Lovastatin and beyond: the history of the HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors

Genomic Discovery and Structure-Activity Exploration of a Novel Family of Enzyme-Activated Covalent Cyclin-Dependent Kinase Inhibitors

Fungi have historically been the source of numerous important medicinal compounds, but full exploitation of their genetic potential for drug development has been hampered in traditional discovery paradigms. Here we describe a radically different approach, top-down drug discovery (TD3), starting with a massive digital search through a database of over 100,000 fully genomicized fungi to identify loci encoding molecules with a predetermined human target. We exemplify TD3 by the selection of cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs) as targets and the discovery of two molecules, 1 and 2, which inhibit therapeutically important human CDKs. 1 and 2 exhibit a remarkable mechanism, forming a site-selective covalent bond to the CDK active site Lys. We explored the structure-activity relationship via semi- and total synthesis, generating an analog, 43, with improved kinase selectivity, bioavailability, and efficacy. This work highlights the power of TD3 to identify mechanistically and structurally novel molecules for the development of new medicines.

ASGR1 is a promising target for lipid reduction in pigs with PON2 as its inhibitor

Although the role of asialoglycoprotein receptor 1 (ASGR1) in lowering lipid levels is well established, recent studies indicate that ASGR1 inhibition can cause unexpected liver damage in pigs, raising a serious issue about whether ASGR1 can be a good target for treating ASCVD. Here, we utilized the CRISPR-Cas9 system to regenerate ASGR1-knockout pigs, who displayed decreased lipid profiles without observable liver damage. This was confirmed by the lower levels of serum ALT and AST, reduced expression of inflammation markers, and normal histological morphology. Also, we implemented immunoprecipitation combined with mass spectrometry (IP-MS) and discovered that paraoxonase-2 (PON2) can interact with and significantly degrade ASGR1 in a dose-dependent manner. This degradation reduced lipid levels in mice, accompanied by little inflammation. Our study highlights the effectiveness and safety of degrading ASGR1 to reduce lipid levels in pigs and provides a potential inhibitor of ASGR1.

New Zosteropenillines and Pallidopenillines from the Seagrass-Derived Fungus Penicillium yezoense KMM 4679

Ten new decalin polyketides, zosteropenilline M (1), 11-epi-8-hydroxyzosteropenilline M (2), zosteropenilline N (3), 8-hydroxyzosteropenilline G (4), zosteropenilline O (5), zosteropenilline P (6), zosteropenilline Q (7), 13-dehydroxypallidopenilline A (8), zosteropenilline R (9) and zosteropenilline S (10), together with known zosteropenillines G (11) and J (12), pallidopenilline A (13) and 1-acetylpallidopenilline A (14), were isolated from the ethyl acetate extract of the fungus Penicillium yezoense KMM 4679 associated with the seagrass Zostera marina. The structures of isolated compounds were established based on spectroscopic methods. The absolute configurations of zosteropenilline Q (7) and zosteropenilline S (10) were determined using a combination of the modified Mosher's method and ROESY data. The absolute configurations of zosteropenilline M (1) and zosteropenilline N (3) were determined using time-dependent density functional theory (TD-DFT) calculations of the ECD spectra. A biogenetic pathway for compounds 1-14 is proposed. The antimicrobial, cytotoxic and cytoprotective activities of the isolated compounds were also studied. The significant cytoprotective effects of the new zosteropenilline M and zosteropenillines O and R were found in a cobalt chloride (II) mimic in in vitro hypoxia in HEK-293 cells. 1-Acetylpallidopenilline A (14) exhibited high inhibition of human breast cancer MCF-7 cell colony formation with IC50 of 0.66 µM and its anticancer effect was reduced when MCF-7 cells were pretreated with 4-hydroxitamoxifen. Thus, we propose 1-acetylpallidopenilline A as a new xenoestrogen with significant activity against breast cancer.

Exome-wide evidence of compound heterozygous effects across common phenotypes in the UK Biobank

The phenotypic impact of compound heterozygous (CH) variation has not been investigated at the population scale. We phased rare variants (MAF ∼0.001%) in the UK Biobank (UKBB) exome-sequencing data to characterize recessive effects in 175,587 individuals across 311 common diseases. A total of 6.5% of individuals carry putatively damaging CH variants, 90% of which are only identifiable upon phasing rare variants (MAF < 0.38%). We identify six recessive gene-trait associations (p < 1.68 × 10-7) after accounting for relatedness, polygenicity, nearby common variants, and rare variant burden. Of these, just one is discovered when considering homozygosity alone. Using longitudinal health records, we additionally identify and replicate a novel association between bi-allelic variation in ATP2C2 and an earlier age at onset of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) (p < 3.58 × 10-8). Genetic phase contributes to disease risk for gene-trait pairs: ATP2C2-COPD (p = 0.000238), FLG-asthma (p = 0.00205), and USH2A-visual impairment (p = 0.0084). We demonstrate the power of phasing large-scale genetic cohorts to discover phenome-wide consequences of compound heterozygosity.

Quality Control and Safety Assessment of Online-Purchased Food Supplements Containing Red Yeast Rice (RYR)

Dietary supplements containing red yeast rice (RYR), a fermentation product of the fungus Monascus purpureus grown on white rice, remain popular in Europe as proclaimed cholesterol-lowering aids. The cholesterol-lowering effects are due to the occurrence of monacolin K, which is often present as a mixture of monacolin K lactone (MK) and as monacolin K hydroxy acid (MKA). MK is structurally similar to the cholesterol-lowering medicine lovastatin. Recently, due to safety concerns linked to the use of statins, the European Commission prohibited RYR supplements with a maximum serving exceeding 3 mg of total monacolins per day. Moreover, the amount of the mycotoxin citrinin, potentially produced by M. purpureus, was also reduced to 100 µg/kg. Evidently, manufacturers that offer their products on the European market, including the online market, must also be compliant with these limits in order to guarantee the safety of their products. Therefore, thirty-five different RYR supplements, purchased from an EU-bound e-commerce platform or from registered online pharmacies, were screened for their compliance to the European legislation for citrinin content and the amount of total monacolin K. This was conducted by means of a newly developed LC-MS/MS methodology that was validated according to ISO 17025. Moreover, these supplements were also screened for possible adulteration and any contamination by micro-organisms and/or mycotoxins. It was found that at least four of the thirty-five RYR supplements (≈11%) might have reason for concern for the safety of the consumer either due to high total monacolin K concentrations exceeding the European predefined limits for total monacolins or severe bacterial contamination. Moreover, three samples (≈9%) were likely adulterated, and the labeling of six of the seventeen samples (≈35%) originating from an EU-based e-commerce platform was not compliant, as either the mandatory warning was missing or incomplete or the total amount of monacolins was not mentioned.

SPARC Stabilizes ApoE to Induce Cholesterol-Dependent Invasion and Sorafenib Resistance in Hepatocellular Carcinoma

Dysregulation of cholesterol homeostasis is implicated in the development and progression of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) that is characterized by intrahepatic and early extrahepatic metastases. A better understanding of the underlying mechanisms regulating cholesterol metabolism in HCC could help identify strategies to circumvent the aggressive phenotype. Here, we found that high expression of intracellular SPARC (secreted protein acidic and rich in cysteine) was significantly associated with elevated cholesterol levels and an enhanced invasive phenotype in HCC. SPARC potentiated cholesterol accumulation in HCC cells during tumor progression by stabilizing the ApoE protein. Mechanistically, SPARC competitively bound to ApoE, impairing its interaction with the E3 ligase tripartite motif containing 21 (TRIM21) and preventing its ubiquitylation and subsequent degradation. ApoE accumulation led to cholesterol enrichment in HCC cells, stimulating PI3K-AKT signaling and inducing epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT). Importantly, sorafenib-resistant HCC cells were characterized by increased expression of intracellular SPARC, elevated cholesterol levels, and enhanced invasive capacity. Inhibiting SPARC expression or reducing cholesterol levels enhanced the sensitivity of HCC cells to sorafenib treatment. Together, these findings unveil interplay between SPARC and cholesterol homeostasis. Targeting SPARC-triggered cholesterol-dependent oncogenic signaling is a potential therapeutic strategy for advanced HCC.

SIGNIFICANCE

Intracellular SPARC boosts cholesterol availability to fuel invasion and drug resistance in hepatocellular carcinoma, providing a rational approach to improve the treatment of advanced liver cancer.

Simvastatin, Its Antimicrobial Activity and Its Prevention of Alzheimer's Disease

Simvastatin, a blockbuster drug for treating hypercholesterolemia, has multifactorial benefits as an antimicrobial agent and plays a preventative role in reducing the incidence of Alzheimer's Disease (AD). Although most of the beneficial effects of simvastatin have been attributed to its ability to reduce cholesterol levels, recent scientific studies have suggested that its benefits are largely due to its pleiotropic effects in targeting other pathways, e.g., by inhibiting protein lipidation. There are certain pleiotropic effects that can be predicted from the inhibition of the mevalonate pathway; however, some of the effects of simvastatin in proteostasis lead to reduced levels of amyloid beta, the key contributor to AD. This review discusses the use of simvastatin as an antimicrobial agent and anti-AD drug.

BMI Trajectories in Late Middle Age, Genetic Risk, and Incident Diabetes in Older Adults: Evidence From a 26-Year Longitudinal Study

This study investigated the association between body mass index (BMI) trajectories in late middle age and incident diabetes in later years. A total of 11,441 participants aged 50-60 years from the Health and Retirement Study with at least 2 self-reported BMI records were included. Individual BMI trajectories representing average BMI changes per year were generated using multilevel modeling. Adjusted risk ratios (ARRs) and 95% confidence intervals (95% CIs) were calculated. Associations between BMI trajectories and diabetes risk in participants with different genetic risks were estimated for 5,720 participants of European ancestry. BMI trajectories were significantly associated with diabetes risk in older age (slowly increasing vs. stable: ARR = 1.31, 95% CI: 1.12, 1.54; rapidly increasing vs. stable: ARR = 1.5, 95% CI: 1.25, 1.79). This association was strongest for normal-initial-BMI participants (slowly increasing: ARR = 1.34, 95% CI: 0.96, 1.88; rapidly increasing: ARR = 2.06, 95% CI: 1.37, 3.11). Participants with a higher genetic liability to diabetes and a rapidly increasing BMI trajectory had the highest risk for diabetes (ARR = 2.15, 95% CI: 1.67, 2.76). These findings confirmed that BMI is the leading risk factor for diabetes and that although the normal BMI group has the lowest incidence rate for diabetes, people with normal BMI are most sensitive to changes in BMI.

Cellular metabolism regulates the differentiation and function of T-cell subsets

T cells are an important component of adaptive immunity and protect the host from infectious diseases and cancers. However, uncontrolled T cell immunity may cause autoimmune disorders. In both situations, antigen-specific T cells undergo clonal expansion upon the engagement and activation of antigens. Cellular metabolism is reprogrammed to meet the increase in bioenergetic and biosynthetic demands associated with effector T cell expansion. Metabolites not only serve as building blocks or energy sources to fuel cell growth and expansion but also regulate a broad spectrum of cellular signals that instruct the differentiation of multiple T cell subsets. The realm of immunometabolism research is undergoing swift advancements. Encapsulating all the recent progress within this concise review in not possible. Instead, our objective is to provide a succinct introduction to this swiftly progressing research, concentrating on the metabolic intricacies of three pivotal nutrient classes-lipids, glucose, and amino acids-in T cells. We shed light on recent investigations elucidating the roles of these three groups of metabolites in mediating the metabolic and immune functions of T cells. Moreover, we delve into the prospect of "editing" metabolic pathways within T cells using pharmacological or genetic approaches, with the aim of synergizing this approach with existing immunotherapies and enhancing the efficacy of antitumor and antiinfection immune responses.

A secondary mechanism of action for triazole antifungals in Aspergillus fumigatus mediated by hmg1

Triazole antifungals function as ergosterol biosynthesis inhibitors and are frontline therapy for invasive fungal infections, such as invasive aspergillosis. The primary mechanism of action of triazoles is through the specific inhibition of a cytochrome P450 14-α-sterol demethylase enzyme, Cyp51A/B, resulting in depletion of cellular ergosterol. Here, we uncover a clinically relevant secondary mechanism of action for triazoles within the ergosterol biosynthesis pathway. We provide evidence that triazole-mediated inhibition of Cyp51A/B activity generates sterol intermediate perturbations that are likely decoded by the sterol sensing functions of HMG-CoA reductase and Insulin-Induced Gene orthologs as increased pathway activity. This, in turn, results in negative feedback regulation of HMG-CoA reductase, the rate-limiting step of sterol biosynthesis. We also provide evidence that HMG-CoA reductase sterol sensing domain mutations previously identified as generating resistance in clinical isolates of Aspergillus fumigatus partially disrupt this triazole-induced feedback. Therefore, our data point to a secondary mechanism of action for the triazoles: induction of HMG-CoA reductase negative feedback for downregulation of ergosterol biosynthesis pathway activity. Abrogation of this feedback through acquired mutations in the HMG-CoA reductase sterol sensing domain diminishes triazole antifungal activity against fungal pathogens and underpins HMG-CoA reductase-mediated resistance.

Methyltransferase Domain-Focused Genome Mining for Fungal Polyketide Synthases

A comparison of substrate-binding site amino acid residues in the C-methyltransferase (MT) domains of fungal nonreducing polyketide synthases (NR-PKSs) suggests that these residues are correlated with the methylation modes used by the PKSs. A PKS, designated as AsbPKS, with substrate-binding site residues distinct from those of other known PKSs is focused on. The characterization of AsbPKS revealed that it yields an isocoumarin derivative, anhydrosclerotinin B (1), the biosynthesis of which involves a previously unreported methylation pattern. This study demonstrates the utility of MT domain-focused genome mining for the discovery of PKSs with new functions.

Preparation and characterization of pickering emulsion stabilized by lovastatin nanoparticles for vaccine adjuvants

While research on mevalonate inhibitors as vaccine adjuvants has made great progress to enhance the effectiveness of the vaccine, co delivery of lovastatin and antigens (OVA) remains an enormous challenge. Here, we encapsulated lovastatin into PLGA nanoparticles. PLGA loading lovastatin was further emulsified with squalene to prepare Pickering emulsion. The emulsification conditions of Pickering emulsion were optimized, and the optimal preparation conditions were obtained. After loading lovastatin and OVA, the size and zeta potential of LS-PPAS/OVA was 1043.33 nm and -22.07 mv, the adsorption rate of OVA was 63.34 %. The adsorbing of LS-PLGA nanoparticles on the surface of squalene in Pickering emulsions was demonstrated by Fluorescent confocal microscopy. After immunization, LS-PPAS enhanced the activation of dendritic cells in lymph nodes, further study found LS-PPAS not only elicited elevated levels of OVA-specific IgG and its subtypes, but also promoted the secretion of TNF-α, IFN-γ, and IL-6 in serum as a marker of cellular immunity. Importantly, LS-PPAS showed sufficient security through monitoring levels of biochemical parameters in serum and pathological observation of organ following vaccinations. LS-PPAS may act as a promising vaccine carrier to produce strong humoral and cellular immunity with acceptable safety.

First-class - biosynthesis of 6-MSA and bostrycoidin type I polyketides in Yarrowia lipolytica

Fungal polyketides are a large group of secondary metabolites, valuable due to their diverse spectrum of pharmacological activities. Polyketide biosynthesis in filamentous fungi presents some challenges: small yield and low-purity titers. To tackle these issues, we switched to the yeast Yarrowia lipolytica, an easily cultivable heterologous host. As an oleaginous yeast, Y. lipolytica displays a high flux of acetyl- and malonyl-CoA precursors used in lipid synthesis. Likewise, acetyl- and malonyl-CoA are the building blocks of many natural polyketides, and we explored the possibility of redirecting this flux toward polyketide production. Despite its promising prospect, Y. lipolytica has so far only been used for heterologous expression of simple type III polyketide synthases (PKSs) from plants. Therefore, we decided to evaluate the potential of Y. lipolytica by targeting the more complex fungal polyketides synthesized by type I PKSs. We employed a CRISPR-Cas9-mediated genome editing method to achieve markerless gene integration of the genes responsible for bostrycoidin biosynthesis in Fusarium solani (fsr1, fsr2, and fsr3) and 6-methylsalicylic acid (6-MSA) biosynthesis in Aspergillus hancockii (6MSAS). Moreover, we attempted titer optimization through metabolic engineering by overexpressing two enzymes, TGL4 and AOX2, involved in lipid β-oxidation, but we did not observe an effect on polyketide production. With maximum titers of 403 mg/L 6-MSA and 35 mg/L bostrycoidin, the latter being substantially higher than our previous results in Saccharomyces cerevisiae (2.2 mg/L), this work demonstrates the potential of Y. lipolytica as a platform for heterologous production of complex fungal polyketides.

Progress in approved drugs from natural product resources

Natural products (NPs) have consistently played a pivotal role in pharmaceutical research, exerting profound impacts on the treatment of human diseases. A significant proportion of approved molecular entity drugs are either directly derived from NPs or indirectly through modifications of NPs. This review presents an overview of NP drugs recently approved in China, the United States, and other countries, spanning various disease categories, including cancers, cardiovascular and cerebrovascular diseases, central nervous system disorders, and infectious diseases. The article provides a succinct introduction to the origin, activity, development process, approval details, and mechanism of action of these NP drugs.

Peroxisomal Localization of a Truncated HMG-CoA Reductase under Low Cholesterol Conditions

3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-CoA reductase (HMG-CoA reductase, HMGCR) is one of the rate-limiting enzymes in the mevalonate pathway required for cholesterol biosynthesis. It is an integral membrane protein of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) but has occasionally been described in peroxisomes. By co-immunofluorescence microscopy using different HMGCR antibodies, we present evidence for a dual localization of HMGCR in the ER and peroxisomes in differentiated human monocytic THP-1 cells, primary human monocyte-derived macrophages and human primary skin fibroblasts under conditions of low cholesterol and statin treatment. Using density gradient centrifugation and Western blot analysis, we observed a truncated HMGCR variant of 76 kDa in the peroxisomal fractions, while a full-length HMGCR of 96 kDa was contained in fractions of the ER. In contrast to primary human control fibroblasts, peroxisomal HMGCR was not found in fibroblasts from patients suffering from type-1 rhizomelic chondrodysplasia punctata, who lack functional PEX7 and, thus, cannot import peroxisomal matrix proteins harboring a type-2 peroxisomal targeting signal (PTS2). Moreover, in the N-terminal region of the soluble 76 kDa C-terminal catalytic domain, we identified a PTS2-like motif, which was functional in a reporter context. We propose that under sterol-depleted conditions, part of the soluble HMGCR domain, which is released from the ER by proteolytic processing for further turnover, remains sufficiently long in the cytosol for peroxisomal import via a PTS2/PEX7-dependent mechanism. Altogether, our findings describe a dual localization of HMGCR under combined lipid depletion and statin treatment, adding another puzzle piece to the complex regulation of HMGCR.

Discovery of Natural Potent HMG-CoA Reductase Degraders for Lowering Cholesterol

Exploitation of key protected wild plant resources makes great sense, but their limited populations become the major barrier. A particular strategy for breaking this barrier was inspired by the exploration of a resource-saving fungal endophyte Penicillium sp. DG23, which inhabits the key protected wild plant Schisandra macrocarpa. Chemical studies on the cultures of this strain afforded eight novel indole diterpenoids, schipenindolenes A-H (1-8), belonging to six diverse skeleton types. Importantly, semisyntheses suggested some key nonenzymatic reactions constructing these molecules and provided targeted compounds, in particular schipenindolene A (Spid A, 1) with low natural abundance. Remarkably, Spid A was the most potent HMG-CoA reductase (HMGCR) degrader among the indole diterpenoid family. It degraded statin-induced accumulation of HMGCR protein, decreased cholesterol levels and acted synergistically with statin to further lower cholesterol. Mechanistically, transcriptomic and proteomic profiling suggested that Spid A potentially activated the endoplasmic reticulum-associated degradation (ERAD) pathway to enhance the degradation of HMGCR, while simultaneously inhibiting the statin-activated expression of many key enzymes in the cholesterol and fatty acid synthesis pathways, thereby strengthening the efficacy of statins and potentially reducing the side effects of statins. Collectively, this study suggests the potential of Spid A for treating cardiovascular disease.

Research Progress in the Clinical Treatment of Familial Hypercholesterolemia

Familial hypercholesterolemia (FH) is an autosomal dominant inheritable disease with severe disorders of lipid metabolism. It is mainly marked by increasing levels of plasma total cholesterol (TC) and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C), xanthoma, corneal arch, and early-onset coronary heart disease (CHD). The prevalence of FH is high, and it is dangerous and clinically underdiagnosed. The clinical treatment for FH includes both pharmacological and non-pharmacological treatment, of which non-pharmacological treatment mainly includes therapeutic lifestyle change and dietary therapy, LDL apheresis, liver transplantation and gene therapy. In recent years, many novel drugs have been developed to treat FH more effectively. In addition, the continuous maturity of non-pharmacological treatment techniques has also brought more hope for the treatment of FH. This paper analyzes the pathogenic mechanism and the progress in clinical treatment of FH. Furthermore, it also summarizes the mechanism and structure-activity relationship of FH therapeutic drugs that have been marketed. In a word, this article provides a reference value for the research and development of FH therapeutic drugs.

Oxidative Stress-Induced Adverse Effects of Three Statins Following Single or Repetitive Treatments in Mice

Background and objective The hypolipidemic statins have been associated with various side effects, and in some cases, adverse reactions in humans and experimental animals, such as myotoxicity, neurobehavioral toxicity, as well as liver and kidney injuries. The purpose of the present study was to examine the possibility of the induction of oxidative stress in the brain and plasma of mice dosed with single or repetitive doses of three statins (atorvastatin, simvastatin, and rosuvastatin). Methods Male Swiss-origin mice were dosed orally with single doses of each of the three statins at 500 or 1000 mg/kg of body weight. Other groups of mice were dosed orally with repeated daily doses of each of the statins at 200 mg/kg of body weight/day for 14 or 28 consecutive days. These doses of statins were chosen to not produce overt toxicity in mice within the time frame allocated for each experiment. Brain and plasma glutathione (GSH) and malondialdehyde (MDA) levels, as well as liver enzymes activities alanine transaminase (ALT) and aspartate transaminase (AST), were determined using commercial kits. Results Single-dose treatments of the mice with the statins at either 500 or 1000 mg/kg significantly and dose-dependently (p < 0.05) reduced the GSH level in the plasma and the whole brain when compared with respective control values. Atorvastatin was the least effective statin, as only the high dose achieved a significant reduction in brain GSH level in comparison with the respective control value. Repetitive administration of the three statins at 200 mg/kg of body weight/day for 14 or 28 consecutive days significantly and time-dependently reduced plasma and brain GSH levels in comparison with respective control values. The oxidative stress biomarker MDA level significantly increased in the plasma and brain of mice following single or repetitive treatments with the three statins, and the most effective one was rosuvastatin. In association with these changes, activities of the liver enzymes ALT and AST were also increased in the plasma with single and repetitive statin treatments, and the most effective one was rosuvastatin. Conclusion The data suggest an association of high doses of three statins (atorvastatin, simvastatin, and rosuvastatin) with the induction of oxidative stress manifested as GSH reduction and MDA elevation as adverse effects in the brain and plasma of mice, which suffered from the additional burden of liver injury. These effects could be the basis of an in-depth exploration of statin adverse effects in experimental animals and to find an animal model, probably the mice, for the induction of adverse effects of statins that target the brain, as well as to shed light on potential statin intolerance outcomes following single-dose treatments in this species.

Using stable carbon isotope ratio analysis to detect adulteration in red yeast rice dietary supplements

Red yeast rice (RYR) is marketed as a dietary supplement because it contains natural 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme A reductase inhibitors (statins), including monacolin K. However, there is concern that some RYR supplements may be adulterated with the pharmaceutical drug lovastatin to enhance health claims. We have developed an optimized method to isolate monacolin K/lovastatin from complex RYR dietary supplement matrices to then test for adulteration in RYR supplements using stable carbon isotope (δ13C) analysis. Samples were initially screened for monacolin K/lovastatin using liquid chromatography with mass spectrometric detection (LC-MS). To ensure the extraction process did not affect the measured isotopic values (i.e., isotopic fractionation effects), neat lovastatin standards were spiked into two types of blank RYR matrices (powder and gel). The monacolin K/lovastatin peaks were detected using high performance liquid chromatography with ultraviolet detection (HPLC-UV) and isolated using fraction collection. Residual matrix components were removed from targeted fractions by solid phase extraction (SPE) using graphitized carbon black cartridges. The resulting isolates were then analyzed using elemental analyzer-isotope ratio mass spectrometry (EA-IRMS) to measure δ13C values. The δ13C values of the extracted lovastatin standards were compared to their respective neat lovastatin δ13C values and demonstrated negligible isotopic fractionation effects. Using this optimized clean up method and carbon isotope analysis, thirty-one samples were screened. Eight RYR dietary supplement samples had >0.8 mg/g of monacolin K/lovastatin, our minimum threshold for analyzing samples using this method. Four of these eight samples had δ13C values greater than -28.3‰, a previously proposed cutoff value for natural monacolin K, indicating likely adulteration. Additionally, five RYR powder samples were analyzed as part of a collaborative study using in-house methods from two laboratories and the data shows acceptable agreement in the δ13C values of monacolin K/lovastatin (differences ranging from ±0.02‰ to ±0.76‰). This optimized method represents a robust, reproducible procedure for detecting lovastatin adulteration in dietary supplements with minimal isotopic fractionation.

Therapeutic Effects of Statins: Promising Drug for Topical and Transdermal Administration

Statins are HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors and decrease plasma low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) levels. They are well tolerated, and because of their LDL-C-lowering effect, they are utilized to decrease the risk of atherosclerosis and cardiovascular disease. However, statins have pleiotropic effects, including immunomodulatory, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and anticancer. Currently, oral administration is the only Food and Drug Administration (FDA)-approved route of administration for statins. However, other administration routes have demonstrated promising results in different pre-clinical and clinical studies. For instance, statins also seem beneficial in dermatitis, psoriasis, vitiligo, hirsutism, uremic pruritus, and graft-versus-host disease. Topically applied statins have been studied to treat seborrhea, acne, rhinophyma, and rosacea. They also have beneficial effects in contact dermatitis and wound healing in animal studies, (HIV) infection, osseointegration, porokeratosis, and some ophthalmologic diseases. Topical and transdermal application of statins is a non-invasive drug administration method that has shown significant results in bypassing the first-pass metabolism in the liver, thereby reducing possible adverse effects. This study reviews the multifaceted molecular and cellular impacts of statins, their topical and transdermal application, novel delivery systems, such as nanosystems for topical and transdermal administration and the challenges concerning this approach.

Recent advances in anti-inflammatory active components and action mechanisms of natural medicines

Inflammation is a series of reactions caused by the body's resistance to external biological stimuli. Inflammation affects the occurrence and development of many diseases. Anti-inflammatory drugs have been used widely to treat inflammatory diseases, but long-term use can cause toxic side-effects and affect human functions. As immunomodulators with long-term conditioning effects and no drug residues, natural products are being investigated increasingly for the treatment of inflammatory diseases. In this review, we focus on the inflammatory process and cellular mechanisms in the development of diseases such as inflammatory bowel disease, atherosclerosis, and coronavirus disease-2019. Also, we focus on three signaling pathways (Nuclear factor-kappa B, p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase, Janus kinase/signal transducer and activator of transcription-3) to explain the anti-inflammatory effect of natural products. In addition, we also classified common natural products based on secondary metabolites and explained the association between current bidirectional prediction progress of natural product targets and inflammatory diseases.

Multiplex metabolic pathway engineering of Monascus pilosus enhances lovastatin production

Monascus sp. is an important food microbial resource with the production of cholesterol-lowering agent lovastatin and other healthy metabolites. However, the mycotoxin citrinin naturally produced by Monascus sp. and the insufficient productivity of lovastatin limit its large-scale use in food industry. The aim of this paper is to modify a lovastatin-producing strain Monascus pilosus GN-01 through metabolic engineering to obtain a citrinin-free M. pilosus strain with higher yield of lovastatin. The citrinin synthesis regulator gene ctnR was firstly disrupted to obtain GN-02 without citrinin production. Based on that, the lovastatin biosynthesis genes (mokC, mokD, mokE, mokF, mokH, mokI, and LaeA) were, respectively, overexpressed, and pigment-regulatory gene (pigR) was knocked out to improve lovastatin production. The results indicated ctnR inactivation effectively disrupted the citrinin release by M. pilosus GN-01. The overexpression of lovastatin biosynthesis genes and pigR knockout could lead higher contents of lovastatin, of which pigR knockout strain achieved 76.60% increase in the yield of lovastatin compared to GN-02. These studies suggest that such multiplex metabolic pathway engineering in M. pilosus GN-01 is promising for high lovastatin production by a safe strain for application in Monascus-related food. KEY POINTS: • Disruption of the regulator gene ctnR inhibited citrinin production of M. pilosus. • Synchronous overexpression of biosynthesis gene enhanced lovastatin production. • pigR knockout enhanced lovastatin of ΔctnR strain of M. pilosus.

The Effects of Statins on Cognitive Performance Are Mediated by Low-Density Lipoprotein, C-Reactive Protein, and Blood Glucose Concentrations

Statins are widely used for cardiovascular disease prevention but their effects on cognition remain unclear. Statins reduce cholesterol concentration and have been suggested to provide both beneficial and detrimental effects. Our aim was to investigate the cross-sectional and longitudinal association between statin use and cognitive performance, and whether blood low-density lipoprotein, high-density lipoprotein, triglycerides, glucose, C-reactive protein, and vitamin D biomarkers mediated this association. We used participants from the UK biobank aged 40-69 without neurological and psychiatric disorders (n = 147 502 and n = 24 355, respectively). We performed linear regression to evaluate the association between statin use and cognitive performance and, mediation analysis to quantify the total, direct, indirect effects and the proportion meditated by blood biomarkers. Statin use was associated with lower cognitive performance at baseline (β = -0.40 [-0.53, -0.28], p = <.0001), and this association was mediated by low-density lipoprotein (proportion mediated = 51.4%, p = .002), C-reactive protein (proportion mediated = -11%, p = .006) and blood glucose (proportion mediated = 2.6%, p = .018) concentrations. However, statin use was not associated with cognitive performance, measured 8 years later (β = -0.003 [-0.11, 0.10], p = .96). Our findings suggest that statins are associated with lower short-term cognitive performance by lowering low-density lipoprotein and raising blood glucose concentrations, and better performance by lowering C-reactive protein concentrations. In contrast, statins have no effect on long-term cognition and remain beneficial in reducing cardiovascular risk factors.

Efficacy of Poria cocos and Alismatis rhizoma against diet-induced hyperlipidemia in rats based on transcriptome sequencing analysis

Hyperlipidemia, a common metabolic disease, is a risk factor for cardiovascular diseases, Poria cocos (PC) and Alismatis rhizoma (AR) serve as a potential treatment. A systematic approach based on transcriptome sequencing analysis and bioinformatics methods was developed to explore the synergistic effects of PC-AR and identify major compounds and potential targets. The phenotypic characteristics results indicated that the high dose (4.54 g/kg) of PC-AR reduced total cholesterol (TC), elevated high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C) levels, and improved hepatocyte morphology, as assessed via hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) staining. Transcriptomic profiling processing results combined with GO enrichment analysis to identify the overlapping genes were associated with inflammatory responses. The cytokine-cytokine receptor interaction pathway was found as a potential key pathway using geneset enrichment analysis. Core enrichment targets were selected according to the PC-AR's fold change versus the model. Real-time quantitative PCR analysis validated that PC-AR significantly downregulated the expression of Cxcl10, Ccl2, Ccl4, Cd40 and Il-1β mRNA (P < 0.05). Molecular docking analysis revealed the significant compounds of PC-AR and the potential binding patterns of the critical compounds and targets. This study provides further evidence that the therapeutic effects of PC-AR on hyperlipidemia in rats through the regulation of inflammation-related targets.

Pitavastatin and Lovastatin Exhibit Calcium Channel Blocking Activity Which Potentiate Vasorelaxant Effects of Amlodipine: A New Futuristic Dimension in Statin's Pleiotropy

Background and Objectives: We have recently reported that Fluvastatin, Atorvastatin, Simvastatin and Rosuvastatin have calcium channel antagonistic activities using rabbits' intestinal preparations. The current study is focused on the effects of Pitavastatin and Lovastatin for possible inhibition of vascular L-Type calcium channels, which may have vasorelaxant effect(s). Combined effects of Pitavastatin and Lovastatin in the presence of Amlodipine were also tested for vasorelaxation. Materials and Methods: Possible relaxing effects of Pitavastatin and Lovastatin on 80 mM Potassium chloride (KCL)-induced contractions and on 1 µM norepinephrine (N.E)-induced contractions were studied in isolated rabbit's aortic strips preparations. Relaxing effects on 80 mM KCL-induced vascular contractions were further verified by constructing Calcium Concentration Response Curves (CCRCs), in the absence and presence of three different concentrations of Pitavastatin and Lovastatin using CCRCs as negative control. Verapamil was used as a standard drug that has L-Type calcium channel binding activity. In other series of experiments, we studied drug interaction(s) among Pitavastatin, Lovastatin, and amlodipine. Results: The results of this study imply that Lovastatin is more potent than Pitavastatin for having comparatively lower EC50 (7.44 × 10-5 ± 0.16 M) in intact and (4.55 × 10-5 ± 0.10 M) in denuded aortae for KCL-induced contractions. Lovastatin amplitudes in intact and denuded aortae for KCL-induced contractions were, respectively, 24% and 35.5%; whereas amplitudes for Pitavastatin in intact and denuded aortae for KCL-induced contractions were 34% and 40%, respectively. A left shift in the EC50 values for the statins was seen when we added amlodipine in EC50 (Log Ca++ M). Right shift for CCRCs state that Pitavastatin and Lovastatin have calcium channel antagonistic effects. Lovastatin in test concentration (6.74 × 10-7 M) produced a right shift in relatively lower EC50 (-2.5 ± 0.10) Log Ca++ M as compared to Pitavastatin, which further confirms that lovastatin is relatively more potent. The right shift in EC50 resembles the right shift of Verapamil. Additive effect of Pitavastatin and Lovastatin was noted in presence of amlodipine (p < 0.05). Conclusions: KCL (80 mM)-induced vascular contractions were relaxed by Pitavastatin and Lovastatin via inhibitory effects on L-Type voltage-gated calcium channels. Lovastatin and Pitavastatin also relaxed Norepinephrine (1 µM)-induced contractions giving an insight for involvement of dual mode of action of Pitavastatin and Lovastatin.

Lipid-based nanocarriers challenging the ocular biological barriers: Current paradigm and future perspectives

Eye is the most specialized and sensory body organ and treating eye diseases efficiently is necessary. Despite various attempts, the design of a consummate ophthalmic drug delivery system remains unsolved because of anatomical and physiological barriers that hinder drug transport into the desired ocular tissues. It is important to advance new platforms to manage ocular disorders, whether they exist in the anterior or posterior cavities. Nanotechnology has piqued the interest of formulation scientists because of its capability to augment ocular bioavailability, control drug release, and minimize inefficacious drug absorption, with special attention to lipid-based nanocarriers (LBNs) because of their cellular safety profiles. LBNs have greatly improved medication availability at the targeted ocular site in the required concentration while causing minimal adverse effects on the eye tissues. Nevertheless, the exact mechanisms by which lipid-based nanocarriers can bypass different ocular barriers are still unclear and have not been discussed. Thus, to bridge this gap, the current work aims to highlight the applications of LBNs in the ocular drug delivery exploring the different ocular barriers and the mechanisms viz. adhesion, fusion, endocytosis, and lipid exchange, through which these platforms can overcome the barrier characteristics challenges.

Oral Intake of Inosine 5'-Monophosphate in Mice Promotes the Absorption of Exogenous Fatty Acids and Their Conversion into Triglycerides though Enhancing the Phosphorylation of Adenosine 5'-Monophosphate-Activated Protein Kinase in the Liver, Leading to Lipohyperplasia

Inosine 5'-monophoaphate (IMP) is a food additive that promotes serious lipohyperplasia in the liver of C57/KsJ-db/db (db/db) mice. Thus, IMP taken orally by healthy mice might also damage their health. To date, how IMP affects health after being taken by healthy animals is still unclear. Therefore, we investigated the health of C57BL/6J mice affected by IMP intake. Our data revealed that C57BL/6J mice administered 255 μM IMP daily via oral gavage for 4 months caused hyperlipidemia and an increase in body fat rate. The expressions of acetyl-CoA carboxylase 1 (ACC1) and phosphorylated acetyl-CoA carboxylase 2 (ACC2) in hepatocytes increased though the administration of IMP, promoting the phosphorylation of adenosine 5'-monophosphate-activated protein kinase (AMPK). The conversion of acetyl-CoA into triglycerides (TGs) was promoted by ACC1. These TGs were transported from the hepatocytes to avoid the development of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), causing a deficiency of acetyl-CoA in the liver, and then, the increased phosphorylated ACC2 promoted the cytoplasm fatty acids entering the mitochondria and conversion into acetyl-CoA through the fatty acid β-oxidation pathway, causing a deficiency in fatty acids. Therefore, the liver showed enhanced absorption of exogenous fatty acids, which were converted into TGs, causing lipohyperplasia. In conclusion, an excessive IMP intake promotes metabolic dysfunction in adipose tissue.

Structural enzymology of iterative type I polyketide synthases: various routes to catalytic programming

Time span of literature covered: up to mid-2023Iterative type I polyketide synthases (iPKSs) are outstanding natural chemists: megaenzymes that repeatedly utilize their catalytic domains to synthesize complex natural products with diverse bioactivities. Perhaps the most fascinating but least understood question about type I iPKSs is how they perform the iterative yet programmed reactions in which the usage of domain combinations varies during the synthetic cycle. The programmed patterns are fulfilled by multiple factors, and strongly influence the complexity of the resulting natural products. This article reviews selected reports on the structural enzymology of iPKSs, focusing on the individual domain structures followed by highlighting the representative programming activities that each domain may contribute.

Structure of a modular polyketide synthase reducing region

The chemical scaffolds of numerous therapeutics are polyketide natural products, many formed by bacterial modular polyketide synthases (PKS). The large and flexible dimeric PKS modules have distinct extension and reducing regions. Structures are known for all individual enzyme domains and several extension regions. Here, we report the structure of the full reducing region from a modular PKS, the ketoreductase (KR), dehydratase (DH), and enoylreductase (ER) domains of module 5 of the juvenimicin PKS. The modular PKS-reducing region has a different architecture than the homologous fatty acid synthase (FAS) and iterative PKS systems in its arrangement of domains and dimer interface. The structure reveals a critical role for linker peptides in the domain interfaces, leading to discovery of key differences in KR domains dependent on module composition. Finally, our studies provide insight into the mechanism underlying modular PKS intermediate shuttling by carrier protein (ACP) domains.

Genomic Based Analysis of the Biocontrol Species Trichoderma harzianum: A Model Resource of Structurally Diverse Pharmaceuticals and Biopesticides

Fungi represents a rich repository of taxonomically restricted, yet chemically diverse, secondary metabolites that are synthesised via specific metabolic pathways. An enzyme's specificity and biosynthetic gene clustering are the bottleneck of secondary metabolite evolution. Trichoderma harzianum M10 v1.0 produces many pharmaceutically important molecules; however, their specific biosynthetic pathways remain uncharacterised. Our genomic-based analysis of this species reveals the biosynthetic diversity of its specialised secondary metabolites, where over 50 BGCs were predicted, most of which were listed as polyketide-like compounds associated clusters. Gene annotation of the biosynthetic candidate genes predicted the production of many medically/industrially important compounds including enterobactin, gramicidin, lovastatin, HC-toxin, tyrocidine, equisetin, erythronolide, strobilurin, asperfuranone, cirtinine, protoilludene, germacrene, and epi-isozizaene. Revealing the biogenetic background of these natural molecules is a step forward towards the expansion of their chemical diversification via engineering their biosynthetic genes heterologously, and the identification of their role in the interaction between this fungus and its biotic/abiotic conditions as well as its role as bio-fungicide.

Exome-wide evidence of compound heterozygous effects across common phenotypes in the UK Biobank

Exome-sequencing association studies have successfully linked rare protein-coding variation to risk of thousands of diseases. However, the relationship between rare deleterious compound heterozygous (CH) variation and their phenotypic impact has not been fully investigated. Here, we leverage advances in statistical phasing to accurately phase rare variants (MAF ~ 0.001%) in exome sequencing data from 175,587 UK Biobank (UKBB) participants, which we then systematically annotate to identify putatively deleterious CH coding variation. We show that 6.5% of individuals carry such damaging variants in the CH state, with 90% of variants occurring at MAF < 0.34%. Using a logistic mixed model framework, systematically accounting for relatedness, polygenic risk, nearby common variants, and rare variant burden, we investigate recessive effects in common complex diseases. We find six exome-wide significant (P < 1.68 × 10 - 7 ) and 17 nominally significant (P < 5.25 × 10 - 5 ) gene-trait associations. Among these, only four would have been identified without accounting for CH variation in the gene. We further incorporate age-at-diagnosis information from primary care electronic health records, to show that genetic phase influences lifetime risk of disease across 20 gene-trait combinations (FDR < 5%). Using a permutation approach, we find evidence for genetic phase contributing to disease susceptibility for a collection of gene-trait pairs, including FLG-asthma (P = 0.00205 ) and USH2A-visual impairment (P = 0.0084 ). Taken together, we demonstrate the utility of phasing large-scale genetic sequencing cohorts for robust identification of the phenome-wide consequences of compound heterozygosity.

Ligand-enabled Ni-catalysed enantioconvergent intermolecular Alkyl-Alkyl cross-coupling between distinct Alkyl halides

α-Tertiary aliphatic amides are key elements in organic molecules, which are abundantly present in natural products, pharmaceuticals, agrochemicals, and functional organic materials. Enantioconvergent alkyl-alkyl bond-forming process is one of the most straightforward and efficient, yet highly challenging ways to build such stereogenic carbon centers. Herein, we report an enantioselective alkyl-alkyl cross-coupling between two different alkyl electrophiles to access α-tertiary aliphatic amides. With a newly-developed chiral tridentate ligand, two distinct alkyl halides were successfully cross-coupled together to forge an alkyl-alkyl bond enantioselectively under reductive conditions. Mechanistic investigations reveal that one alkyl halides exclusively undergo oxidative addition with nickel versus in-situ formation of alkyl zinc reagents from the other alkyl halides, rendering formal reductive alkyl-alkyl cross-coupling from easily available alkyl electrophiles without preformation of organometallic reagents.

Bioinformatic Analysis of Key Regulatory Genes in Adult Asthma and Prediction of Potential Drug Candidates

Asthma is a common chronic disease that is characterized by respiratory symptoms including cough, wheeze, shortness of breath, and chest tightness. The underlying mechanisms of this disease are not fully elucidated, so more research is needed to identify better therapeutic compounds and biomarkers to improve disease outcomes. In this present study, we used bioinformatics to analyze the gene expression of adult asthma in publicly available microarray datasets to identify putative therapeutic molecules for this disease. We first compared gene expression in healthy volunteers and adult asthma patients to obtain differentially expressed genes (DEGs) for further analysis. A final gene expression signature of 49 genes, including 34 upregulated and 15 downregulated genes, was obtained. Protein-protein interaction and hub analyses showed that 10 genes, including POSTN, CPA3, CCL26, SERPINB2, CLCA1, TPSAB1, TPSB2, MUC5B, BPIFA1, and CST1, may be hub genes. Then, the L1000CDS² search engine was used for drug repurposing studies. The top approved drug candidate predicted to reverse the asthma gene signature was lovastatin. Clustergram results showed that lovastatin may perturb MUC5B expression. Moreover, molecular docking, molecular dynamics simulation, and computational alanine scanning results supported the notion that lovastatin may interact with MUC5B via key residues such as Thr80, Thr91, Leu93, and Gln105. In summary, by analyzing gene expression signatures, hub genes, and therapeutic perturbation, we show that lovastatin is an approved drug candidate that may have potential for treating adult asthma.

Highlights on U.S. FDA-approved fluorinated drugs over the past five years (2018-2022)

The objective of this review is to provide an update on the fluorine-containing drugs approved by U.S. Food and Drug Administration in the span of past five years (2018-2022). The agency accepted a total of fifty-eight fluorinated entities to diagnose, mitigate and treat a plethora of diseases. Among them, thirty drugs are for therapy of various types of cancers, twelve for infectious diseases, eleven for CNS disorders, and six for some other diseases. These are categorized and briefly discussed based on their therapeutic areas. In addition, this review gives a glimpse about their trade name, date of approval, active ingredients, company developers, indications, and drug mechanisms. We anticipate that this review may inspire the drug discovery and medicinal chemistry community in both industrial and academic settings to explore the fluorinated molecules leading to the discovery of new drugs in the near future.

Association between snus use and lipid status in Swedish men

Snus is a common tobacco product in Sweden, but the cardiovascular risk profile for snus users is less known than for cigarette smokers. We examined the association of snus use with lipid status, particularly in comparison to non-tobacco use and cigarette smoking, using data from 5930 men in the Northern Sweden MONICA study. Tobacco use was self-reported in 1986 to 2014 (24.4% used snus) and blood samples were collected at the same time. Harmonized analyses on non-high-density lipoprotein (non-HDL) cholesterol, HDL cholesterol, and triglycerides were conducted in 2016 to 2018. Three hundred eighty-one snus users had also been examined more than once, allowing us to study the effect of discontinued use (achieved by 21.0%). In multivariable linear regression models, snus use was associated with higher HDL cholesterol and triglyceride concentrations compared to non-tobacco use (p values ≤ 0.04), and it was associated with higher HDL cholesterol concentrations and lower triglyceride concentrations compared to cigarette smoking (p values ≤ 0.02). Snus use was not associated with non-HDL cholesterol concentrations, irrespective of the comparison group (p values ≥ 0.07). There was no indication that higher intensity of snus use led to a worse lipid profile, given that high-consumers had higher HDL cholesterol concentrations than low-consumers (p value = 0.02), or that discontinuation of snus use led to a better lipid profile, given that continued users had lower triglyceride concentrations than discontinued users (p value = 0.03). Further studies are needed to confirm or refute our findings.

Reshaping the gut microbiome and bile acid composition by Gyejibongnyeong-hwan ameliorates western diet-induced dyslipidemia

Gyejibongnyeong-hwan (GBH), a traditional Chinese medicine, is used in clinical practice to treat blood stasis in metabolic diseases. Herein, we examined the effects of GBH on dyslipidemia and investigated the underlying mechanisms by focusing on modulation of the gut microbiota-bile acid axis by GBH. We utilized a Western diet-induced dyslipidemia mouse model and divided animals into the following four groups (n = 5 each): the normal chow diet, vehicle control (WD), simvastatin (Sim, 10 mg/kg/day simvastatin; positive control), and GBH (GBH, 300 mg/kg/day) groups. The drugs were administered for 10 weeks, and morphological changes in the liver and aorta were analyzed. The mRNA expression of genes related to cholesterol metabolism, gut microbiota, and bile acid profiles were also evaluated. The GBH group showed significantly lower levels of total cholesterol, accumulation of lipids, and inflammatory markers in the liver and aorta of Western diet-fed mice. Low-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels were significantly lower in the GBH group than in the WD group (P < 0.001). The expression of cholesterol excretion-associated genes such as liver X receptor alpha and ATP-binding cassette subfamily G member 8, as well as the bile acid synthesis gene cholesterol 7 alpha-hydroxylase, which lowers cholesterol in circulation, was increased. Furthermore, GBH inhibited the intestinal farnesoid X receptor (FXR)-fibroblast growth factor 15 signaling pathway through the interactions of gut microbiota with bile acids acting as FXR ligands, which included chenodeoxycholic acid and lithocholic acid. Overall, GBH improved dyslipidemia induced by a Western diet by modulating the gut microbiota-bile acid axis.

Bifunctional robots inducing targeted protein degradation

The gaining importance of Targeted Protein Degradation (TPD) and PROTACs (PROteolysis-TArgeting Chimeras) have drawn the scientific community's attention. PROTACs are considered bifunctional robots owing to their avidity for the protein of interest (POI) and E3-ligase, which induce the ubiquitination of POI. These molecules are based on event-driven pharmacology and are applicable in different conditions such as oncology, antiviral, neurodegenerative disease, acne etc., offering tremendous scope to researchers. In this review, primarily, we attempted to compile the recent works available in the literature on PROTACs for various targeted proteins. We summarized the design and development strategies with a focus on molecular information of protein residues and linker design. Rationalization of the ternary complex formation using Artificial Intelligence including machine & deep learning models and traditionally followed computational tools are also included in this study. Moreover, details describing the optimization of PROTACs chemistry and pharmacokinetic properties are added. Advanced PROTAC designs and targeting complex proteins, is summed up to cover the wide spectrum.

Impact of porous microsponges in minimizing myotoxic side effects of simvastatin

Simvastatin (SV) is a poorly soluble drug; its oral administration is associated with a significant problem: Myopathy. The present study aims to formulate SV microsponges that have the potential to minimize the myotoxicity accompanying the oral administration of the drug. SV microsponges were prepared by exploiting the emulsion solvent evaporation technique. The % entrapment efficiency (%EE) of the drug approached 82.54 ± 1.27%, the mean particle size of SV microsponges ranged from 53.80 ± 6.35 to 86.03 ± 4.79 µm in diameter, and the % cumulative drug release (%CDR) of SV from microsponges was significantly higher than that from free drug dispersion much more, the specific surface area of the optimized microsponges formulation was found to be 16.6 m²/g revealed the porosity of prepared microsponges. Histological and glycogen histochemical studies in the skeletal muscles of male albino rats revealed that microsponges were safer than free SV in minimizing myotoxicity. These findings were proven by Gene expression of Mitochondrial fusion and fission (Mfn1) & (Fis1) and (Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma co-activator 1α) PGC-1α. Finally, our study ascertained that SV microsponges significantly decreased the myotoxicity of SV.

Lovastatin inhibits erythroleukemia progression through KLF2-mediated suppression of MAPK/ERK signaling

BACKGROUND

Lovastatin, an HMG-CoA inhibitor and an effective cholesterol lowering drug, exhibits anti-neoplastic activity towards several types of cancer, although the underlying mechanism is still not fully understood. Herein, we investigated mechanism of growth inhibition of leukemic cells by lovastatin.

METHODS

RNAseq analysis was used to explore the effect of lovastatin on gene expression in leukemic cells. An animal model of leukemia was used to test the effect of this statin in vivo. FAM83A and DDIT4 expression was knocked-downed in leukemia cells via lentivirus-shRNA. Western blotting, RT-qPCR, cell cycle analysis and apoptosis assays were used to determine the effect of lovastatin-induced growth suppression in leukemic cells in vitro.

RESULTS

Lovastatin treatment strongly inhibited cancer progression in a mouse model of erythroleukemia induced by Friend virus. In tissue culture, lovastatin inhibited cell proliferation through induction of G₁ phase cell cycle arrest and apoptosis. Interestingly, lovastatin induced most known genes associated with cholesterol biosynthesis in leukemic cells. Moreover, it suppressed ERK1/2 phosphorylation by downregulating FAM83A and DDIT4, two mediators of MAP-Kinase signaling. RNAseq analysis of lovastatin treated leukemic cells revealed a strong induction of the tumor suppressor gene KLF2. Accordingly, lentivirus-mediated knockdown of KLF2 antagonized leukemia cell suppression induced by lovastatin, associated with higher ERK1/2 phosphorylation compared to control. We further show that KLF2 induction by lovastatin is responsible for lower expression of the FAM83A and DDIT4 oncogenes, involved in the activation of ERK1/2. KLF2 activation by lovastatin also activated a subset of cholesterol biosynthesis genes that may further contribute to leukemia suppression.

CONCLUSIONS

These results implicate KLF2-mediated FAM83A/DDIT4/MAPK suppression and activation of cholesterol biosynthesis as the mechanism of leukemia cell growth inhibition by lovastatin.

CRISPR Screens Identify Toxoplasma Genes That Determine Parasite Fitness in Interferon Gamma-Stimulated Human Cells

Toxoplasma virulence depends on its ability to evade or survive the toxoplasmacidal mechanisms induced by interferon gamma (IFNγ). While many Toxoplasma genes involved in the evasion of the murine IFNγ response have been identified, genes required to survive the human IFNγ response are largely unknown. In this study, we used a genome-wide loss-of-function screen to identify Toxoplasma genes important for parasite fitness in IFNγ-stimulated primary human fibroblasts. We generated gene knockouts for the top six hits from the screen and confirmed their importance for parasite growth in IFNγ-stimulated human fibroblasts. Of these six genes, three have homology to GRA32, localize to dense granules, and coimmunoprecipitate with each other and GRA32, suggesting they might form a complex. Deletion of individual members of this complex leads to early parasite egress in IFNγ-stimulated cells. Thus, prevention of early egress is an important Toxoplasma fitness determinant in IFNγ-stimulated human cells. IMPORTANCE Toxoplasma infection causes serious complications in immunocompromised individuals and in the developing fetus. During infection, certain immune cells release a protein called interferon gamma that activates cells to destroy the parasite or inhibit its growth. While most Toxoplasma parasites are cleared by this immune response, some can survive by blocking or evading the IFNγ-induced restrictive environment. Many Toxoplasma genes that determine parasite survival in IFNγ-activated murine cells are known but parasite genes conferring fitness in IFNγ-activated human cells are largely unknown. Using a Toxoplasma adapted genome-wide loss-of-function screen, we identified many Toxoplasma genes that determine parasite fitness in IFNγ-activated human cells. The gene products of four top hits play a role in preventing early parasite egress in IFNγ-stimulated human cells. Understanding how IFNγ-stimulated human cells inhibit Toxoplasma growth and how Toxoplasma counteracts this, could lead to the development of novel therapeutics.

The effect of acupoint catgut embedding and drug therapy on hyperlipidemia: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials

There is no consensus on whether acupoint catgut embedding should be widely used as a treatment for hyperlipidemia. Acupoint catgut embedding is also not included in the guidelines for the treatment of hyperlipidemia. The purpose of this study was of two aspects: 1) to review recent research advances in the relationship between acupoint catgut embedding and hyperlipidemia, 2) to make a meta-analysis of the effects of acupoint catgut embedding on hyperlipidemia. We conducted a meta-analysis of studies extracted from PubMed, the Cochrane Library, Embase CNKI, Wanfang Data and VIP to identify randomized controlled trials (RCTs) evaluating the efficacy of acupoint catgut embedding on hyperlipidemia evaluated through screening, inclusion, data extraction and quality assessment. We performed a meta-analysis using Review Manager 5.3 software. A total of 9 RCTs, involving more than 500 adults over 18 years old, were included. Compared with acupoint catgut embedding, drugs resulted in TC [MD = -0.08, 95% CI (-0.20, 0.05), p = 0.41, I2 = 2%], in TG [MD =-0.04, 95% CI (-0.20, 0.11), p = 0.09, I2 = 43%], in HDL-C [MD = 0.02, 95% CI (-0.12, 0.16), p = 0.07, I2 = 50%], in LDL-C [MD = 0.16, 95% CI (0.02, 0.29), p = 0.17, I2 = 34%]. Based on the current evidence, acupoint catgut embedding is not significantly more effective than drugs in reducing hyperlipidemia. More randomized trials are needed to confirm this conclusion.

RHOA Therapeutic Targeting in Hematological Cancers

Primarily identified as an important regulator of cytoskeletal dynamics, the small GTPase Ras homolog gene family member A (RHOA) has been implicated in the transduction of signals regulating a broad range of cellular functions such as cell survival, migration, adhesion and proliferation. Deregulated activity of RHOA has been linked to the growth, progression and metastasis of various cancer types. Recent cancer genome-wide sequencing studies have unveiled both RHOA gain and loss-of-function mutations in primary leukemia/lymphoma, suggesting that this GTPase may exert tumor-promoting or tumor-suppressive functions depending on the cellular context. Based on these observations, RHOA signaling represents an attractive therapeutic target for the development of selective anticancer strategies. In this review, we will summarize the molecular mechanisms underlying RHOA GTPase functions in immune regulation and in the development of hematological neoplasms and will discuss the current strategies aimed at modulating RHOA functions in these diseases.

Linking Lichen Metabolites to Genes: Emerging Concepts and Lessons from Molecular Biology and Metagenomics

Lichen secondary metabolites have tremendous pharmaceutical and industrial potential. Although more than 1000 metabolites have been reported from lichens, less than 10 have been linked to the genes coding them. The current biosynthetic research focuses strongly on linking molecules to genes as this is fundamental to adapting the molecule for industrial application. Metagenomic-based gene discovery, which bypasses the challenges associated with culturing an organism, is a promising way forward to link secondary metabolites to genes in non-model, difficult-to-culture organisms. This approach is based on the amalgamation of the knowledge of the evolutionary relationships of the biosynthetic genes, the structure of the target molecule, and the biosynthetic machinery required for its synthesis. So far, metagenomic-based gene discovery is the predominant approach by which lichen metabolites have been linked to their genes. Although the structures of most of the lichen secondary metabolites are well-documented, a comprehensive review of the metabolites linked to their genes, strategies implemented to establish this link, and crucial takeaways from these studies is not available. In this review, I address the following knowledge gaps and, additionally, provide critical insights into the results of these studies, elaborating on the direct and serendipitous lessons that we have learned from them.

Isolation and Identification of Novel Antioxidant Polyketides from an Endophytic Fungus Ophiobolus cirsii LZU-1509

Sixteen new polyketides, ophicirsins A-P (1-16), including four novel carbon skeletons (5-9, 14, 15, and 16), were isolated from the extract of an endophytic fungus Ophiobolus cirsii LZU-1509. The unique frameworks of ophicirsin N (14) and O (15) feature a different cyclic ether connected with an aromatic ring system. Ophicirsin P (16) is characterized by the unprecedented heterozygote of a polyketide and an alkaloid. The absolute stereochemistries of those polyketides were characterized via single-crystal X-ray diffraction analysis and the experimental and computational electric circular dichroism spectra comparison. Theoretical reaction pathways in the fermentation to generate different novel skeletons starting from acetyl CoA and malonyl CoA helped to assign their structures. Compounds 1-16 appear almost nontoxic in HepG2 and HT-1080 tumor cells. Their antioxidant effects were further evaluated, and 15 exhibits an excellent protection activity in hydrogen peroxide-stimulated oxidative damage in neuron-like PC12 cells via screening all compounds. Moreover, 15 displays a greater ability to scavenge the 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl free radicals than resveratrol. Taken together, these findings suggest that the novel polyketides could serve as potential antioxidant agents for neuroprotection.

Scaffold and Structural Diversity of the Secondary Metabolite Space of Medicinal Fungi

Medicinal fungi, including mushrooms, have well-documented therapeutic uses. In this study, we perform a cheminformatics-based investigation of the scaffold and structural diversity of the secondary metabolite space of medicinal fungi and, moreover, perform a detailed comparison with approved drugs, other natural product libraries, and semi-synthetic libraries. We find that the secondary metabolite space of medicinal fungi has similar or higher scaffold diversity in comparison to other natural product libraries analyzed here. Notably, 94% of the scaffolds in the secondary metabolite space of medicinal fungi are not present in the approved drugs. Further, we find that the secondary metabolites, on the one hand, are structurally far from the approved drugs, while, on the other hand, they are close in terms of molecular properties to the approved drugs. Lastly, chemical space visualization using dimensionality reduction methods showed that the secondary metabolite space has minimal overlap with the approved drug space. In a nutshell, our results underscore that the secondary metabolite space of medicinal fungi is a valuable resource for identifying potential lead molecules for natural product-based drug discovery.

Mechanism of the Regulation of Plasma Cholesterol Levels by PI(4,5)P2

Elevated low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol (LDLc) is one of the most well-established risk factors for cardiovascular disease, while high levels of high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol (HDLc) have been associated with protection from cardiovascular disease. Cardiovascular disease remains one of the leading causes of death worldwide; thus it is important to understand mechanisms that impact LDLc and HDLc metabolism. In this chapter, we will discuss molecular processes by which phosphatidylinositol-(4,5)-bisphosphate, PI(4,5)P₂, is thought to modulate LDLc or HDLc. Section 1 will provide an overview of cholesterol in the circulation, discussing processes that modulate the various forms of lipoproteins (LDL and HDL) carrying cholesterol. Section 2 will describe how a PI(4,5)P₂ phosphatase, transmembrane protein 55B (TMEM55B), impacts circulating LDLc levels through its ability to regulate lysosomal decay of the low-density lipoprotein receptor (LDLR), the primary receptor for hepatic LDL uptake. Section 3 will discuss how PI(4,5)P₂ interacts with apolipoprotein A-I (apoA1), the key apolipoprotein on HDL. In addition to direct mechanisms of PI(4,5)P₂ action on circulating cholesterol, Sect. 4 will review how PI(4,5)P₂ may indirectly impact LDLc and HDLc by affecting insulin action. Last, as cholesterol is controlled through intricate negative feedback loops, Sect. 5 will describe how PI(4,5)P₂ is regulated by cholesterol.

Lovastatin production by Aspergillus terreus in membrane gradostat bioreactor with two-stage feeding strategy

Lovastatin is a blood cholesterol-lowering agent and is produced as a secondary metabolite by Aspergillus terreus. Microbial production of this drug is carried out in solid-state or submerged culture, and due to difficulties of controlling the procedure parameters in solid-state method, the submerged method is conventional for industrial production. Although the submerged method is widely used, but this method damages the morphology of fungus due to shear stress caused by stirring. Since the morphology of fungus is a key factor in lovastatin production, using a bioreactor that causes the least damage to it, can improve the lovastatin production. In this paper, for the first time, it has been shown that the membrane gradostat bioreactor is suitable for lovastatin production, using A. terreus, due to providing suitable environmental conditions, therefore, it can be implemented as an alternative method for lovastatin production. Furthermore, it was found that implementing two-stage feeding, using different ratios of Carbon to Nitrogen in the culture medium, makes the lovastatin production to be 5 times more than one-stage feeding. Finally, it is shown that adding Zinc and Magnesium at the second stage further increases lovastatin production by 18%.

Impact of dyslipidemia in the development of cardiovascular complications: Delineating the potential therapeutic role of coenzyme Q10

Dyslipidemia is one of the major risk factors for the development of cardiovascular disease (CVD) in patients with type 2 diabetes (T2D). This metabolic anomality is implicated in the generation of oxidative stress, an inevitable process involved in destructive mechanisms leading to myocardial damage. Fortunately, commonly used drugs like statins can counteract the detrimental effects of dyslipidemia by lowering cholesterol to reduce CVD-risk in patients with T2D. Statins mainly function by blocking the production of cholesterol by targeting the mevalonate pathway. However, by blocking cholesterol synthesis, statins coincidently inhibit the synthesis of other essential isoprenoid intermediates of the mevalonate pathway like farnesyl pyrophosphate and coenzyme Q₁₀ (CoQ₁₀). The latter is by far the most important co-factor and co-enzyme required for efficient mitochondrial oxidative capacity, in addition to its robust antioxidant properties. In fact, supplementation with CoQ₁₀ has been found to be beneficial in ameliorating oxidative stress and improving blood flow in subjects with mild dyslipidemia.. Beyond discussing the destructive effects of oxidative stress in dyslipidemia-induced CVD-related complications, the current review brings a unique perspective in exploring the mevalonate pathway to block cholesterol synthesis while enhancing or maintaining CoQ₁₀ levels in conditions of dyslipidemia. Furthermore, this review disscusses the therapeutic potential of bioactive compounds in targeting the downstream of the mevalonate pathway, more importantly, their ability to block cholesterol while maintaining CoQ₁₀ biosynthesis to protect against the destructive complications of dyslipidemia.

DoE Screening and Optimization of Liquid Chromatographic Determination of Nicotinic Acid and Six Statins: Application to Pharmaceutical Preparations and Counterfeit Detection

An isocratic reversed-phase high performance liquid chromatographic method has been developed and validated to simultaneously determine nicotinic acid, pravastatin sodium, rosuvastatin calcium, atorvastatin calcium, pitavastatin calcium, lovastatin sodium and simvastatin sodium in focus on counterfeit drug detection. Thin-layer chromatography, nuclear magnetic resonance and mass spectrometry have been additionally performed to verify the identification of adulterants of counterfeit herbal medicines. Chromatographic separation was carried out on Inertsil® ODS-3 C18 (4.6 × 150 mm, 5 μm) with isocratic mobile phase elution containing a mixture of acetonitrile: methanol: 25 mM potassium dihydrogen phosphate buffer, pH 2.86 adjusted with 0.1 M o-phosphoric acid (48: 30: 22, v/v/v), at a flow rate of 1 mL/min and with UV detection at 238 nm. The design of experiment methodology, Plackett-Burman and Box-Behnken designs, was used to screen and optimize the mobile phase composition. The validation of the method was also carried out under the International Conference on Harmonization guidelines. The developed method was sensitive, accurate, simple, economical and highly robust, in addition to the comprehensiveness and novelty of this method for separating the seven drugs. The results were statistically compared with the reference methods used Student's t-test and variance ratio F-test at P < 0.05.