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Farrell KC, Wang JT, Stearns T. Spindle assembly checkpoint-dependent mitotic delay is required for cell division in absence of centrosomes. eLife 2024; 12:RP84875. [PMID: 39092485 PMCID: PMC11296703 DOI: 10.7554/elife.84875] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/04/2024] Open
Abstract
The spindle assembly checkpoint (SAC) temporally regulates mitosis by preventing progression from metaphase to anaphase until all chromosomes are correctly attached to the mitotic spindle. Centrosomes refine the spatial organization of the mitotic spindle at the spindle poles. However, centrosome loss leads to elongated mitosis, suggesting that centrosomes also inform the temporal organization of mitosis in mammalian cells. Here, we find that the mitotic delay in acentrosomal cells is enforced by the SAC in a MPS1-dependent manner, and that a SAC-dependent mitotic delay is required for bipolar cell division to occur in acentrosomal cells. Although acentrosomal cells become polyploid, polyploidy is not sufficient to cause dependency on a SAC-mediated delay to complete cell division. Rather, the division failure in absence of MPS1 activity results from mitotic exit occurring before acentrosomal spindles can become bipolar. Furthermore, prevention of centrosome separation suffices to make cell division reliant on a SAC-dependent mitotic delay. Thus, centrosomes and their definition of two spindle poles early in mitosis provide a 'timely two-ness' that allows cell division to occur in absence of a SAC-dependent mitotic delay.
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Affiliation(s)
- KC Farrell
- Department of Biology, Stanford UniversityStanfordUnited States
| | - Jennifer T Wang
- Department of Biology, Stanford UniversityStanfordUnited States
| | - Tim Stearns
- Department of Biology, Stanford UniversityStanfordUnited States
- Department of Genetics, Stanford University School of MedicineStanfordUnited States
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2
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Charlton PV, O'Reilly D, Philippou Y, Rao SR, Lamb ADG, Mills IG, Higgins GS, Hamdy FC, Verrill C, Buffa FM, Bryant RJ. Molecular analysis of archival diagnostic prostate cancer biopsies identifies genomic similarities in cases with progression post-radiotherapy, and those with de novo metastatic disease. Prostate 2024; 84:977-990. [PMID: 38654435 PMCID: PMC11253896 DOI: 10.1002/pros.24715] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2024] [Accepted: 03/18/2024] [Indexed: 04/26/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND It is important to identify molecular features that improve prostate cancer (PCa) risk stratification before radical treatment with curative intent. Molecular analysis of historical diagnostic formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded (FFPE) prostate biopsies from cohorts with post-radiotherapy (RT) long-term clinical follow-up has been limited. Utilizing parallel sequencing modalities, we performed a proof-of-principle sequencing analysis of historical diagnostic FFPE prostate biopsies. We compared patients with (i) stable PCa (sPCa) postprimary or salvage RT, (ii) progressing PCa (pPCa) post-RT, and (iii) de novo metastatic PCa (mPCa). METHODS A cohort of 19 patients with diagnostic prostate biopsies (n = 6 sPCa, n = 5 pPCa, n = 8 mPCa) and mean 4 years 10 months follow-up (diagnosed 2009-2016) underwent nucleic acid extraction from demarcated malignancy. Samples underwent 3'RNA sequencing (3'RNAseq) (n = 19), nanoString analysis (n = 12), and Illumina 850k methylation (n = 8) sequencing. Bioinformatic analysis was performed to coherently identify differentially expressed genes and methylated genomic regions (MGRs). RESULTS Eighteen of 19 samples provided useable 3'RNAseq data. Principal component analysis (PCA) demonstrated similar expression profiles between pPCa and mPCa cases, versus sPCa. Coherently differentially methylated probes between these groups identified ~600 differentially MGRs. The top 50 genes with increased expression in pPCa patients were associated with reduced progression-free survival post-RT (p < 0.0001) in an external cohort. CONCLUSIONS 3'RNAseq, nanoString and 850k-methylation analyses are each achievable from historical FFPE diagnostic pretreatment prostate biopsies, unlocking the potential to utilize large cohorts of historic clinical samples. Profiling similarities between individuals with pPCa and mPCa suggests biological similarities and historical radiological staging limitations, which warrant further investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philip Vincent Charlton
- Department of OncologyUniversity of OxfordOxfordUK
- Department of OncologyOxford University Hospitals NHS Foundation TrustOxfordUK
| | | | - Yiannis Philippou
- Department of UrologyOxford University Hospitals NHS Foundation TrustOxfordUK
| | - Srinivasa Rao Rao
- Nuffield Department of Surgical SciencesUniversity of OxfordOxfordUK
| | - Alastair David Gordon Lamb
- Department of UrologyOxford University Hospitals NHS Foundation TrustOxfordUK
- Nuffield Department of Surgical SciencesUniversity of OxfordOxfordUK
| | | | - Geoff Stuart Higgins
- Department of OncologyUniversity of OxfordOxfordUK
- Department of OncologyOxford University Hospitals NHS Foundation TrustOxfordUK
| | - Freddie Charles Hamdy
- Department of UrologyOxford University Hospitals NHS Foundation TrustOxfordUK
- Nuffield Department of Surgical SciencesUniversity of OxfordOxfordUK
| | - Clare Verrill
- Nuffield Department of Surgical SciencesUniversity of OxfordOxfordUK
- Department of PathologyOxford University Hospitals NHS Foundation TrustOxfordUK
| | | | - Richard John Bryant
- Department of UrologyOxford University Hospitals NHS Foundation TrustOxfordUK
- Nuffield Department of Surgical SciencesUniversity of OxfordOxfordUK
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3
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Carceles-Cordon M, Orme JJ, Domingo-Domenech J, Rodriguez-Bravo V. The yin and yang of chromosomal instability in prostate cancer. Nat Rev Urol 2024; 21:357-372. [PMID: 38307951 PMCID: PMC11156566 DOI: 10.1038/s41585-023-00845-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/13/2023] [Indexed: 02/04/2024]
Abstract
Metastatic prostate cancer remains an incurable lethal disease. Studies indicate that prostate cancer accumulates genomic changes during disease progression and displays the highest levels of chromosomal instability (CIN) across all types of metastatic tumours. CIN, which refers to ongoing chromosomal DNA gain or loss during mitosis, and derived aneuploidy, are known to be associated with increased tumour heterogeneity, metastasis and therapy resistance in many tumour types. Paradoxically, high CIN levels are also proposed to be detrimental to tumour cell survival, suggesting that cancer cells must develop adaptive mechanisms to ensure their survival. In the context of prostate cancer, studies indicate that CIN has a key role in disease progression and might also offer a therapeutic vulnerability that can be pharmacologically targeted. Thus, a comprehensive evaluation of the causes and consequences of CIN in prostate cancer, its contribution to aggressive advanced disease and a better understanding of the acquired CIN tolerance mechanisms can translate into new tumour classifications, biomarker development and therapeutic strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Jacob J Orme
- Department of Oncology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
| | - Josep Domingo-Domenech
- Department of Urology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA.
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA.
| | - Veronica Rodriguez-Bravo
- Department of Urology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA.
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA.
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4
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Hannaford MR, Rusan NM. Positioning centrioles and centrosomes. J Cell Biol 2024; 223:e202311140. [PMID: 38512059 PMCID: PMC10959756 DOI: 10.1083/jcb.202311140] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2023] [Revised: 02/23/2024] [Accepted: 02/26/2024] [Indexed: 03/22/2024] Open
Abstract
Centrosomes are the primary microtubule organizer in eukaryotic cells. In addition to shaping the intracellular microtubule network and the mitotic spindle, centrosomes are responsible for positioning cilia and flagella. To fulfill these diverse functions, centrosomes must be properly located within cells, which requires that they undergo intracellular transport. Importantly, centrosome mispositioning has been linked to ciliopathies, cancer, and infertility. The mechanisms by which centrosomes migrate are diverse and context dependent. In many cells, centrosomes move via indirect motor transport, whereby centrosomal microtubules engage anchored motor proteins that exert forces on those microtubules, resulting in centrosome movement. However, in some cases, centrosomes move via direct motor transport, whereby the centrosome or centriole functions as cargo that directly binds molecular motors which then walk on stationary microtubules. In this review, we summarize the mechanisms of centrosome motility and the consequences of centrosome mispositioning and identify key questions that remain to be addressed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew R. Hannaford
- Cell and Developmental Biology Center, National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Nasser M. Rusan
- Cell and Developmental Biology Center, National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
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5
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Paxson AI, Chang LH, Gard JMC, Harryman WL, Nelson CS, Salmon SB, Marr KD, Wachsmuth LM, Ramanathan A, Ran J, Kapoor A, Marugan JJ, Henderson MJ, Sanchez TW, Cress AE. Phenotype plasticity and altered sensitivity to chemotherapeutic agents in aggressive prostate cancer cells. Front Cell Dev Biol 2023; 11:1285372. [PMID: 38046670 PMCID: PMC10690371 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2023.1285372] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2023] [Accepted: 10/24/2023] [Indexed: 12/05/2023] Open
Abstract
In 2023, approximately 288,300 new diagnoses of prostate cancer will occur, with 34,700 disease-related deaths. Death from prostate cancer is associated with metastasis, enabled by progression of tumor phenotypes and successful extracapsular extension to reach Batson's venous plexus, a specific route to the spine and brain. Using a mouse-human tumor xenograft model, we isolated an aggressive muscle invasive cell population of prostate cancer, called DU145J7 with a distinct biophysical phenotype, elevated histone H3K27, and increased matrix metalloproteinase 14 expression as compared to the non-aggressive parent cell population called DU145WT. Our goal was to determine the sensitivities to known chemotherapeutic agents of the aggressive cells as compared to the parent population. High-throughput screening was performed with 5,578 compounds, comprising of approved and investigational drugs for oncology. Eleven compounds were selected for additional testing, which revealed that vorinostat, 5-azacitidine, and fimepinostat (epigenetic inhibitors) showed 2.6-to-7.5-fold increases in lethality for the aggressive prostate cancer cell population as compared to the parent, as judged by the concentration of drug to inhibit 50% cell growth (IC50). On the other hand, the DU145J7 cells were 2.2-to-4.0-fold resistant to mitoxantrone, daunorubicin, and gimatecan (topoisomerase inhibitors) as compared to DU145WT. No differences in sensitivities between cell populations were found for docetaxel or pirarubicin. The increased sensitivity of DU145J7 prostate cancer cells to chromatin modifying agents suggests a therapeutic vulnerability occurs after tumor cells invade into and through muscle. Future work will determine which epigenetic modifiers and what combinations will be most effective to eradicate early aggressive tumor populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Allan I. Paxson
- Partnership for Native American Cancer Prevention, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, United States
- University of Arizona Cancer Center, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, United States
| | - Loren H. Chang
- National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, MD, United States
| | - Jaime M. C. Gard
- University of Arizona Cancer Center, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, United States
| | - William L. Harryman
- University of Arizona Cancer Center, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, United States
| | - Colin S. Nelson
- University of Arizona Cancer Center, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, United States
| | - Stella B. Salmon
- University of Arizona Cancer Center, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, United States
| | - Kendra D. Marr
- University of Arizona Cancer Center, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, United States
- Medical Scientist Training MD/PhD Program, College of Medicine Tucson, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, United States
| | - Leah M. Wachsmuth
- National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, MD, United States
| | - Anita Ramanathan
- National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, MD, United States
| | - Jing Ran
- National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, MD, United States
| | - Abhijeet Kapoor
- National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, MD, United States
| | - Juan J. Marugan
- National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, MD, United States
| | - Mark J. Henderson
- National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, MD, United States
| | - Tino W. Sanchez
- National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, MD, United States
| | - Anne E. Cress
- University of Arizona Cancer Center, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, United States
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, United States
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6
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Kalbfuss N, Gönczy P. Towards understanding centriole elimination. Open Biol 2023; 13:230222. [PMID: 37963546 PMCID: PMC10645514 DOI: 10.1098/rsob.230222] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2023] [Accepted: 09/14/2023] [Indexed: 11/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Centrioles are microtubule-based structures crucial for forming flagella, cilia and centrosomes. Through these roles, centrioles are critical notably for proper cell motility, signalling and division. Recent years have advanced significantly our understanding of the mechanisms governing centriole assembly and architecture. Although centrioles are typically very stable organelles, persisting over many cell cycles, they can also be eliminated in some cases. Here, we review instances of centriole elimination in a range of species and cell types. Moreover, we discuss potential mechanisms that enable the switch from a stable organelle to a vanishing one. Further work is expected to provide novel insights into centriole elimination mechanisms in health and disease, thereby also enabling scientists to readily manipulate organelle fate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nils Kalbfuss
- Swiss Institute for Experimental Cancer Research (ISREC), School of Life Sciences, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL), 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Pierre Gönczy
- Swiss Institute for Experimental Cancer Research (ISREC), School of Life Sciences, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL), 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
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7
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Sauer CM, Hall JA, Couturier DL, Bradley T, Piskorz AM, Griffiths J, Sawle A, Eldridge MD, Smith P, Hosking K, Reinius MAV, Morrill Gavarró L, Mes-Masson AM, Ennis D, Millan D, Hoyle A, McNeish IA, Jimenez-Linan M, Martins FC, Tischer J, Vias M, Brenton JD. Molecular landscape and functional characterization of centrosome amplification in ovarian cancer. Nat Commun 2023; 14:6505. [PMID: 37845213 PMCID: PMC10579337 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-41840-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2023] [Accepted: 09/21/2023] [Indexed: 10/18/2023] Open
Abstract
High-grade serous ovarian carcinoma (HGSOC) is characterised by poor outcome and extreme chromosome instability (CIN). Therapies targeting centrosome amplification (CA), a key mediator of chromosome missegregation, may have significant clinical utility in HGSOC. However, the prevalence of CA in HGSOC, its relationship to genomic biomarkers of CIN and its potential impact on therapeutic response have not been defined. Using high-throughput multi-regional microscopy on 287 clinical HGSOC tissues and 73 cell lines models, here we show that CA through centriole overduplication is a highly recurrent and heterogeneous feature of HGSOC and strongly associated with CIN and genome subclonality. Cell-based studies showed that high-prevalence CA is phenocopied in ovarian cancer cell lines, and that high CA is associated with increased multi-treatment resistance; most notably to paclitaxel, the commonest treatment used in HGSOC. CA in HGSOC may therefore present a potential driver of tumour evolution and a powerful biomarker for response to standard-of-care treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carolin M Sauer
- Cancer Research UK Cambridge Institute, University of Cambridge, Li Ka Shing Centre, Robinson Way, Cambridge, CB2 0RE, UK.
- Cancer Research UK Major Centre-Cambridge, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 0RE, UK.
| | - James A Hall
- Cancer Research UK Cambridge Institute, University of Cambridge, Li Ka Shing Centre, Robinson Way, Cambridge, CB2 0RE, UK
- Cancer Research UK Major Centre-Cambridge, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 0RE, UK
| | - Dominique-Laurent Couturier
- Cancer Research UK Cambridge Institute, University of Cambridge, Li Ka Shing Centre, Robinson Way, Cambridge, CB2 0RE, UK
- Medical Research Council Biostatistics Unit, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 0SR, UK
| | - Thomas Bradley
- Cancer Research UK Cambridge Institute, University of Cambridge, Li Ka Shing Centre, Robinson Way, Cambridge, CB2 0RE, UK
- Cancer Research UK Major Centre-Cambridge, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 0RE, UK
| | - Anna M Piskorz
- Cancer Research UK Cambridge Institute, University of Cambridge, Li Ka Shing Centre, Robinson Way, Cambridge, CB2 0RE, UK
- Cancer Research UK Major Centre-Cambridge, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 0RE, UK
| | - Jacob Griffiths
- Cancer Research UK Cambridge Institute, University of Cambridge, Li Ka Shing Centre, Robinson Way, Cambridge, CB2 0RE, UK
- Cancer Research UK Major Centre-Cambridge, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 0RE, UK
| | - Ashley Sawle
- Cancer Research UK Cambridge Institute, University of Cambridge, Li Ka Shing Centre, Robinson Way, Cambridge, CB2 0RE, UK
- Cancer Research UK Major Centre-Cambridge, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 0RE, UK
| | - Matthew D Eldridge
- Cancer Research UK Cambridge Institute, University of Cambridge, Li Ka Shing Centre, Robinson Way, Cambridge, CB2 0RE, UK
- Cancer Research UK Major Centre-Cambridge, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 0RE, UK
| | - Philip Smith
- Cancer Research UK Cambridge Institute, University of Cambridge, Li Ka Shing Centre, Robinson Way, Cambridge, CB2 0RE, UK
- Cancer Research UK Major Centre-Cambridge, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 0RE, UK
| | - Karen Hosking
- Cancer Research UK Major Centre-Cambridge, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 0RE, UK
| | - Marika A V Reinius
- Cancer Research UK Cambridge Institute, University of Cambridge, Li Ka Shing Centre, Robinson Way, Cambridge, CB2 0RE, UK
- Cancer Research UK Major Centre-Cambridge, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 0RE, UK
- Cambridge University Hospital NHS Foundation Trust and National Institute for Health Research Cambridge Biomedical Research Centre, Addenbrooke's Hospital, Cambridge, UK
| | - Lena Morrill Gavarró
- Cancer Research UK Cambridge Institute, University of Cambridge, Li Ka Shing Centre, Robinson Way, Cambridge, CB2 0RE, UK
- Cancer Research UK Major Centre-Cambridge, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 0RE, UK
| | - Anne-Marie Mes-Masson
- Department of Medicine, Université de Montréal and Centre de recherche du Centre hospitalier de l'Université de Montréal (CRCHUM), Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Darren Ennis
- Department of Surgery and Cancer, Ovarian Cancer Action Research Centre, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - David Millan
- Department of Pathology, Queen Elizabeth University Hospital, Glasgow, UK
| | - Aoisha Hoyle
- Department of Pathology, University Hospital Monklands. NHS Lanarkshire, Airdrie, UK
| | - Iain A McNeish
- Department of Surgery and Cancer, Ovarian Cancer Action Research Centre, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - Mercedes Jimenez-Linan
- Cambridge University Hospital NHS Foundation Trust and National Institute for Health Research Cambridge Biomedical Research Centre, Addenbrooke's Hospital, Cambridge, UK
| | - Filipe Correia Martins
- Cancer Research UK Cambridge Institute, University of Cambridge, Li Ka Shing Centre, Robinson Way, Cambridge, CB2 0RE, UK
- Cancer Research UK Major Centre-Cambridge, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 0RE, UK
- Cambridge University Hospital NHS Foundation Trust and National Institute for Health Research Cambridge Biomedical Research Centre, Addenbrooke's Hospital, Cambridge, UK
| | - Julia Tischer
- Cancer Research UK Cambridge Institute, University of Cambridge, Li Ka Shing Centre, Robinson Way, Cambridge, CB2 0RE, UK
- Cancer Research UK Major Centre-Cambridge, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 0RE, UK
| | - Maria Vias
- Cancer Research UK Cambridge Institute, University of Cambridge, Li Ka Shing Centre, Robinson Way, Cambridge, CB2 0RE, UK
- Cancer Research UK Major Centre-Cambridge, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 0RE, UK
| | - James D Brenton
- Cancer Research UK Cambridge Institute, University of Cambridge, Li Ka Shing Centre, Robinson Way, Cambridge, CB2 0RE, UK.
- Cancer Research UK Major Centre-Cambridge, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 0RE, UK.
- Cambridge University Hospital NHS Foundation Trust and National Institute for Health Research Cambridge Biomedical Research Centre, Addenbrooke's Hospital, Cambridge, UK.
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8
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Morretton JP, Simon A, Herbette A, Barbazan J, Pérez-González C, Cosson C, Mboup B, Latouche A, Popova T, Kieffer Y, Macé AS, Gestraud P, Bataillon G, Becette V, Meseure D, Nicolas A, Mariani O, Vincent-Salomon A, Stern MH, Mechta-Grigoriou F, Roman Roman S, Vignjevic DM, Rouzier R, Sastre-Garau X, Goundiam O, Basto R. A catalog of numerical centrosome defects in epithelial ovarian cancers. EMBO Mol Med 2022; 14:e15670. [PMID: 36069081 PMCID: PMC9449595 DOI: 10.15252/emmm.202215670] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2022] [Revised: 07/21/2022] [Accepted: 07/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Centrosome amplification, the presence of more than two centrosomes in a cell is a common feature of most human cancer cell lines. However, little is known about centrosome numbers in human cancers and whether amplification or other numerical aberrations are frequently present. To address this question, we have analyzed a large cohort of primary human epithelial ovarian cancers (EOCs) from 100 patients. We found that rigorous quantitation of centrosome number in tumor samples was extremely challenging due to tumor heterogeneity and extensive tissue disorganization. Interestingly, even if centrosome clusters could be identified, the incidence of centrosome amplification was not comparable to what has been described in cultured cancer cells. Surprisingly, centrosome loss events where a few or many nuclei were not associated with centrosomes were clearly noticed and overall more frequent than centrosome amplification. Our findings highlight the difficulty of characterizing centrosome numbers in human tumors, while revealing a novel paradigm of centrosome number defects in EOCs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jean-Philippe Morretton
- Biology of Centrosomes and Genetic Instability, Institut Curie, PSL Research University, CNRS UMR 144, Paris, France
| | - Anthony Simon
- Biology of Centrosomes and Genetic Instability, Institut Curie, PSL Research University, CNRS UMR 144, Paris, France
| | - Aurélie Herbette
- Department of Translational Research, Institut Curie, PSL University, Paris Cedex 05, France
| | - Jorge Barbazan
- Migration and Invasion Laboratory, Institut Curie, PSL Research University, CNRS UMR 144, Paris, France
| | - Carlos Pérez-González
- Migration and Invasion Laboratory, Institut Curie, PSL Research University, CNRS UMR 144, Paris, France
| | - Camille Cosson
- Department of Translational Research, Institut Curie, PSL University, Paris Cedex 05, France
| | - Bassirou Mboup
- Statistical Methods for Precision Medicine, INSERM U900, Institut Curie, Saint-Cloud, France
| | - Aurélien Latouche
- Statistical Methods for Precision Medicine, INSERM U900, Institut Curie, Saint-Cloud, France
| | - Tatiana Popova
- DNA Repair & Uveal Melanoma (D.R.U.M.), INSERM U830, Institut Curie, PSL Research University, Paris Cedex 05, France
| | - Yann Kieffer
- Stress and Cancer Laboratory, INSERM U830, Institut Curie, Team Ligue Nationale Contre le Cancer, PSL Research University, Paris, France
| | - Anne-Sophie Macé
- Cell and Tissue Imaging Facility (PICT-IBiSA), Institut Curie, PSL Research University, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Paris, France
| | - Pierre Gestraud
- Bioinformatics and Computational Systems Biology of Cancer, Mines Paristech, INSERM U900, Institut Curie, PSL University, Paris Cedex 05, France
| | | | | | - Didier Meseure
- Department of Pathology, Institut Curie, Paris Cedex 05, France
| | - André Nicolas
- Department of Pathology, Institut Curie, Paris Cedex 05, France
| | - Odette Mariani
- Department of Pathology, Institut Curie, Paris Cedex 05, France.,Biological Resource Center, Department of Pathology, Institut Curie, PSL Research University, Paris, France
| | | | - Marc-Henri Stern
- DNA Repair & Uveal Melanoma (D.R.U.M.), INSERM U830, Institut Curie, PSL Research University, Paris Cedex 05, France
| | - Fatima Mechta-Grigoriou
- Stress and Cancer Laboratory, INSERM U830, Institut Curie, Team Ligue Nationale Contre le Cancer, PSL Research University, Paris, France
| | - Sergio Roman Roman
- Department of Translational Research, Institut Curie, PSL University, Paris Cedex 05, France
| | - Danijela Matic Vignjevic
- Migration and Invasion Laboratory, Institut Curie, PSL Research University, CNRS UMR 144, Paris, France
| | - Roman Rouzier
- Statistical Methods for Precision Medicine, INSERM U900, Institut Curie, Saint-Cloud, France.,Department of Surgery, Institut Curie, Saint-Cloud, France.,UFR Simone Veil - Santé, Université Versailles Saint Quentin, Université Paris Saclay, Montigny le Bretonneux, France
| | | | - Oumou Goundiam
- Department of Translational Research, Institut Curie, PSL University, Paris Cedex 05, France
| | - Renata Basto
- Biology of Centrosomes and Genetic Instability, Institut Curie, PSL Research University, CNRS UMR 144, Paris, France
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9
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Krishnan N, Swoger M, Rathbun LI, Fioramonti PJ, Freshour J, Bates M, Patteson AE, Hehnly H. Rab11 endosomes and Pericentrin coordinate centrosome movement during pre-abscission in vivo. Life Sci Alliance 2022; 5:5/7/e202201362. [PMID: 35304423 PMCID: PMC8933627 DOI: 10.26508/lsa.202201362] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2022] [Revised: 03/02/2022] [Accepted: 03/03/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Cell division completes when the two daughter cells move their oldest centrosome towards the cytokinetic bridge, which is then cleaved during abscission. The GTPase, Rab11, and the centrosome protein, Pericentrin, work together to coordinate this movement. The last stage of cell division involves two daughter cells remaining interconnected by a cytokinetic bridge that is cleaved during abscission. Conserved between the zebrafish embryo and human cells, we found that the oldest centrosome moves in a Rab11-dependent manner towards the cytokinetic bridge sometimes followed by the youngest. Rab11-endosomes are organized in a Rab11-GTP dependent manner at the mother centriole during pre-abscission, with Rab11 endosomes at the oldest centrosome being more mobile compared with the youngest. The GTPase activity of Rab11 is necessary for the centrosome protein, Pericentrin, to be enriched at the centrosome. Reduction in Pericentrin expression or optogenetic disruption of Rab11-endosome function inhibited both centrosome movement towards the cytokinetic bridge and abscission, resulting in daughter cells prone to being binucleated and/or having supernumerary centrosomes. These studies suggest that Rab11-endosomes contribute to centrosome function during pre-abscission by regulating Pericentrin organization resulting in appropriate centrosome movement towards the cytokinetic bridge and subsequent abscission.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nikhila Krishnan
- Department of Biology, Syracuse University, Syracuse, NY, USA.,BioInspired Institute, Syracuse University, Syracuse, NY, USA
| | - Maxx Swoger
- Department of Physics, Syracuse University, Physics Building, Syracuse, NY, USA.,BioInspired Institute, Syracuse University, Syracuse, NY, USA
| | - Lindsay I Rathbun
- Department of Biology, Syracuse University, Syracuse, NY, USA.,BioInspired Institute, Syracuse University, Syracuse, NY, USA
| | - Peter J Fioramonti
- Department of Biology, Syracuse University, Syracuse, NY, USA.,BioInspired Institute, Syracuse University, Syracuse, NY, USA
| | - Judy Freshour
- Department of Biology, Syracuse University, Syracuse, NY, USA.,BioInspired Institute, Syracuse University, Syracuse, NY, USA
| | - Michael Bates
- Department of Biology, Syracuse University, Syracuse, NY, USA.,BioInspired Institute, Syracuse University, Syracuse, NY, USA
| | - Alison E Patteson
- Department of Physics, Syracuse University, Physics Building, Syracuse, NY, USA.,BioInspired Institute, Syracuse University, Syracuse, NY, USA
| | - Heidi Hehnly
- Department of Biology, Syracuse University, Syracuse, NY, USA .,BioInspired Institute, Syracuse University, Syracuse, NY, USA
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10
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Abstract
The centrosome is a multifunctional organelle that is known primarily for its microtubule organising function. Centrosomal defects caused by changes in centrosomal structure or number have been associated with human diseases ranging from congenital defects to cancer. We are only beginning to appreciate how the non-microtubule organising roles of the centrosome are related to these clinical conditions. In this review, we will discuss the historical evidence that led to the proposal that the centrosome participates in cell cycle regulation. We then summarize the body of work that describes the involvement of the mammalian centrosome in triggering cell cycle progression and checkpoint signalling. Then we will highlight work from the fission yeast model organism, revealing the molecular details that explain how the spindle pole body (SPB, the yeast functional equivalent of the centrosome), participates in these cell cycle transitions. Importantly, we will discuss some of the emerging questions from recent discoveries related to the role of the centrosome as a cell cycle regulator.
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11
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Ryniawec JM, Rogers GC. Centrosome instability: when good centrosomes go bad. Cell Mol Life Sci 2021; 78:6775-6795. [PMID: 34476544 PMCID: PMC8560572 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-021-03928-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2021] [Revised: 08/10/2021] [Accepted: 08/26/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
The centrosome is a tiny cytoplasmic organelle that organizes and constructs massive molecular machines to coordinate diverse cellular processes. Due to its many roles during both interphase and mitosis, maintaining centrosome homeostasis is essential to normal health and development. Centrosome instability, divergence from normal centrosome number and structure, is a common pathognomonic cellular state tightly associated with cancers and other genetic diseases. As novel connections are investigated linking the centrosome to disease, it is critical to understand the breadth of centrosome functions to inspire discovery. In this review, we provide an introduction to normal centrosome function and highlight recent discoveries that link centrosome instability to specific disease states.
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Affiliation(s)
- John M Ryniawec
- University of Arizona Cancer Center, University of Arizona, 1515 N. Campbell Ave., Tucson, AZ, 85724, USA
| | - Gregory C Rogers
- University of Arizona Cancer Center, University of Arizona, 1515 N. Campbell Ave., Tucson, AZ, 85724, USA.
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12
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Pancione M, Cerulo L, Remo A, Giordano G, Gutierrez-Uzquiza Á, Bragado P, Porras A. Centrosome Dynamics and Its Role in Inflammatory Response and Metastatic Process. Biomolecules 2021; 11:biom11050629. [PMID: 33922633 PMCID: PMC8146599 DOI: 10.3390/biom11050629] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2021] [Revised: 04/18/2021] [Accepted: 04/20/2021] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Metastasis is a process by which cancer cells escape from the location of the primary tumor invading normal tissues at distant organs. Chromosomal instability (CIN) is a hallmark of human cancer, associated with metastasis and therapeutic resistance. The centrosome plays a major role in organizing the microtubule cytoskeleton in animal cells regulating cellular architecture and cell division. Loss of centrosome integrity activates the p38-p53-p21 pathway, which results in cell-cycle arrest or senescence and acts as a cell-cycle checkpoint pathway. Structural and numerical centrosome abnormalities can lead to aneuploidy and CIN. New findings derived from studies on cancer and rare genetic disorders suggest that centrosome dysfunction alters the cellular microenvironment through Rho GTPases, p38, and JNK (c-Jun N-terminal Kinase)-dependent signaling in a way that is favorable for pro-invasive secretory phenotypes and aneuploidy tolerance. We here review recent data on how centrosomes act as complex molecular platforms for Rho GTPases and p38 MAPK (Mitogen activated kinase) signaling at the crossroads of CIN, cytoskeleton remodeling, and immune evasion via both cell-autonomous and non-autonomous mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Massimo Pancione
- Department of Sciences and Technologies, University of Sannio, 82100 Benevento, Italy;
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +39-0824305116
| | - Luigi Cerulo
- Department of Sciences and Technologies, University of Sannio, 82100 Benevento, Italy;
| | - Andrea Remo
- Pathology Unit, Mater Salutis Hospital AULSS9, “Scaligera”, 37122 Verona, Italy;
| | - Guido Giordano
- Department of Medical Oncology Unit, University of Foggia, 71122 Foggia, Italy;
| | - Álvaro Gutierrez-Uzquiza
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Complutense University Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain; (Á.G.-U.); (P.B.); (A.P.)
- Health Research Institute of the Hospital Clínico San Carlos (IdISSC), 28040 Madrid, Spain
| | - Paloma Bragado
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Complutense University Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain; (Á.G.-U.); (P.B.); (A.P.)
- Health Research Institute of the Hospital Clínico San Carlos (IdISSC), 28040 Madrid, Spain
| | - Almudena Porras
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Complutense University Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain; (Á.G.-U.); (P.B.); (A.P.)
- Health Research Institute of the Hospital Clínico San Carlos (IdISSC), 28040 Madrid, Spain
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13
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Meierjohann S. Effect of stress-induced polyploidy on melanoma reprogramming and therapy resistance. Semin Cancer Biol 2021; 81:232-240. [PMID: 33610722 DOI: 10.1016/j.semcancer.2021.02.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2020] [Revised: 01/03/2021] [Accepted: 02/09/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Melanomas and their precursors, the melanocytes, are frequently exposed to UV due to their anatomic location, leading to DNA damage and reactive oxygen stress related harm. Such damage can result in multinucleation or polyploidy, in particularly in presence of mitotic or cell division failure. As a consequence, the cell encounters either of two fates: mitotic catastrophe, resulting in cell death, or survival and recovery, the latter occurring less frequently. However, when cells manage to recover in an polyploid state, they have often acquired new features, which allow them to tolerate and adapt to oncogene- or therapy induced stress. This review focuses on polyploidy inducers in melanoma and their effects on transcriptional reprogramming and phenotypic adaptation as well as the relevance of polyploid melanoma cells for therapy resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Svenja Meierjohann
- Institute of Pathology, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany; Comprehensive Cancer Center Mainfranken, University Hospital Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany.
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14
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Evans LT, Anglen T, Scott P, Lukasik K, Loncarek J, Holland AJ. ANKRD26 recruits PIDD1 to centriolar distal appendages to activate the PIDDosome following centrosome amplification. EMBO J 2021; 40:e105106. [PMID: 33350495 PMCID: PMC7883295 DOI: 10.15252/embj.2020105106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2020] [Revised: 11/08/2020] [Accepted: 11/10/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Centriole copy number is tightly maintained by the once-per-cycle duplication of these organelles. Centrioles constitute the core of centrosomes, which organize the microtubule cytoskeleton and form the poles of the mitotic spindle. Centrosome amplification is frequently observed in tumors, where it promotes aneuploidy and contributes to invasive phenotypes. In non-transformed cells, centrosome amplification triggers PIDDosome activation as a protective response to inhibit cell proliferation, but how extra centrosomes activate the PIDDosome remains unclear. Using a genome-wide screen, we identify centriole distal appendages as critical for PIDDosome activation in cells with extra centrosomes. The distal appendage protein ANKRD26 is found to interact with and recruit the PIDDosome component PIDD1 to centriole distal appendages, and this interaction is required for PIDDosome activation following centrosome amplification. Furthermore, a recurrent ANKRD26 mutation found in human tumors disrupts PIDD1 localization and PIDDosome activation in cells with extra centrosomes. Our data support a model in which ANKRD26 initiates a centriole-derived signal to limit cell proliferation in response to centrosome amplification.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lauren T Evans
- Department of Molecular Biology and GeneticsJohns Hopkins University School of MedicineBaltimoreMDUSA
| | - Taylor Anglen
- Department of Molecular Biology and GeneticsJohns Hopkins University School of MedicineBaltimoreMDUSA
| | - Phillip Scott
- Department of Molecular Biology and GeneticsJohns Hopkins University School of MedicineBaltimoreMDUSA
| | - Kimberly Lukasik
- Laboratory of Protein Dynamics and SignalingNIH/NCI/CCRFrederickMDUSA
| | - Jadranka Loncarek
- Laboratory of Protein Dynamics and SignalingNIH/NCI/CCRFrederickMDUSA
| | - Andrew J Holland
- Department of Molecular Biology and GeneticsJohns Hopkins University School of MedicineBaltimoreMDUSA
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15
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Goundiam O, Basto R. Centrosomes in disease: how the same music can sound so different? Curr Opin Struct Biol 2020; 66:74-82. [PMID: 33186811 DOI: 10.1016/j.sbi.2020.09.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2020] [Revised: 09/22/2020] [Accepted: 09/23/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Centrosomes are the major microtubule organizing center of animal cells. Centrosomes contribute to timely bipolar spindle assembly during mitosis and participate in the regulation of other processes such as polarity establishment and cell migration. Centrosome numbers are tightly controlled during the cell cycle to ensure that mitosis is initiated with only two centrosomes. Deviations in centrosome number or structure are known to impact cell or tissue homeostasis and can impact different processes as diverse as proliferation, death or disease. Interestingly, defects in centrosome number seem to culminate with common responses, which depend on p53 activation even in different contexts such as development or cancer. p53 is a tumor suppressor gene with essential roles in the maintenance of genetic stability normally stimulated by various cellular stresses. Here, we review current knowledge and discuss how defects in centrosome structure and number can lead to different human pathologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oumou Goundiam
- Department of Translational Research, Institut Curie, PSL University, 26 rue d' Ulm, F-75248 Paris Cedex 05, France
| | - Renata Basto
- Biology of Centrosomes and Genetic Instability Lab, CNRS, Institut Curie, PSL Research University, UMR144, 12 rue Lhomond, 75005 Paris, France.
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16
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Marthiens V, Basto R. Centrosomes: The good and the bad for brain development. Biol Cell 2020; 112:153-172. [PMID: 32170757 DOI: 10.1111/boc.201900090] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2019] [Revised: 02/25/2020] [Accepted: 03/01/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Centrosomes nucleate and organise the microtubule cytoskeleton in animal cells. These membraneless organelles are key structures for tissue organisation, polarity and growth. Centrosome dysfunction, defined as deviation in centrosome numbers and/or structural integrity, has major impact on brain size and functionality, as compared with other tissues of the organism. In this review, we discuss the contribution of centrosomes to brain growth during development. We discuss in particular the impact of centrosome dysfunction in Drosophila and mammalian neural stem cell division and fitness, which ultimately underlie brain growth defects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Véronique Marthiens
- Biology of Centrosomes and Genetic Instability Laboratory, Institut Curie, PSL Research University, CNRS, UMR144, Paris, 75005, France
| | - Renata Basto
- Biology of Centrosomes and Genetic Instability Laboratory, Institut Curie, PSL Research University, CNRS, UMR144, Paris, 75005, France
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17
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Zhou X, Zhi Y, Yu J, Xu D. The Yin and Yang of Autosomal Recessive Primary Microcephaly Genes: Insights from Neurogenesis and Carcinogenesis. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:ijms21051691. [PMID: 32121580 PMCID: PMC7084222 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21051691] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2019] [Revised: 02/23/2020] [Accepted: 02/26/2020] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
The stem cells of neurogenesis and carcinogenesis share many properties, including proliferative rate, an extensive replicative potential, the potential to generate different cell types of a given tissue, and an ability to independently migrate to a damaged area. This is also evidenced by the common molecular principles regulating key processes associated with cell division and apoptosis. Autosomal recessive primary microcephaly (MCPH) is a neurogenic mitotic disorder that is characterized by decreased brain size and mental retardation. Until now, a total of 25 genes have been identified that are known to be associated with MCPH. The inactivation (yin) of most MCPH genes leads to neurogenesis defects, while the upregulation (yang) of some MCPH genes is associated with different kinds of carcinogenesis. Here, we try to summarize the roles of MCPH genes in these two diseases and explore the underlying mechanisms, which will help us to explore new, attractive approaches to targeting tumor cells that are resistant to the current therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaokun Zhou
- College of Biological Science and Engineering, Institute of Life Sciences, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou 350108, China; (X.Z.); (Y.Z.); (J.Y.)
| | - Yiqiang Zhi
- College of Biological Science and Engineering, Institute of Life Sciences, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou 350108, China; (X.Z.); (Y.Z.); (J.Y.)
| | - Jurui Yu
- College of Biological Science and Engineering, Institute of Life Sciences, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou 350108, China; (X.Z.); (Y.Z.); (J.Y.)
| | - Dan Xu
- College of Biological Science and Engineering, Institute of Life Sciences, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou 350108, China; (X.Z.); (Y.Z.); (J.Y.)
- Fujian Key Laboratory of Molecular Neurology, Institute of Neuroscience, Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou 350005, China
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +86-17085937559
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18
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Wang M, Rogers GC, Cress AE. Immunofluorescence-based Determination of Centrosome Number in Tissue Samples. Bio Protoc 2019; 9:e3396. [PMID: 33654897 DOI: 10.21769/bioprotoc.3396] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2019] [Revised: 09/16/2019] [Accepted: 09/17/2019] [Indexed: 11/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Centrosome numerical abnormalities have been reported in a variety of tumors. Centrosome numbers in cancer cells display both inter-tumor and intra-tumor heterogeneity. The over production of centrosomes (centrosome amplification) is unique in cancer cells and is a promising target for therapy. Thus, a method to quantify centrosome numbers on a single cell level is needed. Here, we describe a protocol to quantify centrosome numbers in formalin fixed paraffin embedded (FFPE) tissue samples by multiplexing antibodies to define bona fide centrosomes and cell borders. Centrosomes in single cells are identified using high resolution immunofluorescent microscopy with Z-sectioning. This protocol is easy to perform and has been used to quantify centrosome numbers on a single cell level in a variety of human tissue samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mengdie Wang
- Cancer Biology Research Program/University of Arizona Cancer Center, Tucson, AZ, USA
| | - Gregory C Rogers
- Cancer Biology Research Program/University of Arizona Cancer Center, Tucson, AZ, USA.,Dept of Cellular and Molecular Medicine/University of Arizona Cancer Center, Tucson, AZ, USA;
| | - Anne E Cress
- Cancer Biology Research Program/University of Arizona Cancer Center, Tucson, AZ, USA.,Dept of Cellular and Molecular Medicine/University of Arizona Cancer Center, Tucson, AZ, USA;
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