hepatic response to in utero dimethylbenz(a)anthracene exposure

Fetal hepatic dimethylbenz(a)anthracene (DMBA) biotransformation is not defined, thus, this study investigated whether the fetal liver metabolizes DMBA and differs with biological sex. KK.Cg-a/a (lean; n = 20) or KK.Cg-Ay/J (obese; n = 20) pregnant mice were exposed to corn oil (CT) or DMBA (1 mg/kg bw/day) by intraperitoneal injection (n = 10/treatment) from gestation day 7-14. Postnatal day 2 male or female offspring livers were collected. Total RNA (n = 6) and protein (n = 6) were analyzed via a PCR-based array or LC-MS/MS, respectively. The level of Mgst3 was lower (P < 0.05) in livers of female compared to male offspring. Furthermore, in utero DMBA exposure increased (P < 0.1) Cyp2c29 and Gpx3 levels (P < 0.05) in female offspring. In male offspring, the abundance of Ahr, Comt (P < 0.1), Alox5, and Asna1 (P < 0.05) decreased due to DMBA exposure. Female and male offspring had 34 and 21 hepatic proteins altered (P < 0.05) by in utero DMBA exposure, respectively. Opposing patterns for hepatic CD81 and KRT78 occurred, being decreased in females but increased in males, while YWHAG was decreased by DMBA exposure in both. Functional KEGG pathway analysis identified enrichment of 26 and 13 hepatic metabolic proteins in male and female offspring, respectively, due to in utero DMBA exposure. In silico transcription factor analysis of differentially expressed proteins predicted involvement of female NRF1 but male AHR. Thus, hepatic biological sex differences and capacity to respond to toxicants in utero are supported.

"Triple-Punch" Strategy Exosome-Mimetic Nanovesicles for Triple Negative Breast Cancer Therapy

Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is the most malignant breast cancer, with high rates of relapse and metastasis. Because of the nonspecific targeting of chemotherapy and insurmountable aggressiveness, TNBC therapy lacks an effective strategy. Exosomes have been reported as an efficient drug delivery system (DDS). CD82 is a tumor metastasis inhibitory molecule that is enriched in exosomes. Aptamer AS1411 specifically targets TNBC cells due to its high expression of nucleolin. We generated a "triple-punch" cell membrane-derived exosome-mimetic nanovesicle system that integrated with CD82 overexpression, AS1411 conjugation, and doxorubicin (DOX) delivery. CD82 enrichment effectively inhibits the migration of TNBC cells. AS1411 conjugation specifically targets TNBC cells. DOX loading effectively inhibits proliferation and induces apoptosis of TNBC cells. Our results demonstrate a system of exosome-mimetic nanovesicles with "triple-punch" that may facilitate TNBC therapeutics.

Cancer Cell Biomechanical Properties Accompany Tspan8-Dependent Cutaneous Melanoma Invasion

The intrinsic biomechanical properties of cancer cells remain poorly understood. To decipher whether cell stiffness modulation could increase melanoma cells' invasive capacity, we performed both in vitro and in vivo experiments exploring cell stiffness by atomic force microscopy (AFM). We correlated stiffness properties with cell morphology adaptation and the molecular mechanisms underlying epithelial-to-mesenchymal (EMT)-like phenotype switching. We found that melanoma cell stiffness reduction was systematically associated with the acquisition of invasive properties in cutaneous melanoma cell lines, human skin reconstructs, and Medaka fish developing spontaneous MAP-kinase-induced melanomas. We observed a systematic correlation of stiffness modulation with cell morphological changes towards mesenchymal characteristic gains. We accordingly found that inducing melanoma EMT switching by overexpressing the ZEB1 transcription factor, a major regulator of melanoma cell plasticity, was sufficient to decrease cell stiffness and transcriptionally induce tetraspanin-8-mediated dermal invasion. Moreover, ZEB1 expression correlated with Tspan8 expression in patient melanoma lesions. Our data suggest that intrinsic cell stiffness could be a highly relevant marker for human cutaneous melanoma development.

Molecular characterization, expression pattern and immunologic function of CD82a in large yellow croaker (Larimichthys crocea)

Visceral white spot disease (VWND) caused by Pseudomonas plecoglossicida poses a major threat to the sustainable development of large yellow croaker (Larimichthys crocea) aquaculture. Genome-wide association analysis (GWAS) and RNA-seq research indicated that LcCD82a play an important role in resistance to visceral white spot disease in L. crocea, but the molecular mechanism of LcCD82a response to P. plecoglossicida infection is still unclear. In this study, we cloned and validated the Open Reading Frame (ORF) sequence of LcCD82a and explored the expression profile of LcCD82a in various tissues of L.crocea. In addition, two different transcript variants (LcCD82a-L and LcCD82a-S) of LcCD82a were identified that exhibit alternative splicing patterns after P. plecoglossicida infection, which may be closely related to the immune regulation during pathogenetic process of VWND. In order to explore the function of LcCD82a, we purified the recombinant protein of LcCD82a-L and LcCD82a-S. The bacterial agglutination and apoptosis function analysis showed that LcCD82a may involve in extracellular bacterial recognition, agglutination, and at the same time participate in the process of antigen presentation and induction of cell apoptosis. Collectively, our studies demonstrate that LcCD82a plays a crucial role in regulating apoptosis and antimicrobial immunity.

Prognostic implications of CD9 in childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia: insights from a nationwide multicenter study in China

The outcomes of children with acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) have been incrementally improved with risk-directed chemotherapy but therapy responses remain heterogeneous. Parameters with added prognostic values are warranted to refine the current risk stratification system and inform appropriate therapies. CD9, implicated by our prior single-center study, holds promise as one such parameter. To determine its precise prognostic significance, we analyzed a nationwide, multicenter, uniformly treated cohort of childhood ALL cases, where CD9 status was defined by flow cytometry on diagnostic samples of 3781 subjects. CD9 was expressed in 88.5% of B-ALL and 27.9% of T-ALL cases. It conferred a lower 5-year EFS and a higher CIR in B-ALL but not in T-ALL patients. The prognostic impact of CD9 was most pronounced in the intermediate/high-risk arms and those with minimal residual diseases, particularly at day 19 of remission induction. The adverse impact of CD9 was confined to specific cytogenetics, notably BCR::ABL1+ rather than KMT2A-rearranged leukemia. Multivariate analyses confirmed CD9 as an independent predictor of both events and relapse. The measurement of CD9 offers insights into patients necessitating intervention, warranting its seamless integration into the diagnostic marker panel to inform risk level and timely introduction of therapeutic intervention for childhood ALL.

Molecular Regulation and Oncogenic Functions of TSPAN8

Tetraspanins, a superfamily of small integral membrane proteins, are characterized by four transmembrane domains and conserved protein motifs that are configured into a unique molecular topology and structure in the plasma membrane. They act as key organizers of the plasma membrane, orchestrating the formation of specialized microdomains called "tetraspanin-enriched microdomains (TEMs)" or "tetraspanin nanodomains" that are essential for mediating diverse biological processes. TSPAN8 is one of the earliest identified tetraspanin members. It is known to interact with a wide range of molecular partners in different cellular contexts and regulate diverse molecular and cellular events at the plasma membrane, including cell adhesion, migration, invasion, signal transduction, and exosome biogenesis. The functions of cell-surface TSPAN8 are governed by ER targeting, modifications at the Golgi apparatus and dynamic trafficking. Intriguingly, limited evidence shows that TSPAN8 can translocate to the nucleus to act as a transcriptional regulator. The transcription of TSPAN8 is tightly regulated and restricted to defined cell lineages, where it can serve as a molecular marker of stem/progenitor cells in certain normal tissues as well as tumors. Importantly, the oncogenic roles of TSPAN8 in tumor development and cancer metastasis have gained prominence in recent decades. Here, we comprehensively review the current knowledge on the molecular characteristics and regulatory mechanisms defining TSPAN8 functions, and discuss the potential and significance of TSPAN8 as a biomarker and therapeutic target across various epithelial cancers.

Current progression in application of extracellular vesicles in central nervous system diseases

Early diagnosis and pharmacological treatment of central nervous system (CNS) diseases has been a long-standing challenge for clinical research due to the presence of the blood-brain barrier. Specific proteins and RNAs in brain-derived extracellular vesicles (EVs) usually reflect the corresponding state of brain disease, and therefore, EVs can be used as diagnostic biomarkers for CNS diseases. In addition, EVs can be engineered and fused to target cells for delivery of cargo, demonstrating the great potential of EVs as a nanocarrier platform. We review the progress of EVs as markers and drug carriers in the diagnosis and treatment of neurological diseases. The main areas include visual imaging, biomarker diagnosis and drug loading therapy for different types of CNS diseases. It is hoped that increased knowledge of EVs will facilitate their clinical translation in CNS diseases.

The role of small extracellular vesicle-miRNAs in endometriosis

Endometriosis is defined by the presence of extrauterine endometrial-like tissue, which can cause pain and infertility in 10% of reproductive-age women. To date, the pathogenesis is poorly understood resulting in significant diagnostic delays and poor therapeutic outcomes in many women. Small extracellular vesicles (sEVs) (<200 nm) are cell-derived vesicles containing molecules that can influence gene expression and behaviour in target cells. One such cargo are microRNAs (miRNAs), which are short, non-coding RNAs mostly 19-25 nucleotides in length that regulate post-transcriptional gene expression. This mini-review focuses on the role of sEV-miRNAs, which are conceivably better biomarkers for endometriosis than free miRNAs, which reflect the true pathophysiological state in the body, as sEV-encapsulated miRNAs are protected from degradation compared to free miRNA and provide direct cell-to-cell communication via sEV surface proteins. sEV-miRNAs have been implicated in the immunomodulation of macrophages, the proliferation, migration and invasion of endometrial cells, and angiogenesis, all hallmarks of endometriosis. The diagnostic potential of sEV-miRNA was investigated in one study that reported the sensitivity and specificity of two sEV-miRNAs (hsa-miR-22-3p and hsa-miR-320a-3p) in distinguishing endometriosis from non-endometriosis cases. Only three studies have explored the therapeutic potential of sEV-miRNAs in vivo in mice-two looked into the role of sEV-hsa-miR-214-3p in decreasing fibrosis, and one investigated sEV-hsa-miR-30c-5p in suppressing the invasive and migratory potential of endometriotic lesions. While early results are encouraging, studies need to further address the potential influence of factors such as the menstrual cycle as well as the location and extent of endometriotic lesions on miRNA expression in sEVs. Given these findings, and extrapolating from other conditions such as cancer, diabetes, and pre-eclampsia, sEV-miRNAs could present an attractive and urgently needed future diagnostic and therapeutic target for millions of women suffering from endometriosis. However, research in this area is hampered by lack of adherence to the International Society for Extracellular Vesicles 2018 guideline in separating and characterising sEVs, as well as the World Endometriosis Research Foundation Endometriosis Phenome and Biobanking Harmonisation Project protocols.

Effect of radiotherapy on the DNA cargo and cellular uptake mechanisms of extracellular vesicles

In the past decades, plenty of evidence has gathered pointing to the role of extracellular vesicles (EVs) secreted by irradiated cells in the development of radiation-induced non-targeted effects. EVs are complex natural structures composed of a phospholipid bilayer which are secreted by virtually all cells and carry bioactive molecules. They can travel certain distances in the body before being taken up by recipient cells. In this review we discuss the role and fate of EVs in tumor cells and highlight the importance of DNA specimens in EVs cargo in the context of radiotherapy. The effect of EVs depends on their cargo, which reflects physiological and pathological conditions of donor cell types, but also depends on the mode of EV uptake and mechanisms involved in the route of EV internalization. While the secretion and cargo of EVs from irradiated cells has been extensively studied in recent years, their uptake is much less understood. In this review, we will focus on recent knowledge regarding the EV uptake of cancer cells and the effect of radiation in this process.

Umbilical cord mesenchymal stromal cell-derived extracellular vesicles lack the potency to immunomodulate human monocyte-derived macrophages in vitro

Mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs) have been reported to display efficacy in a variety of preclinical models, but without long-term engraftment, suggesting a role for secreted factors, such as MSC-derived extracellular vesicles (EVs). MSCs are known to elicit immunomodulatory effects, an important aspect of which is their ability to affect macrophage phenotype. However, it is not clear if these effects are mediated by MSC-derived EVs, or other factors secreted by the MSCs. Here, we use flow cytometry to assess the effects of human umbilical cord (hUC) MSC-derived EVs on the expression of pro-inflammatory (CD80) and anti-inflammatory (CD163) surface markers in human monocyte-derived macrophages (hMDMs). hUC-MSC-derived EVs did not change the surface marker expression of the hMDMs. In contrast, when hMDMs were co-incubated with hUC-MSCs in indirect co-cultures, changes were observed in the expression of CD14, CD80 and CD163, particularly in M1 macrophages, suggesting that soluble factors are necessary to elicit a shift in phenotype. However, even though EVs did not alter the surface marker expression of macrophages, they promoted angiogenesis and phagocytic capacity increased proportionally to increases in EV concentration. Taken together, these results suggest that hUC-MSC-derived EVs are not sufficient to alter macrophage phenotype and that additional MSC-derived factors are needed.

Extracellular Vesicles in Triple-Negative Breast Cancer: Immune Regulation, Biomarkers, and Immunotherapeutic Potential

Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is an aggressive subtype accounting for ~10-20% of all human BC and is characterized by the absence of estrogen receptor (ER), progesterone receptor (PR), and human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2) amplification. Owing to its unique molecular profile and limited targeted therapies, TNBC treatment poses significant challenges. Unlike other BC subtypes, TNBC lacks specific molecular targets, rendering endocrine therapies and HER2-targeted treatments ineffective. The chemotherapeutic regimen is the predominant systemic treatment modality for TNBC in current clinical practice. However, the efficacy of chemotherapy in TNBC is variable, with response rates varying between a wide range of patients, and the emerging resistance further adds to the difficulties. Furthermore, TNBC exhibits a higher mutational burden and is acknowledged as the most immunogenic of all BC subtypes. Consequently, the application of immune checkpoint inhibition has been investigated in TNBC, yielding promising outcomes. Recent evidence identified extracellular vesicles (EVs) as an important contributor in the context of TNBC immunotherapy. In view of the extraordinary ability of EVs to transfer bioactive molecules, such as proteins, lipids, DNA, mRNAs, and small miRNAs, between the cells, EVs are considered a promising diagnostic biomarker and novel drug delivery system among the prospects for immunotherapy. The present review provides an in-depth understanding of how EVs influence TNBC progression, its immune regulation, and their contribution as a predictive biomarker for TNBC. The final part of the review focuses on the recent key advances in immunotherapeutic strategies for better understanding the complex interplay between EVs and the immune system in TNBC and further developing EV-based targeted immunotherapies.

Intrinsic factors behind long-COVID: II. SARS-CoV-2, extracellular vesicles, and neurological disorders

With the decline in the number of new Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infections, the World Health Organization announced the end of the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic. However, the repercussions of this viral pandemic may remain with us for a longer period of time, as it has remodeled the lives of humankind in many ways, including social and economic. Of course, its most important repercussions remain on the human health level. Long-coronavirus disease (COVID) or post-COVID is a state for which we do not have a concrete definition, a specific international classification of diseases Code, clear diagnostic tools, or well-known effective cures as of yet. In this second article from the Intrinsic Factors behind long-COVID Series, we try to link long-COVID symptoms with their causes, starting from the nervous system. Extracellular vesicles (ECVs) play very complex and ramified roles in the bodies of both healthy and not-healthy individuals. ECVs may facilitate the entry of many bioactive molecules and pathogens into the tissues and cells of the nervous system across the blood-brain barrier. Based on the size, quantity, and quality of their cargo, ECVs are directly proportional to the pathological condition and its severity through intertwined mechanisms that evoke inflammatory immune responses typically accompanied by pathological symptoms over variable time periods according to the type of these symptoms.

The Tetraspanin Tspan8 Associates with Endothelin Converting Enzyme ECE1 and Regulates Its Activity

Tspan8 is a member of the tetraspanins family of cell surface molecules. The ability of tetraspanins to organize membrane microdomains with other membrane molecules and interfere with their function suggests that they could act as surface integrators of external or internal signals. Among the first identified tetraspanins, Tspan8 promotes tumor progression and metastasis, presumably by stimulating angiogenesis and cell motility. In patients, its expression on digestive tract tumors seems to be associated with a bad prognosis. We showed previously that Tspan8 associates with E-cadherin and EGFR and modulates their effects on cell motility. Using Mass spectrometry and western blot, we found a new partner, the endothelin converting enzyme ECE1, and showed that Tspan8 amplifies its activity of conversion of the endothelin-1 precursor bigET1 to endothelin. This was observed by transduction of the colon carcinoma cell line Isreco1, which does not express Tspan8, and on ileum tissue fragments of tspan8ko mice versus wild type mice. Given these results, Tspan8 appears to be a modulator of the endothelin axis, which could possibly be targeted in case of over-activity of endothelins in biological processes of tissues expressing Tspan8.

Extracellular Vesicles Derived from Mesenchymal Stem Cells Promote Wound Healing and Skin Regeneration by Modulating Multiple Cellular Changes: A Brief Review

Mesenchymal stem cell-derived extracellular vesicles (MSC-EVs) are biologically active substances secreted by MSCs into the extracellular matrix that play an immunomodulatory role in skin damage repair. To investigate the mechanism of MSC-EVs in reducing inflammation, promoting angiogenesis, promoting the proliferation and migration of epithelial cells and fibroblasts, and extracellular matrix remodeling during wound healing, we focused on the effects of EVs on multiple cell types at various stages of skin injury. A literature review was conducted to explore related research on the influence of MSC-EVs on the types of cells involved in wound healing. MSC-EVs show a strong regulatory ability on immune cells involved in the regulation of inflammation, including macrophages, neutrophils, and T cells, and other cells involved in tissue proliferation and remodeling, such as fibroblasts, keratinocytes, and endothelial cells, during wound healing in in vitro and in vivo experiments, which substantially promoted the understanding of wound healing in the field of trauma medicine. MSC-EVs have potential applications in combating poor skin wound healing. Elucidating the mechanism of action of EVs in the wound-healing process would greatly advance the understanding of therapeutic wound healing.

TETRASPANIN 8-1 from Phaseolus vulgaris plays a key role during mutualistic interactions

Arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi and rhizobia form two of the most important plant-microbe associations for the assimilation of phosphorus (P) and nitrogen (N). Symbiont-derived signals are able to coordinate the infection process by triggering multiple responses in the plant root, such as calcium influxes and oscillations, increased reactive oxygen species (ROS), cytoskeletal rearrangements and altered gene expression. An examination was made of the role of tetraspanins, which are transmembrane proteins that self-organize into tetraspanin web regions, where they recruit specific proteins into platforms required for signal transduction, membrane fusion, cell trafficking, and ROS generation. In plant cells, tetraspanins are scaffolding proteins associated with root radial patterning, biotic and abiotic stress responses, cell fate determination, plasmodesmata and hormonal regulation. Some plant tetraspanins, such as Arabidopsis thaliana TETRASPANIN 8 and TETRASPANIN 9 (AtTET8 and AtTET9) are associated with exosomes during inter-kingdom communication. In this study, a homolog of AtTET8, PvTET8-1, in common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L. var. Negro Jamapa) was examined in roots during interactions with Rhizobium tropici and Rhizophagus irregularis. The promoter of PvTET8-1 contained several cis-acting regulatory DNA elements potentially related to mutualistic interactions, and PvTET8-1 was transcriptionally activated during AM fungal and rhizobial associations. Silencing it decreased the size and number of nodules, nitrogen fixation, and mycorrhizal arbuscule formation, whereas overexpressing it increased the size and number of nodules, and mycorrhizal arbuscule formation but decreased nitrogen fixation. PvTET8-1 appears to be an important element in both of these mutualistic interactions, perhaps through its interaction with NADPH oxidase and the generation of ROS during the infection processes.

The Role of Extracellular Vesicles in the Pathogenesis of Hematological Malignancies: Interaction with Tumor Microenvironment; a Potential Biomarker and Targeted Therapy

The tumor microenvironment (TME) plays an important role in the development and progression of hematological malignancies. In recent years, studies have focused on understanding how tumor cells communicate within the TME. In addition to several factors, such as growth factors, cytokines, extracellular matrix (ECM) molecules, etc., a growing body of evidence has indicated that extracellular vesicles (EVs) play a crucial role in the communication of tumor cells within the TME, thereby contributing to the pathogenesis of hematological malignancies. The present review focuses on how EVs derived from tumor cells interact with the cells in the TME, such as immune cells, stromal cells, endothelial cells, and ECM components, and vice versa, in the context of various hematological malignancies. EVs recovered from the body fluids of cancer patients often carry the bioactive molecules of the originating cells and hence can be considered new predictive biomarkers for specific types of cancer, thereby also acting as potential therapeutic targets. Here, we discuss how EVs influence hematological tumor progression via tumor-host crosstalk and their use as biomarkers for hematological malignancies, thereby benefiting the development of potential therapeutic targets.

Sequential genome-wide CRISPR-Cas9 screens identify genes regulating cell-surface expression of tetraspanins

Tetraspanins, a superfamily of membrane proteins, mediate diverse biological processes through tetraspanin-enriched microdomains in the plasma membrane. However, how their cell-surface presentation is controlled remains unclear. To identify the regulators of tetraspanin trafficking, we conduct sequential genome-wide loss-of-function CRISPR-Cas9 screens based on cell-surface expression of a tetraspanin member, TSPAN8. Several genes potentially involved in endoplasmic reticulum (ER) targeting, different biological processes in the Golgi apparatus, and protein trafficking are identified and functionally validated. Importantly, we find that biantennary N-glycans generated by MGAT1/2, but not more complex glycan structures, are important for cell-surface tetraspanin expression. Moreover, we unravel that SPPL3, a Golgi intramembrane-cleaving protease reported previously to act as a sheddase of multiple glycan-modifying enzymes, controls cell-surface tetraspanin expression through a mechanism associated with lacto-series glycolipid biosynthesis. Our study provides critical insights into the molecular regulation of cell-surface presentation of tetraspanins with implications for strategies to manipulate their functions, including cancer cell invasion.

Extracellular Vesicles as Therapeutic Resources in the Clinical Environment

The native role of extracellular vesicles (EVs) in mediating the transfer of biomolecules between cells has raised the possibility to use them as therapeutic vehicles. The development of therapies based on EVs is now expanding rapidly; here we will describe the current knowledge on different key points regarding the use of EVs in a clinical setting. These points are related to cell sources of EVs, isolation, storage, and delivery methods, as well as modifications to the releasing cells for improved production of EVs. Finally, we will depict the application of EVs therapies in clinical trials, considering the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the development of these therapies, pointing out that although it is a promising therapy for human diseases, we are still in the initial phase of its application to patients.

Extracellular vesicles derived from different sources play various roles in diabetic retinopathy

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are present in almost all biological fluids and secreted by almost all cell types. A growing number of studies have revealed the potential roles of EVs in the diagnosis and treatment of the diabetic retinopathy (DR). Changes in the quantity and content of EVs may serve as biomarkers of cause or consequence of pathological status of DR, such as inflammation, neovascularization and epithelial-mesenchymal transition. In addition, as natural, safe and efficient drug carrier, EVs have been reported to play important roles in intercellular communication by acting for essential cell-specific information to target cells. In this review, we summarize the roles of EVs, secreted by various types of cells and participated in various biological processes, in the pathogenesis, diagnosis, and treatment of DR.

Extracellular Vesicles (EVs) in Tumor Diagnosis and Therapy

In recent years, extracellular vesicles (EVs) have gained significant attention due to their tremendous potential for clinical applications. EVs play a crucial role in various aspects, including tumorigenesis, drug resistance, immune escape, and reconstruction of the tumor microenvironment. Despite the growing interest in EVs, many questions still need to be addressed before they can be practically applied in clinical settings. This paper aims to review EVs' isolation methods, structure research, the roles of EVs in tumorigenesis and their mechanisms in multiple types of tumors, their potential application in drug delivery, and the expectations for their future in clinical research.

Extracellular vesicles mediate biological information delivery: A double-edged sword in cardiac remodeling after myocardial infarction

Acute myocardial infarction (AMI) is a severe ischemic disease with high morbidity and mortality worldwide. Maladaptive cardiac remodeling is a series of abnormalities in cardiac structure and function that occurs following myocardial infarction (MI). The pathophysiology of this process can be separated into two distinct phases: the initial inflammatory response, and the subsequent longer-term scar revision that includes the regression of inflammation, neovascularization, and fibrotic scar formation. Extracellular vesicles are nano-sized lipid bilayer vesicles released into the extracellular environment by eukaryotic cells, containing bioinformatic transmitters which are essential mediators of intercellular communication. EVs of different cellular origins play an essential role in cardiac remodeling after myocardial infarction. In this review, we first introduce the pathophysiology of post-infarction cardiac remodeling, as well as the biogenesis, classification, delivery, and functions of EVs. Then, we explore the dual role of these small molecule transmitters delivered by EVs in post-infarction cardiac remodeling, including the double-edged sword of pro-and anti-inflammation, and pro-and anti-fibrosis, which is significant for post-infarction cardiac repair. Finally, we discuss the pharmacological and engineered targeting of EVs for promoting heart repair after MI, thus revealing the potential value of targeted modulation of EVs and its use as a drug delivery vehicle in the therapeutic process of post-infarction cardiac remodeling.

Immunomodulatory Effects of Mesenchymal Stem Cell-Derived Extracellular Vesicles in Allergic Airway Disease

Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) have been reported as promising candidates for the treatment of various diseases, especially allergic diseases, as they have the capacity to differentiate into various cells. However, MSCs itself have several limitations such as creating a risk of aneuploidy, difficulty in handling them, immune rejection, and tumorigenicity, so interest in the extracellular vesicles (EVs) released from MSCs are increasing, and many studies have been reported. Previous studies have shown that extracellular vesicles (EVs) produced by MSCs are as effective as the MSCs themselves in suppression of allergic airway inflammation through the suppression of Th2 cytokine production and the induction of regulatory T cells (Treg) expansion. EVs are one of the substances secreted by paracrine induction from MSCs, and because it exerts its effect by delivering contents such as mRNA, microRNA, and proteins to the receptor cell, it can reduce the problems or risks related to stem cell therapy. This article reviews the immunomodulatory properties of MSCs-derived EVs and their therapeutic implications for allergic airway disease.

Co-expression of Matrix Metalloproteinase 9 (MMP9) and Motility-related Protein-1 (MRP-1/CD9) in Human Breast Cancer

Background: Controversial evidence exists regarding the metastasis-suppressor or promoting activity of motility-related protein-1 (MRP-1/CD9) in breast cancer (BC). Objectives: we aimed at investigating the possible correlation of CD9 with a metastasis marker matrix metalloproteinase 9 (MMP9) in human BC tissues. Methods: A total of 19 BC and 5 normal breast tissues were analyzed. The mRNA expression of CD9 and MMP9 was measured by quantitative PCR. The correlation of genes’ expression with each other and clinicopathological features (i. e. tumor pathology, grade, estrogen receptor (ER), progesterone receptor (PR), human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER-2), P53, and KI67) was tested by relevant statistical analysis methods. Results: There was no significant difference between patients with BC and the control group regarding the expression of MMP9 (P = 0.394) and CD9 (P = 0.887). A significant strong positive correlation was observed between CD9 and MMP-9 expressions (r = 0.761 and P = 0.0002). The MMP9 expression was significantly higher in ER or PR positive compared to ER or PR negative tumors (P = 0.046). Conclusions: Given the strong correlation with MMP9, it seems that CD9 might have a role in metastasis in human BC. However, much more studies are required to further support this hypothesis.

Small extracellular vesicles from young adipose-derived stem cells prevent frailty, improve health span, and decrease epigenetic age in old mice

Aging is associated with an increased risk of frailty, disability, and mortality. Strategies to delay the degenerative changes associated with aging and frailty are particularly interesting. We treated old animals with small extracellular vesicles (sEVs) derived from adipose mesenchymal stem cells (ADSCs) of young animals, and we found an improvement in several parameters usually altered with aging, such as motor coordination, grip strength, fatigue resistance, fur regeneration, and renal function, as well as an important decrease in frailty. ADSC-sEVs induced proregenerative effects and a decrease in oxidative stress, inflammation, and senescence markers in muscle and kidney. Moreover, predicted epigenetic age was lower in tissues of old mice treated with ADSC-sEVs and their metabolome changed to a youth-like pattern. Last, we gained some insight into the microRNAs contained in sEVs that might be responsible for the observed effects. We propose that young sEV treatment can promote healthy aging.

Chemotherapy induces feedback up-regulation of CD44v6 in colorectal cancer initiating cells through β-catenin/MDR1 signaling to sustain chemoresistance

Chemoresistance in colorectal cancer initiating cells (CICs) involves the sustained activation of multiple drug resistance (MDR) and WNT/β-catenin signaling pathways, as well as of alternatively spliced-isoforms of CD44 containing variable exon-6 (CD44v6). In spite of its importance, mechanisms underlying the sustained activity of WNT/β-catenin signaling have remained elusive. The presence of binding elements of the β-catenin-interacting transcription factor TCF4 in the MDR1 and CD44 promoters suggests that crosstalk between WNT/β-catenin/TCF4-activation and the expression of the CD44v6 isoform mediated by FOLFOX, a first-line chemotherapeutic agent for colorectal cancer, could be a fundamental mechanism of FOLFOX resistance. Our results identify that FOLFOX treatment induced WNT3A secretion, which stimulated a positive feedback loop coupling β-catenin signaling and CD44v6 splicing. In conjunction with FOLFOX induced WNT3A signal, specific CD44v6 variants produced by alternative splicing subsequently enhance the late wave of WNT/β-catenin activation to facilitate cell cycle progression. Moreover, we revealed that FOLFOX-mediated sustained WNT signal requires the formation of a CD44v6-LRP6-signalosome in caveolin microdomains, which leads to increased FOLFOX efflux. FOLFOX-resistance in colorectal CICs occurs in the absence of tumor-suppressor disabled-2 (DAB2), an inhibitor of WNT/β-catenin signaling. Conversely, in sensitive cells, DAB2 inhibition of WNT-signaling requires interaction with a clathrin containing CD44v6-LRP6-signalosome. Furthermore, full-length CD44v6, once internalized through the caveolin-signalosome, is translocated to the nucleus where in complex with TCF4, it binds to β-catenin/TCF4-regulated MDR1, or to CD44 promoters, which leads to FOLFOX-resistance and CD44v6 transcription through transcriptional-reprogramming. These findings provide evidence that targeting CD44v6-mediated LRP6/β-catenin-signaling and drug efflux may represent a novel approach to overcome FOLFOX resistance and inhibit tumor progression in colorectal CICs. Thus, sustained drug resistance in colorectal CICs is mediated by overexpression of CD44v6, which is both a functional biomarker and a therapeutic target in colorectal cancer.

Inhibition of sphingolipid metabolism in osteosarcoma protects against CD151-mediated tumorigenicity

Osteosarcoma is the most common primary bone tumor, with a poor prognosis owing to the lack of efficient molecular-based targeted therapies. Previous studies have suggested an association between CD151 and distinct consequences in osteosarcoma tumorigenicity. However, the potential of CD151 as a therapeutic target has not yet been sufficiently explored. Here, we performed integrated transcriptomic and metabolomic analyses of osteosarcoma and identified sphingolipid metabolism as the top CD151-regulated pathway. CD151 regulates sphingolipid metabolism primarily through SPTCL1, the first rate-limiting enzyme in sphingolipid biosynthesis. Mechanistically, depletion of CD151 enhanced c-myc polyubiquitination and subsequent degradation. c-myc is vital for the transcriptional activation of SPTLC1. Functionally, sphingolipid synthesis and the SPTLC1 inhibitor, myriocin, significantly suppressed the clonogenic growth of CD151-overexpression cells. Importantly, myriocin selectively restrained CD151-high expression tumor growth in preclinical patient-derived xenograft models. Collectively, these data establish that CD151 is a key mediator of sphingolipid metabolism and provide a new approach to developing novel CD151-based targeted therapies for osteosarcoma.

Machine learning-assisted elucidation of CD81-CD44 interactions in promoting cancer stemness and extracellular vesicle integrity

Tumor-initiating cells with reprogramming plasticity or stem-progenitor cell properties (stemness) are thought to be essential for cancer development and metastatic regeneration in many cancers; however, elucidation of the underlying molecular network and pathways remains demanding. Combining machine learning and experimental investigation, here we report CD81, a tetraspanin transmembrane protein known to be enriched in extracellular vesicles (EVs), as a newly identified driver of breast cancer stemness and metastasis. Using protein structure modeling and interface prediction-guided mutagenesis, we demonstrate that membrane CD81 interacts with CD44 through their extracellular regions in promoting tumor cell cluster formation and lung metastasis of triple negative breast cancer (TNBC) in human and mouse models. In-depth global and phosphoproteomic analyses of tumor cells deficient with CD81 or CD44 unveils endocytosis-related pathway alterations, leading to further identification of a quality-keeping role of CD44 and CD81 in EV secretion as well as in EV-associated stemness-promoting function. CD81 is coexpressed along with CD44 in human circulating tumor cells (CTCs) and enriched in clustered CTCs that promote cancer stemness and metastasis, supporting the clinical significance of CD81 in association with patient outcomes. Our study highlights machine learning as a powerful tool in facilitating the molecular understanding of new molecular targets in regulating stemness and metastasis of TNBC.

Use of heparin to rescue immunosuppressive monocyte reprogramming by glioblastoma-derived extracellular vesicles

OBJECTIVE

The profound immunosuppression found in glioblastoma (GBM) patients is a critical barrier to effective immunotherapy. Multiple mechanisms of tumor-mediated immune suppression exist, and the induction of immunosuppressive monocytes such as myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs) is increasingly appreciated as a key part of this pathology. GBM-derived extracellular vesicles (EVs) can induce the formation of MDSCs. The authors sought to identify the molecular consequences of these interactions in myeloid cells in order to identify potential targets that could pharmacologically disrupt GBM EV-monocyte interaction as a means to ameliorate tumor-mediated immune suppression. Heparin-sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) are a general mechanism by which EVs come into association with their target cells, and soluble heparin has been shown to interfere with EV-HSPG interactions. The authors sought to assess the efficacy of heparin treatment for mitigating the effects of GBM EVs on the formation of MDSCs.

METHODS

GBM EVs were collected from patient-derived cell line cultures via staged ultracentrifugation and cocultured with monocytes collected from apheresis cones from healthy blood donors. RNA was isolated from EV-conditioned and unconditioned monocytes after 72 hours of coculture, and RNA-sequencing analysis performed. For the heparin treatment studies, soluble heparin was added at the time of EV-monocyte coculture and flow cytometry analysis was performed 72 hours later. After the initial EV-monocyte coculture period, donor-matched T-cell coculture studies were performed by adding fluorescently labeled and stimulated T cells for 5 days of coculture.

RESULTS

Transcriptomic analysis of GBM EV-treated monocytes demonstrated downregulation of several important immunological and metabolic pathways, with upregulation of the pathways associated with synthesis of cholesterol and HSPG. Heparin treatment inhibited association between GBM EVs and monocytes in a dose-dependent fashion, which resulted in a concomitant reduction in MDSC formation (p < 0.01). The authors further demonstrated that reduced MDSC formation resulted in a partial rescue of immune suppression, as measured by effects on activated donor-matched T cells (p < 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

The authors demonstrated that GBM EVs induce broad but reproducible reprogramming in monocytes, with enrichment of pathways that may portend an immunosuppressive phenotype. The authors further demonstrated that GBM EV-monocyte interactions are potentially druggable targets for overcoming tumor-mediated immune suppression, with heparin inhibition of EV-monocyte interactions demonstrating proof of principle.

Extracellular vesicle therapy for traumatic central nervous system disorders

Traumatic central nervous system (CNS) disorders have catastrophic effects on patients, and, currently, there is no effective clinical treatment. Cell transplantation is a common treatment for traumatic CNS injury in animals. In recent years, an increasing number of studies have reported that the beneficial effect of transplanted cells for CNS repair is mediated primarily through the extracellular vesicles (EVs) secreted by the cells, in which microRNAs play a major role. Accordingly, numerous studies have evaluated the roles and applications of EVs secreted by different cell types in neurological diseases. Furthermore, due to their unique biological features, EVs are used as disease biomarkers and drug delivery systems for disease prevention and treatment. We discuss current knowledge related to EVs, focusing on the mechanism underlying their effects on traumatic CNS diseases, and summarize existing research on the potential clinical utility of EVs as disease biomarkers and drug delivery systems.

Long Non-Coding RNA T Cell Leukemia/Lymphoma 6 Inhibits the Proliferation and Invasion of Breast Cancer Cells by Down-Regulating miR-665

Breast cancer (BC), which is most commonly seen in women, has become the second most common cause of cancer death in the United States. The number of women dying from BC is increasing every year, especially in the developing countries that fall behind in terms of economy and technologies. Therefore, it is of great necessity to find potential targets to effectively treat this disease. In this study, RT-qPCR was performed to detect the expressions of TCL6, miR-665, and CD82. CCK-8 and immunofluorescence assays were conducted for the assessment of BC cell proliferation. The invasion and migration of BC cells were detected by transwell and wound healing assays, respectively. Luciferase reporter assay was used to verify the combination of TCL6 and miR-665, and the binding of miR-665 and CD82. Moreover, the proliferation and migration of related proteins were measured by western blot. The results showed that TCL6 was low expressed in BC cells, but overexpression of TCL6 inhibited the proliferation, migration, and invasion of BC cells. On the contrary, miR-665 was highly expressed in BC cells, while its expression was negatively correlated with TCL6 as suggested by RT-qPCR assay. Furthermore, the inhibitory effects of TCL6 overexpression on the proliferation, migration, and invasion of BC cells were reversed by miR-665 mimic. Afterwards, the binding sites between miR-665 and CD82 were verified by luciferase reporter assay. Overexpression of TCL6 increased the level of CD82 in BC cells, but this effect was reversed by miR-665 mimic as well. In conclusion, the present study has presented the fact that TCL6 could enhance the expression of CD82 by down-regulating the expression of miR-665.