1
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Jumat MI, Chin KL. Transcriptome analysis and molecular characterization of novel small RNAs in Mycobacterium tuberculosis Lineage 1. World J Microbiol Biotechnol 2024; 40:279. [PMID: 39048776 DOI: 10.1007/s11274-024-04089-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2024] [Accepted: 07/18/2024] [Indexed: 07/27/2024]
Abstract
Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb), the tuberculosis-causing agent, exhibits diverse genetic lineages, with known links to virulence. While genomic and transcriptomic variations between modern and ancient Mtb lineages have been explored, the role of small non-coding RNA (sRNA) in post-translational gene regulation remains largely uncharted. In this study, Mtb Lineage 1 (L1) Sabahan strains (n = 3) underwent sRNA sequencing, revealing 351 sRNAs, including 23 known sRNAs and 328 novel ones identified using ANNOgesic. Thirteen sRNAs were selected based on the best average cut-off value of 300, with RT-qPCR revealing significant expression differences for sRNA 1 (p = 0.0132) and sRNA 29 (p = 0.0012) between Mtb L1 and other lineages (L2 and L4, n = 3) (p > 0.05). Further characterization using RACE (rapid amplification of cDNA ends), followed by target prediction with TargetRNA3 unveils that sRNA 1 (55 base pairs) targets Rv0506, Rv0697, and Rv3590c, and sRNA 29 (86 base pairs) targets Rv33859c, Rv3345c, Rv0755c, Rv0107c, Rv1817, Rv2950c, Rv1181, Rv3610c, and Rv3296. Functional characterization with Mycobrowser reveals these targets involved in regulating intermediary metabolism and respiration, cell wall and cell processes, lipid metabolism, information pathways, and PE/PPE. In summary, two novel sRNAs, sRNA 1 and sRNA 29, exhibited differential expression between L1 and other lineages, with predicted roles in essential Mtb functions. These findings offer insights into Mtb regulatory mechanisms, holding promise for the development of improved tuberculosis treatment strategies in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohd Iskandar Jumat
- Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Kota Kinabalu, 88400, Sabah, Malaysia
| | - Kai Ling Chin
- Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Kota Kinabalu, 88400, Sabah, Malaysia.
- Borneo Medical and Health Research Centre, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Kota Kinabalu, 88400, Sabah, Malaysia.
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2
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Alonzi T, Aiello A, Sali M, Delogu G, Villella VR, Raia V, Nicastri E, Piacentini M, Goletti D. Multiple antimicrobial and immune-modulating activities of cysteamine in infectious diseases. Biomed Pharmacother 2024; 178:117153. [PMID: 39024833 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopha.2024.117153] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2024] [Revised: 07/11/2024] [Accepted: 07/12/2024] [Indexed: 07/20/2024] Open
Abstract
Infectious diseases are a major threat to global health and cause millions of deaths every year, particularly in developing countries. The emergence of multidrug resistance challenges current antimicrobial treatments, inducing uncertainty in therapeutic protocols. New compounds are therefore necessary. A drug repurposing approach could play a critical role in developing new treatments used either alone or in combination with standard therapy regimens. Herein, we focused on cysteamine, an aminothiol endogenously synthesized by human cells during the degradation of coenzyme-A, which is a drug approved for the treatment of nephropathic cystinosis. Cysteamine influences many biological processes due to the presence of the highly reactive thiol group. This review provides an overview of cysteamine-mediated effects on different viruses, bacteria and parasites, with a particular focus on infections caused by Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), Mycobacterium tuberculosis, non-tuberculous mycobacteria (NTM), and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Evidences for a potential use of cysteamine as a direct antimicrobial agent and/or a host-directed therapy, either alone or in combination with other antimicrobial drugs, are described.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tonino Alonzi
- Translational Research Unit, National Institute for Infectious Diseases Lazzaro Spallanzani-IRCCS, Rome, Italy
| | - Alessandra Aiello
- Translational Research Unit, National Institute for Infectious Diseases Lazzaro Spallanzani-IRCCS, Rome, Italy
| | - Michela Sali
- Dipartimento di Scienze Biotecnologiche di Base, Cliniche Intensivologiche e Perioperatorie, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Rome, India; Dipartimento di Scienze di Laboratorio ed Ematologiche, Fondazione Policlinico Universitario A. Gemelli, IRCCS; Rome, Italy
| | - Giovanni Delogu
- Dipartimento di Scienze Biotecnologiche di Base, Cliniche Intensivologiche e Perioperatorie, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Rome, India; Mater Olbia Hospital, Olbia, Italy
| | - Valeria Rachela Villella
- CEINGE, Advanced Biotechnologies Franco Salvatore, Naples, Italy; Department of Molecular Medicine and Medical Biotechnologies, University of Naples Federico II, Naples, Italy
| | - Valeria Raia
- Pediatric Unit, Department of Translational Medical Sciences, Regional Cystic Fibrosis Center, Federico II University Naples, Naples, Italy
| | - Emanuele Nicastri
- Clinical Division of Infectious Diseases, National Institute for Infectious Diseases Lazzaro Spallanzani-IRCCS, Rome, Italy
| | - Mauro Piacentini
- Department of Biology, University of Rome "Tor Vergata", Rome, Italy; Cell Biology and Electron Microscopy Unit, National Institute for Infectious Diseases Lazzaro Spallanzani-IRCCS, Rome, Italy
| | - Delia Goletti
- Translational Research Unit, National Institute for Infectious Diseases Lazzaro Spallanzani-IRCCS, Rome, Italy.
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3
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Painter H, Willcocks S, Zelmer A, Reljic R, Tanner R, Fletcher H. Demonstrating the utility of the ex vivo murine mycobacterial growth inhibition assay (MGIA) for high-throughput screening of tuberculosis vaccine candidates against multiple Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex strains. Tuberculosis (Edinb) 2024; 146:102494. [PMID: 38367368 DOI: 10.1016/j.tube.2024.102494] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2023] [Revised: 02/05/2024] [Accepted: 02/11/2024] [Indexed: 02/19/2024]
Abstract
Human tuberculosis (TB) is caused by various members of the Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) complex. Differences in host response to infection have been reported, illustrative of a need to evaluate efficacy of novel vaccine candidates against multiple strains in preclinical studies. We previously showed that the murine lung and spleen direct mycobacterial growth inhibition assay (MGIA) can be used to assess control of ex vivo mycobacterial growth by host cells. The number of mice required for the assay is significantly lower than in vivo studies, facilitating testing of multiple strains and/or the incorporation of other cellular analyses. Here, we provide proof-of-concept that the murine MGIA can be applied to evaluate vaccine-induced protection against multiple Mtb clinical isolates. Using an ancient and modern strain of the Mtb complex, we demonstrate that ex vivo bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG)-mediated mycobacterial growth inhibition recapitulates protection observed in the lung and spleen following in vivo infection of mice. Further, we provide the first report of cellular and transcriptional correlates of BCG-induced growth inhibition in the lung MGIA. The ex vivo MGIA represents a promising platform to gain early insight into vaccine performance against a collection of Mtb strains and improve preclinical evaluation of TB vaccine candidates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hannah Painter
- Department of Infection Biology, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Keppel Street, London, WC1E 7HT, UK.
| | - Sam Willcocks
- Department of Infection Biology, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Keppel Street, London, WC1E 7HT, UK
| | - Andrea Zelmer
- Department of Infection Biology, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Keppel Street, London, WC1E 7HT, UK
| | - Rajko Reljic
- Institute of Infection and Immunity, St George's University of London, Cranmer Terrrace, London, SW17 0RE, UK
| | - Rachel Tanner
- Department of Biology, University of Oxford, Old Road Campus Research Building, Roosevelt Drive, Oxford, OX3 7DQ, UK
| | - Helen Fletcher
- Department of Infection Biology, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Keppel Street, London, WC1E 7HT, UK
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4
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Hiza H, Zwyer M, Hella J, Arbués A, Sasamalo M, Borrell S, Xu ZM, Ross A, Brites D, Fellay J, Reither K, Gagneux S, Portevin D. Bacterial diversity dominates variable macrophage responses of tuberculosis patients in Tanzania. Sci Rep 2024; 14:9287. [PMID: 38653771 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-024-60001-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2024] [Accepted: 04/17/2024] [Indexed: 04/25/2024] Open
Abstract
The Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex (MTBC) comprises nine human-adapted lineages that differ in their geographical distribution. Local adaptation of specific MTBC genotypes to the respective human host population has been invoked in this context. We aimed to assess if bacterial genetics governs MTBC pathogenesis or if local co-adaptation translates into differential susceptibility of human macrophages to infection by different MTBC genotypes. We generated macrophages from cryopreserved blood mononuclear cells of Tanzanian tuberculosis patients, from which the infecting MTBC strains had previously been phylogenetically characterized. We infected these macrophages ex vivo with a phylogenetically similar MTBC strain ("matched infection") or with strains representative of other MTBC lineages ("mismatched infection"). We found that L1 infections resulted in a significantly lower bacterial burden and that the intra-cellular replication rate of L2 strains was significantly higher compared the other MTBC lineages, irrespective of the MTBC lineage originally infecting the patients. Moreover, L4-infected macrophages released significantly greater amounts of TNF-α, IL-6, IL-10, MIP-1β, and IL-1β compared to macrophages infected by all other strains. While our results revealed no measurable effect of local adaptation, they further highlight the strong impact of MTBC phylogenetic diversity on the variable outcome of the host-pathogen interaction in human tuberculosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hellen Hiza
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Allschwil, Basel, Switzerland
- University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
- Ifakara Health Institute, Bagamoyo, Tanzania
| | - Michaela Zwyer
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Allschwil, Basel, Switzerland
- University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Jerry Hella
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Allschwil, Basel, Switzerland
- University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
- Ifakara Health Institute, Bagamoyo, Tanzania
| | - Ainhoa Arbués
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Allschwil, Basel, Switzerland
- University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Mohamed Sasamalo
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Allschwil, Basel, Switzerland
- University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
- Ifakara Health Institute, Bagamoyo, Tanzania
| | - Sonia Borrell
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Allschwil, Basel, Switzerland
- University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Zhi Ming Xu
- School of Life Sciences, Ecole Polytechnique Federale de Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
- Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics, Lausanne, Switzerland
- Precision Medicine Unit, Lausanne University Hospital and University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Amanda Ross
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Allschwil, Basel, Switzerland
- University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Daniela Brites
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Allschwil, Basel, Switzerland
- University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Jacques Fellay
- School of Life Sciences, Ecole Polytechnique Federale de Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
- Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics, Lausanne, Switzerland
- Precision Medicine Unit, Lausanne University Hospital and University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Klaus Reither
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Allschwil, Basel, Switzerland
- University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Sébastien Gagneux
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Allschwil, Basel, Switzerland
- University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Damien Portevin
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Allschwil, Basel, Switzerland.
- University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland.
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5
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Repele F, Alonzi T, Navarra A, Farroni C, Salmi A, Cuzzi G, Delogu G, Gualano G, Puro V, De Carli G, Girardi E, Palmieri F, Martineau AR, Goletti D. Detection of Mycobacterium tuberculosis DNA in CD34 + peripheral blood mononuclear cells of adults with tuberculosis infection and disease. Int J Infect Dis 2024; 141S:106999. [PMID: 38458427 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijid.2024.106999] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2024] [Revised: 02/22/2024] [Accepted: 03/04/2024] [Indexed: 03/10/2024] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES To investigate whether Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) DNA is detected in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) of subjects with tuberculosis (TB) or TB infection (TBI) living in a low-burden country. METHODS We prospectively enrolled 57 patients with TB, 41 subjects with TBI, and 39 controls in Rome, Italy. PBMC were isolated, cluster of differentiation (CD)34+ and CD34- cells were immunomagnetic separated, DNA was extracted, and digital polymerase chain reaction for IS6110 and rpoB sequences was used to detect Mtb DNA in PBMC subsets and unfractionated PBMC. RESULTS We detected Mtb DNA at a low copy number in CD34+ cells in 4o f 30 (13%) patients with TB, 2 of 24 (8%) subjects with TBI, and 1 of 24 (4%) controls. Mtb DNA was detected in unfractionated PBMC in 3 of 51 (6%) patients with TB, 2 of 38 (5%) subjects with TBI, and 2 of 36 (6%) controls. In CD34- cells, only 1 of 31 (3%) subjects with TBI tested positive for Mtb DNA. CONCLUSIONS Mtb DNA was detected at low frequencies and levels in the PBMC of subjects with TBI and donors with TB living in a low-burden country. In particular, Mtb DNA was detected more frequently in CD34+ cells, supporting the hypothesis that these cells may represent a Mtb niche. This finding informs biological understanding of Mtb pathogenesis and may support the development of a microbial blood biomarker for Mtb infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Federica Repele
- Translational Research Unit, National Institute for Infectious Diseases Lazzaro Spallanzani-IRCCS, Rome, Italy
| | - Tonino Alonzi
- Translational Research Unit, National Institute for Infectious Diseases Lazzaro Spallanzani-IRCCS, Rome, Italy
| | - Assunta Navarra
- Department of Epidemiology, National Institute for Infectious Diseases Lazzaro Spallanzani-IRCCS, Rome, Italy
| | - Chiara Farroni
- Translational Research Unit, National Institute for Infectious Diseases Lazzaro Spallanzani-IRCCS, Rome, Italy
| | - Andrea Salmi
- Translational Research Unit, National Institute for Infectious Diseases Lazzaro Spallanzani-IRCCS, Rome, Italy
| | - Gilda Cuzzi
- Translational Research Unit, National Institute for Infectious Diseases Lazzaro Spallanzani-IRCCS, Rome, Italy
| | - Giovanni Delogu
- Dipartimento di Scienze Biotecnologiche di Base, Cliniche Intensivologiche e Perioperatorie-Sezione di Microbiologia, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Rome, Italy; Mater Olbia Hospital, Olbia, Italy
| | - Gina Gualano
- Respiratory Infectious Diseases Unit, National Institute for Infectious Diseases Lazzaro Spallanzani-IRCCS, Rome, Italy
| | - Vincenzo Puro
- Department of Epidemiology, National Institute for Infectious Diseases Lazzaro Spallanzani-IRCCS, Rome, Italy
| | - Gabriella De Carli
- Department of Epidemiology, National Institute for Infectious Diseases Lazzaro Spallanzani-IRCCS, Rome, Italy
| | - Enrico Girardi
- Scientific Direction, National Institute for Infectious Diseases Lazzaro Spallanzani-IRCCS, Rome, Italy
| | - Fabrizio Palmieri
- Respiratory Infectious Diseases Unit, National Institute for Infectious Diseases Lazzaro Spallanzani-IRCCS, Rome, Italy
| | - Adrian R Martineau
- Centre for Immunobiology, Blizard Institute, Barts and The London School of Medicine and Dentistry, Queen Mary University of London, London, UK
| | - Delia Goletti
- Translational Research Unit, National Institute for Infectious Diseases Lazzaro Spallanzani-IRCCS, Rome, Italy.
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6
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Mvubu NE, Jacoby K. Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex molecular networks and their regulation: Implications of strain heterogeneity on epigenetic diversity and transcriptome regulation. Heliyon 2023; 9:e22611. [PMID: 38046135 PMCID: PMC10686871 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e22611] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2023] [Revised: 11/13/2023] [Accepted: 11/15/2023] [Indexed: 12/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Tuberculosis has been a public health crisis since the 1900, which has caused the highest mortalities due to a single bacterial infection worldwide, that was recently further complicated by the Coronavirus disease 2019 pandemic. The causative agent of Tuberculosis, Mycobacterium tuberculosis, belongs to a genetically well-characterized family of strains known as the Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex, which has complicated progress made towards eradicating Tuberculosis due to pathogen-specific phenotypic differences in the members of this complex. Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex strains are genetically diverse human- and animal-adapted pathogens belonging to 7 lineages (Indo-Oceanic, East-Asian, East-African Indian, Euro-American, M. africanum West Africa 1, M. africanum West Africa 2 and Ethopia), respectively and the recently identified Lineage 8 and M. africanum Lineage 9. Genomic studies have revealed that Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex members are ∼99 % similar, however, due to selective pressure and adaptation to human host, they are prone to mutations that have resulted in development of drug resistance and phenotypic heterogeneity that impact strain virulence. Furthermore, members of the Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex have preferred geographic locations and possess unique phenotypic characteristics that is linked to their pathogenicity. Due to the recent advances in development next generation sequencing platforms, several studies have revealed epigenetic changes in genomic regions combined with "unique" gene regulatory mechanisms through non-coding RNAs that are responsible for strain-specific behaviour on in vitro and in vivo infection models. The current review provides up to date epigenetic patterns, gene regulation through non-coding RNAs, together with implications of these mechanisms in down-stream proteome and metabolome, which may be responsible for "unique" responses to infection by members of the Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex. Understanding lineage-specific molecular mechanisms during infection may provide novel drug targets and disease control measures towards World Health organization END-TB strategy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nontobeko Eunice Mvubu
- Medical Microbiology, School of Laboratory Medicine and Medical Sciences, College of Health Sciences, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, 4000, South Africa
| | - Kieran Jacoby
- Medical Microbiology, School of Laboratory Medicine and Medical Sciences, College of Health Sciences, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, 4000, South Africa
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7
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Ocampo JC, Alzate JF, Barrera LF, Baena A. Tuberculosis Severity Predictive Model Using Mtb Variants and Serum Biomarkers in a Colombian Cohort of APTB Patients. Biomedicines 2023; 11:3110. [PMID: 38137331 PMCID: PMC10740695 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines11123110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2023] [Revised: 10/27/2023] [Accepted: 11/04/2023] [Indexed: 12/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Currently, tuberculosis (TB) is a bacterial infection caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) that primarily affects the lungs. The severity of active pulmonary TB (APTB) is an important determinant of transmission, morbidity, mortality, disease experience, and treatment outcomes. Several publications have shown a high prevalence of disabling complications in individuals who have had severe APTB. Furthermore, certain strains of Mtb were associated with more severe disease outcomes. The use of biomarkers to predict severe APTB patients who are candidates for host-directed therapies, due to the high risk of developing post-tuberculous lung disease (PTLD), has not yet been implemented in the management of TB patients. We followed 108 individuals with APTB for 6 months using clinical tools, flow cytometry, and whole-genome sequencing (WGS). The median age of the study population was 26.5 years, and the frequency of women was 53.7%. In this study, we aimed to identify biomarkers that could help us to recognize individuals with APTB and improve our understanding of the immunopathology in these individuals. In this study, we conducted a follow-up on the treatment progress of 121 cases of APTB. The follow-up process commenced at the time of diagnosis (T0), continued with a control visit at 2 months (T2), and culminated in an exit appointment at 6 months following the completion of medical treatment (T6). People classified with severe APTB showed significantly higher levels of IL-6 (14.7 pg/mL; p < 0.05) compared to those with mild APTB (7.7 pg/mL) at T0. The AUCs for the ROC curves and the Matthews correlation coefficient values (MCC) demonstrate correlations ranging from moderate to very strong. We conducted WGS on 88 clinical isolates of Mtb, and our analysis revealed a total of 325 genes with insertions and deletions (Indels) within their coding regions when compared to the Mtb H37Rv reference genome. The pattern of association was found between serum levels of CHIT1 and the presence of Indels in Mtb isolates from patients with severe APTB. A key finding in our study was the high levels of CHIT1 in severe APTB patients. We identified a biomarker profile (IL-6, IFN-γ, IL-33, and CHIT1) that allows us to identify individuals with severe APTB, as well as the identification of a panel of polymorphisms (125) in clinical isolates of Mtb from individuals with severe APTB. Integrating these findings into a predictive model of severity would show promise for the management of APTB patients in the future, to guide host-directed therapy and reduce the prevalence of PTLD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan C. Ocampo
- Grupo de Inmunología Celular e Inmunogenética (GICIG), Universidad de Antioquia (UdeA), Medellín 050010, Colombia; (J.C.O.); (L.F.B.)
| | - Juan F. Alzate
- Departamento de Microbiología y Parasitología, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Antioquia (UdeA), Medellín 050010, Colombia;
- Centro Nacional de Secuenciación Genómica (CNSG), Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Antioquia (UdeA), Medellín 050010, Colombia
| | - Luis F. Barrera
- Grupo de Inmunología Celular e Inmunogenética (GICIG), Universidad de Antioquia (UdeA), Medellín 050010, Colombia; (J.C.O.); (L.F.B.)
- Instituto de Investigaciones Médicas, Universidad de Antioquia (UdeA), Medellín 050010, Colombia
| | - Andres Baena
- Grupo de Inmunología Celular e Inmunogenética (GICIG), Universidad de Antioquia (UdeA), Medellín 050010, Colombia; (J.C.O.); (L.F.B.)
- Departamento de Microbiología y Parasitología, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Antioquia (UdeA), Medellín 050010, Colombia;
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8
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Bullen CK, Singh AK, Krug S, Lun S, Thakur P, Srikrishna G, Bishai WR. MDA5 RNA-sensing pathway activation by Mycobacterium tuberculosis promotes innate immune subversion and pathogen survival. JCI Insight 2023; 8:e166242. [PMID: 37725440 PMCID: PMC10619499 DOI: 10.1172/jci.insight.166242] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2022] [Accepted: 09/13/2023] [Indexed: 09/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Host cytosolic sensing of Mycobacterium tuberculosis (M. tuberculosis) RNA by the RIG-I-like receptor (RLR) family perturbs innate immune control within macrophages; however, a distinct role of MDA5, a member of the RLR family, in M. tuberculosis pathogenesis has yet to be fully elucidated. To further define the role of MDA5 in M. tuberculosis pathogenesis, we evaluated M. tuberculosis intracellular growth and innate immune responses in WT and Mda5-/- macrophages. Transfection of M. tuberculosis RNA strongly induced proinflammatory cytokine production in WT macrophages, which was abrogated in Mda5-/- macrophages. M. tuberculosis infection in macrophages induced MDA5 protein expression, accompanied by an increase in MDA5 activation as assessed by multimer formation. IFN-γ-primed Mda5-/- macrophages effectively contained intracellular M. tuberculosis proliferation to a markedly greater degree than WT macrophages. Further comparisons of WT versus Mda5-/- macrophages revealed that during M. tuberculosis infection MDA5 contributed to IL-1β production and inflammasome activation and that loss of MDA5 led to a substantial increase in autophagy. In the mouse TB model, loss of MDA5 conferred host survival benefits with a concomitant reduction in M. tuberculosis bacillary burden. These data reveal that loss of MDA5 is host protective during M. tuberculosis infection in vitro and in vivo, suggesting that M. tuberculosis exploits MDA5 to subvert immune containment.
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9
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Koleske BN, Jacobs WR, Bishai WR. The Mycobacterium tuberculosis genome at 25 years: lessons and lingering questions. J Clin Invest 2023; 133:e173156. [PMID: 37781921 PMCID: PMC10541200 DOI: 10.1172/jci173156] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/03/2023] Open
Abstract
First achieved in 1998 by Cole et al., the complete genome sequence of Mycobacterium tuberculosis continues to provide an invaluable resource to understand tuberculosis (TB), the leading cause of global infectious disease mortality. At the 25-year anniversary of this accomplishment, we describe how insights gleaned from the M. tuberculosis genome have led to vital tools for TB research, epidemiology, and clinical practice. The increasing accessibility of whole-genome sequencing across research and clinical settings has improved our ability to predict antibacterial susceptibility, to track epidemics at the level of individual outbreaks and wider historical trends, to query the efficacy of the bacille Calmette-Guérin (BCG) vaccine, and to uncover targets for novel antitubercular therapeutics. Likewise, we discuss several recent efforts to extract further discoveries from this powerful resource.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin N. Koleske
- Center for Tuberculosis Research, Department of Medicine, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - William R. Jacobs
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, New York, USA
| | - William R. Bishai
- Center for Tuberculosis Research, Department of Medicine, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
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10
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Saini S, Gangwar A, Sharma R. Harnessing host-pathogen interactions for innovative drug discovery and host-directed therapeutics to tackle tuberculosis. Microbiol Res 2023; 275:127466. [PMID: 37531813 DOI: 10.1016/j.micres.2023.127466] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2023] [Revised: 07/24/2023] [Accepted: 07/27/2023] [Indexed: 08/04/2023]
Abstract
Tuberculosis (TB) is a highly contagious bacterial infection caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb), which has been ranked as the second leading cause of death worldwide from a single infectious agent. As an intracellular pathogen, Mtb has well adapted to the phagocytic host microenvironment, influencing diverse host processes such as gene expression, trafficking, metabolism, and signaling pathways of the host to its advantage. These responses are the result of dynamic interactions of the bacteria with the host cell signaling pathways, whereby the bacteria attenuate the host cellular processes for their survival. Specific host genes and the mechanisms involved in the entry and subsequent stabilization of M. tuberculosis intracellularly have been identified in various genetic and chemical screens recently. The present understanding of the co-evolution of Mtb and macrophage system presented us the new possibilities for exploring host-directed therapeutics (HDT). Here, we discuss the host-pathogen interaction for Mtb, including the pathways adapted by Mtb to escape immunity. The review sheds light on different host-directed therapies (HDTs) such as repurposed drugs and vitamins, along with their targets such as granuloma, autophagy, extracellular matrix, lipids, and cytokines, among others. The article also examines the available clinical data on these drug molecules. In conclusion, the review presents a perspective on the current knowledge in the field of HDTs and the need for additional research to overcome the challenges associated HDTs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sapna Saini
- Infectious Diseases Division, CSIR, Indian Institute of Integrative Medicine, Jammu 180001, India; Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad 201002, India
| | - Anjali Gangwar
- Infectious Diseases Division, CSIR, Indian Institute of Integrative Medicine, Jammu 180001, India; Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad 201002, India
| | - Rashmi Sharma
- Infectious Diseases Division, CSIR, Indian Institute of Integrative Medicine, Jammu 180001, India; Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad 201002, India.
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Romagnoli A, Di Rienzo M, Petruccioli E, Fusco C, Palucci I, Micale L, Mazza T, Delogu G, Merla G, Goletti D, Piacentini M, Fimia GM. The ubiquitin ligase TRIM32 promotes the autophagic response to Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection in macrophages. Cell Death Dis 2023; 14:505. [PMID: 37543647 PMCID: PMC10404268 DOI: 10.1038/s41419-023-06026-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2023] [Revised: 07/19/2023] [Accepted: 07/27/2023] [Indexed: 08/07/2023]
Abstract
Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) is known to evade host immune responses and persist in macrophages for long periods. A mechanism that the host uses to combat Mtb is xenophagy, a selective form of autophagy that targets intracellular pathogens for degradation. Ubiquitination of Mtb or Mtb-containing compartments is a key event to recruit the autophagy machinery and mediate the bacterial delivery to the lysosome. This event relies on the coordinated and complementary activity of different ubiquitin ligases, including PARKIN, SMURF1, and TRIM16. Because each of these factors is responsible for the ubiquitination of a subset of the Mtb population, it is likely that additional ubiquitin ligases are employed by macrophages to trigger a full xenophagic response during Mtb infection. In this study, we investigated the role TRIM proteins whose expression is modulated in response to Mtb or BCG infection of primary macrophages. These TRIMs were ectopically expressed in THP1 macrophage cell line to assess their impact on Mtb replication. This screening identified TRIM32 as a novel player involved in the intracellular response to Mtb infection, which promotes autophagy-mediated Mtb degradation. The role of TRIM32 in xenophagy was further confirmed by silencing TRIM32 expression in THP1 cells, which causes increased intracellular growth of Mtb associated to impaired Mtb ubiquitination, reduced recruitment of the autophagy proteins NDP52/CALCOCO2 and BECLIN 1/BECN1 to Mtb and autophagosome formation. Overall, these findings suggest that TRIM32 plays an important role in the host response to Mtb infection through the induction of autophagy, representing a promising target for host-directed tuberculosis therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alessandra Romagnoli
- Department of Epidemiology, Preclinical Research and Advanced Diagnostics, National Institute for Infectious Diseases IRCCS 'L. Spallanzani', Rome, Italy
| | - Martina Di Rienzo
- Department of Epidemiology, Preclinical Research and Advanced Diagnostics, National Institute for Infectious Diseases IRCCS 'L. Spallanzani', Rome, Italy
| | - Elisa Petruccioli
- Department of Epidemiology, Preclinical Research and Advanced Diagnostics, National Institute for Infectious Diseases IRCCS 'L. Spallanzani', Rome, Italy
| | - Carmela Fusco
- Division of Medical Genetics, Fondazione IRCCS Casa Sollievo della Sofferenza, 71013, San Giovanni Rotondo, Italy
| | - Ivana Palucci
- Dipartimento di Scienze Biotecnologiche di Base, Cliniche Intensivologiche e Perioperatorie-Sezione di Microbiologia, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, 00168, Rome, Italy
- Dipartimento di Scienze di Laboratorio e Infettivologiche, Fondazione Policlinico Universitario "A. Gemelli", IRCCS, 00168, Rome, Italy
| | - Lucia Micale
- Division of Medical Genetics, Fondazione IRCCS Casa Sollievo della Sofferenza, 71013, San Giovanni Rotondo, Italy
| | - Tommaso Mazza
- Bioinformatics laboratory, Fondazione IRCCS Casa Sollievo della Sofferenza, 71013, San Giovanni Rotondo, Italy
| | - Giovanni Delogu
- Dipartimento di Scienze Biotecnologiche di Base, Cliniche Intensivologiche e Perioperatorie-Sezione di Microbiologia, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, 00168, Rome, Italy
- Mater Olbia Hospital, 07026, Olbia, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Merla
- Laboratory of Regulatory & Functional Genomics, Fondazione IRCCS Casa Sollievo della Sofferenza, San Giovanni Rotondo, Foggia, 71013, Italy
- Department of Molecular Medicine & Medical Biotechnology, University of Naples Federico II, Naples, 80131, Italy
| | - Delia Goletti
- Department of Epidemiology, Preclinical Research and Advanced Diagnostics, National Institute for Infectious Diseases IRCCS 'L. Spallanzani', Rome, Italy
| | - Mauro Piacentini
- Department of Epidemiology, Preclinical Research and Advanced Diagnostics, National Institute for Infectious Diseases IRCCS 'L. Spallanzani', Rome, Italy.
- Department of Biology, University of Rome 'Tor Vergata', Rome, Italy.
| | - Gian Maria Fimia
- Department of Epidemiology, Preclinical Research and Advanced Diagnostics, National Institute for Infectious Diseases IRCCS 'L. Spallanzani', Rome, Italy.
- Department of Molecular Medicine, University of Rome "La Sapienza", Rome, Italy.
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12
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Qin Y, Chen J, Xu K, Lu Y, Xu F, Shi J. Triad3A involved in the regulation of endotoxin tolerance and mycobactericidal activity through the NFκB-nitric oxide pathway. Immun Inflamm Dis 2023; 11:e925. [PMID: 37506157 PMCID: PMC10363814 DOI: 10.1002/iid3.925] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2022] [Revised: 04/18/2023] [Accepted: 06/15/2023] [Indexed: 07/30/2023] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Sepsis is characterized by an endotoxin tolerance phenotype that occurs in the stage of infection. Persistent bacterial infection can lead to immune cell exhaustion. Triad3A, an E3 ubiquitin ligase, negatively regulates its activation by TLR4. However, the effect of Triad3A on endotoxin tolerance and bactericidal ability in the state of endotoxin tolerance remains unclear. METHODS Using single dose LPS and repeated LPS stimulated macrophage cell lines at indicated times, we investigated miR-191, Tirad3A, TRAF3, TLR4, p-P65, TNF-α, IL-1β, and iNOS expression, the effect of miR-191 on Triad3A and TRAF3, gene loss-of-function analyses, the effect of Triad3A on TLR4, p-P65, cytokine, and mycobactericidal activity in endotoxin tolerant cells infected with Mycobacterium marinum. RESULTS Here we found that Triad3A is involved in regulating endotoxin tolerance. Our result also displayed that miR-191 expression is downregulated in macrophages in the state of endotoxin tolerance. miR-191 can directly bind to Triad3A and TRAF3. Additionally, knockdown of Triad3A can reverse the effect of decreasing TNF-α and IL-1β in endotoxin tolerant macrophages. Furthermore, we demonstrated that the TLR4-NF-κB-NO pathway was associated with Triad3A and responsible for the killing of intracellular mycobacteria in a tuberculosis sepsis model. CONCLUSIONS These results provide new insight into the mechanisms of Triad3A induced tolerogenic phenotype in macrophages, which can help the better comprehension of the pathogenesis involved in septic shock with infection of Mycobacterium tuberculosis, and suggest that Triad3A may be a potential drug target for the treatment of severe septic tuberculosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yongwei Qin
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, The Sixth People's Hospital of Nantong, Nantong, Jiangsu, China
- Department of Pathogen Biology, School of Medicine, Nantong University, Nantong, China
| | - Jinliang Chen
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Nantong University, Nantong First People's Hospital, Nantong, Jiangsu, China
| | - Kuang Xu
- Department of Pathogen Biology, School of Medicine, Nantong University, Nantong, China
| | - Yang Lu
- Department of Critical Care Medicine, Affiliated Hospital of Nantong University, Nantong, China
| | - Feifan Xu
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, The Sixth People's Hospital of Nantong, Nantong, Jiangsu, China
| | - Jiahai Shi
- Nantong Key Laboratory of Translational Medicine in Cardiothoracic Diseases, Nantong Clinical Medical Research Center of Cardiothoracic Disease, Institution of Translational Medicine in Cardiothoracic Diseases, Affiliated Hospital of Nantong University, Nantong, Jiangsu, China
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13
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Evaluation of Everolimus Activity against Mycobacterium tuberculosis Using In Vitro Models of Infection. Antibiotics (Basel) 2023; 12:antibiotics12010171. [PMID: 36671372 PMCID: PMC9854797 DOI: 10.3390/antibiotics12010171] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2022] [Revised: 01/11/2023] [Accepted: 01/12/2023] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Even though Everolimus has been investigated in a phase II randomized trial as a host-directed therapy (HDT) to treat tuberculosis (TB), an oncological patient treated with Everolimus for a neuroendocrine pancreatic neoplasia developed active TB twice and a non-tuberculous mycobacterial (NTM) infection in a year and a half time span. To investigate this interesting case, we isolated and genotypically characterized the Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) clinical strain from the patient and tested the effect of Everolimus on its viability in an axenic culture and in a peripheral blood mononuclear cell (PBMCs) infection model. To exclude strain-specific resistance, we tested the activity of Everolimus against Mtb strains of ancient and modern lineages. Furthermore, we investigated the Everolimus effect on ROS production and autophagy modulation during Mtb infection. Everolimus did not have a direct effect on mycobacteria viability and a negligible effect during Mtb infection in host cells, although it stimulated autophagy and ROS production. Despite being a biologically plausible HDT against TB, Everolimus does not exert a direct or indirect activity on Mtb. This case underlines the need for a careful approach to drug repurposing and implementation and the importance of pre-clinical experimental studies.
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14
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Simper JD, Perez E, Schlesinger LS, Azad AK. Resistance and Susceptibility Immune Factors at Play during Mycobacterium tuberculosis Infection of Macrophages. Pathogens 2022; 11:pathogens11101153. [PMID: 36297211 PMCID: PMC9611686 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens11101153] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2022] [Revised: 09/27/2022] [Accepted: 10/01/2022] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Tuberculosis (TB), caused by infection with Mycobacterium tuberculosis (M.tb), is responsible for >1.5 million deaths worldwide annually. Innate immune cells, especially macrophages, are the first to encounter M.tb, and their response dictates the course of infection. During infection, macrophages exert a variety of immune factors involved in either controlling or promoting the growth of M.tb. Research on this topic has been performed in both in vitro and in vivo animal models with discrepant results in some cases based on the model of study. Herein, we review macrophage resistance and susceptibility immune factors, focusing primarily on recent advances in the field. We include macrophage cellular pathways, bioeffector proteins and molecules, cytokines and chemokines, associated microbiological factors and bacterial strains, and host genetic factors in innate immune genes. Recent advances in mechanisms underlying macrophage resistance and susceptibility factors will aid in the successful development of host-directed therapeutics, a topic emphasized throughout this review.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jan D. Simper
- Host-Pathogen Interaction Program, Texas Biomedical Research Institute, 8715 W. Military Drive, San Antonio, TX 78227, USA
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Molecular Genetics, UT Health Science Center San Antonio, San Antonio, TX 78229, USA
| | - Esteban Perez
- Host-Pathogen Interaction Program, Texas Biomedical Research Institute, 8715 W. Military Drive, San Antonio, TX 78227, USA
- Translational Sciences Program, UT Health San Antonio Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, San Antonio, TX 78229, USA
| | - Larry S. Schlesinger
- Host-Pathogen Interaction Program, Texas Biomedical Research Institute, 8715 W. Military Drive, San Antonio, TX 78227, USA
- Correspondence: (L.S.S.); (A.K.A.); Tel.: +1-210-258-9578 (L.S.S.); +1-210-258-9467 (A.K.A.)
| | - Abul K. Azad
- Host-Pathogen Interaction Program, Texas Biomedical Research Institute, 8715 W. Military Drive, San Antonio, TX 78227, USA
- Correspondence: (L.S.S.); (A.K.A.); Tel.: +1-210-258-9578 (L.S.S.); +1-210-258-9467 (A.K.A.)
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15
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Herrera MT, Guzmán-Beltrán S, Bobadilla K, Santos-Mendoza T, Flores-Valdez MA, Gutiérrez-González LH, González Y. Human Pulmonary Tuberculosis: Understanding the Immune Response in the Bronchoalveolar System. Biomolecules 2022; 12:biom12081148. [PMID: 36009042 PMCID: PMC9405639 DOI: 10.3390/biom12081148] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2022] [Revised: 08/10/2022] [Accepted: 08/17/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Mycobacterium tuberculosis, the causal agent of one of the most devastating infectious diseases worldwide, can evade or modulate the host immune response and remain dormant for many years. In this review, we focus on identifying the local immune response induced in vivo by M. tuberculosis in the lungs of patients with active tuberculosis by analyzing data from untouched cells from bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) or exhaled breath condensate (EBC) samples. The most abundant resident cells in patients with active tuberculosis are macrophages and lymphocytes, which facilitate the recruitment of neutrophils. The cellular response is characterized by an inflammatory state and oxidative stress produced mainly by macrophages and T lymphocytes. In the alveolar microenvironment, the levels of cytokines such as interleukins (IL), chemokines, and matrix metalloproteinases (MMP) are increased compared with healthy patients. The production of cytokines such as interferon (IFN)-γ and IL-17 and specific immunoglobulin (Ig) A and G against M. tuberculosis indicate that the adaptive immune response is induced despite the presence of a chronic infection. The role of epithelial cells, the processing and presentation of antigens by macrophages and dendritic cells, as well as the role of tissue-resident memory T cells (Trm) for in situ vaccination remains to be understood.
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Affiliation(s)
- María Teresa Herrera
- Department of Microbiology, National Institute for Respiratory Diseases Ismael Cosío Villegas, Mexico City 14080, Mexico
| | - Silvia Guzmán-Beltrán
- Department of Microbiology, National Institute for Respiratory Diseases Ismael Cosío Villegas, Mexico City 14080, Mexico
| | - Karen Bobadilla
- Laboratory of Transcriptomics and Molecular Immunology, National Institute for Respiratory Diseases Ismael Cosío Villegas, Mexico City 14080, Mexico
| | - Teresa Santos-Mendoza
- Laboratory of Transcriptomics and Molecular Immunology, National Institute for Respiratory Diseases Ismael Cosío Villegas, Mexico City 14080, Mexico
| | - Mario Alberto Flores-Valdez
- Biotecnología Médica y Farmacéutica, Centro de Investigación y Asistencia en Tecnología y Diseño del Estado de Jalisco, A.C., Guadalajara 44270, Mexico
| | - Luis Horacio Gutiérrez-González
- Laboratory of Transcriptomics and Molecular Immunology, National Institute for Respiratory Diseases Ismael Cosío Villegas, Mexico City 14080, Mexico
- Correspondence: (L.H.G.-G.); (Y.G.); Tel.: +52-55-5487-1700 (ext. 5117) (Y.G.)
| | - Yolanda González
- Department of Microbiology, National Institute for Respiratory Diseases Ismael Cosío Villegas, Mexico City 14080, Mexico
- Correspondence: (L.H.G.-G.); (Y.G.); Tel.: +52-55-5487-1700 (ext. 5117) (Y.G.)
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16
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Xu X, Zhang T, Xia X, Yin Y, Yang S, Ai D, Qin H, Zhou M, Song J. Pyroptosisin periodontitis: From the intricate interaction with apoptosis, NETosis, and necroptosis to the therapeutic prospects. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2022; 12:953277. [PMID: 36093182 PMCID: PMC9450806 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2022.953277] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2022] [Accepted: 07/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Periodontitis is highly prevalent worldwide. It is characterized by periodontal attachment and alveolar bone destruction, which not only leads to tooth loss but also results in the exacerbation of systematic diseases. As such, periodontitis has a significant negative impact on the daily lives of patients. Detailed exploration of the molecular mechanisms underlying the physiopathology of periodontitis may contribute to the development of new therapeutic strategies for periodontitis and the associated systematic diseases. Pyroptosis, as one of the inflammatory programmed cell death pathways, is implicated in the pathogenesis of periodontitis. Progress in the field of pyroptosis has greatly enhanced our understanding of its role in inflammatory diseases. This review first summarizes the mechanisms underlying the activation of pyroptosis in periodontitis and the pathological role of pyroptosis in the progression of periodontitis. Then, the crosstalk between pyroptosis with apoptosis, necroptosis, and NETosis in periodontitis is discussed. Moreover, pyroptosis, as a novel link that connects periodontitis with systemic disease, is also reviewed. Finally, the current challenges associated with pyroptosis as a potential therapeutic target for periodontitis are highlighted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaohui Xu
- College of Stomatology, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases and Biomedical Sciences, Chongqing, China
- Chongqing Municipal Key Laboratory of Oral Biomedical Engineering of Higher Education, Chongqing, China
| | - Tingwei Zhang
- College of Stomatology, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases and Biomedical Sciences, Chongqing, China
- Chongqing Municipal Key Laboratory of Oral Biomedical Engineering of Higher Education, Chongqing, China
| | - Xuyun Xia
- Department of Endocrinology, The Second Affiliated Hospital, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Yuanyuan Yin
- College of Stomatology, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases and Biomedical Sciences, Chongqing, China
- Chongqing Municipal Key Laboratory of Oral Biomedical Engineering of Higher Education, Chongqing, China
| | - Sihan Yang
- College of Stomatology, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases and Biomedical Sciences, Chongqing, China
- Chongqing Municipal Key Laboratory of Oral Biomedical Engineering of Higher Education, Chongqing, China
| | - Dongqing Ai
- College of Stomatology, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases and Biomedical Sciences, Chongqing, China
- Chongqing Municipal Key Laboratory of Oral Biomedical Engineering of Higher Education, Chongqing, China
| | - Han Qin
- College of Stomatology, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases and Biomedical Sciences, Chongqing, China
- Chongqing Municipal Key Laboratory of Oral Biomedical Engineering of Higher Education, Chongqing, China
| | - Mengjiao Zhou
- College of Stomatology, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases and Biomedical Sciences, Chongqing, China
- Chongqing Municipal Key Laboratory of Oral Biomedical Engineering of Higher Education, Chongqing, China
| | - Jinlin Song
- College of Stomatology, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases and Biomedical Sciences, Chongqing, China
- Chongqing Municipal Key Laboratory of Oral Biomedical Engineering of Higher Education, Chongqing, China
- *Correspondence: Jinlin Song,
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17
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Wang Y, Shi Q, Chen Q, Zhou X, Yuan H, Jia X, Liu S, Li Q, Ge L. Emerging advances in identifying signal transmission molecules involved in the interaction between Mycobacterium tuberculosis and the host. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2022; 12:956311. [PMID: 35959378 PMCID: PMC9359464 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2022.956311] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2022] [Accepted: 06/30/2022] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Tuberculosis caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB) is an ancient chronic infectious disease and is still the leading cause of death worldwide due to a single infectious disease. MTB can achieve immune escape by interacting with host cells through its special cell structure and secreting a variety of effector proteins. Innate immunity-related pattern recognition receptors (PPR receptors) play a key role in the regulation of signaling pathways. In this review, we focus on the latest research progress on related signal transduction molecules in the interaction between MTB and the host. In addition, we provide new research ideas for the development of new anti-tuberculosis drug targets and lead compounds and provide an overview of information useful for approaching future tuberculosis host-oriented treatment research approaches and strategies, which has crucial scientific guiding significance and research value.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yue Wang
- College of Life Science, Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Qiyuan Shi
- School of Pharmacy, Hangzhou Medical College, Hangzhou, China
| | - Qi Chen
- College of Life Science, Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Xuebin Zhou
- School of Pharmacy, Hangzhou Medical College, Hangzhou, China
| | - Huiling Yuan
- College of Life Science, Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Xiwen Jia
- College of Life Science, Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Shuyuan Liu
- College of Life Science, Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Qin Li
- School of Pharmacy, Hangzhou Medical College, Hangzhou, China
- *Correspondence: Qin Li, ; Lijun Ge,
| | - Lijun Ge
- College of Life Science, Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, Hangzhou, China
- *Correspondence: Qin Li, ; Lijun Ge,
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18
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Pellegrini JM, Tateosian NL, Morelli MP, García VE. Shedding Light on Autophagy During Human Tuberculosis. A Long Way to Go. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2022; 11:820095. [PMID: 35071056 PMCID: PMC8769280 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2021.820095] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2021] [Accepted: 12/13/2021] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Immunity against Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) is highly complex, and the outcome of the infection depends on the role of several immune mediators with particular temporal dynamics on the host microenvironment. Autophagy is a central homeostatic mechanism that plays a role on immunity against intracellular pathogens, including Mtb. Enhanced autophagy in macrophages mediates elimination of intracellular Mtb through lytic and antimicrobial properties only found in autolysosomes. Additionally, it has been demonstrated that standard anti-tuberculosis chemotherapy depends on host autophagy to coordinate successful antimicrobial responses to mycobacteria. Notably, autophagy constitutes an anti-inflammatory mechanism that protects against endomembrane damage triggered by several endogenous components or infectious agents and precludes excessive inflammation. It has also been reported that autophagy can be modulated by cytokines and other immunological signals. Most of the studies on autophagy as a defense mechanism against Mycobacterium have been performed using murine models or human cell lines. However, very limited information exists about the autophagic response in cells from tuberculosis patients. Herein, we review studies that face the autophagy process in tuberculosis patients as a component of the immune response of the human host against an intracellular microorganism such as Mtb. Interestingly, these findings might contribute to recognize new targets for the development of novel therapeutic tools to combat Mtb. Actually, either as a potential successful vaccine or a complementary immunotherapy, efforts are needed to further elucidate the role of autophagy during the immune response of the human host, which will allow to achieve protective and therapeutic benefits in human tuberculosis.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Nancy Liliana Tateosian
- Departamento de Química Biológica, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina.,Instituto de Química Biológica de la Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales (IQUIBICEN), Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - María Paula Morelli
- Departamento de Química Biológica, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina.,Instituto de Química Biológica de la Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales (IQUIBICEN), Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Verónica Edith García
- Departamento de Química Biológica, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina.,Instituto de Química Biológica de la Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales (IQUIBICEN), Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas, Buenos Aires, Argentina
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19
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Abstract
Interleukin-1 (IL-1) is a key player in the immune response to pathogens due to its role in promoting inflammation and recruiting immune cells to the site of infection. In tuberculosis (TB), tight regulation of IL-1 responses is critical to ensure host resistance to infection while preventing immune pathology. In the mouse model of Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection, both IL-1 absence and overproduction result in exacerbated disease and mortality. In humans, several polymorphisms in the IL1B gene have been associated with increased susceptibility to TB. Importantly, M. tuberculosis itself has evolved several strategies to manipulate and regulate host IL-1 responses for its own benefit. Given all this, IL-1 appears as a promising target for host-directed therapies in TB. However, for that to succeed, more detailed knowledge on the biology and mechanisms of action of IL-1 in vivo, together with a deep understanding of how host-M. tuberculosis interactions modulate IL-1, is required. Here, we discuss the most recent advances in the biology and therapeutic potential of IL-1 in TB as well as the outstanding questions that remain to be answered.
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20
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María Irene CC, Juan Germán RC, Gamaliel LL, Dulce Adriana ME, Estela Isabel B, Brenda Nohemí M, Payan Jorge B, Zyanya Lucía ZB, Myriam BDV, Fernanda CG, Adrian OL, Martha Isabel M, Rogelio HP. Profiling the immune response to Mycobacterium tuberculosis Beijing family infection: a perspective from the transcriptome. Virulence 2021; 12:1689-1704. [PMID: 34228582 PMCID: PMC8265813 DOI: 10.1080/21505594.2021.1936432] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2020] [Revised: 03/24/2021] [Accepted: 05/14/2021] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Tuberculosis continues to be an important public health problem. Particularly considering Beijing-family strains of Mycobacterium tuberculosis, which have been associated with drug-resistance and hypervirulence. The Beijing-like SIT190 (BL) is the most prevalent Beijing strain in Colombia. The pathogenic mechanism and immune response against this pathogen is unknown. Thus, we compared the course of pulmonary TB in BALB/c mice infected with Classical-Beijing strain 391 and BL strain 323. The disease course was different among infected animals with Classical-Beijing and BL strain. Mice infected with BL had a 100% mortality at 45 days post-infection (dpi), with high bacillary loads and massive pneumonia, whereas infected animals with Classical-Beijing survived until 60 dpi and showed extensive pneumonia and necrosis. Lung RNA extraction was carried out at early (day 3 dpi), intermediate (day 14 dpi), and late (days 28 and 60 dpi) time points of infection. Transcriptional analysis of infected mice with Classical-Beijing showed several over-expressed genes, associated with a pro-inflammatory profile, including those for coding for CCL3 and CCL4 chemokines, both biomarkers of disease severity. Conversely, mice infected with BL displayed a profile which included the over-expression of several genes associated with immune-suppression, including Nkiras, Dleu2, and Sphk2, highlighting an anti-inflammatory milieu which would allow high bacterial replication followed by an intense inflammatory response. In summary, both Beijing strains induced a non-protective immune response which induced extensive tissue damage, BL strain induced rapidly extensive pneumonia and death, whereas Classical-Beijing strain produced slower extensive pneumonia later associated with extensive necrosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cerezo-Cortés María Irene
- Universidad Nacional De Colombia, Facultad De Medicina, Departamento De Microbiología, Laboratorio De Micobacterias
| | | | - López-Leal Gamaliel
- Departamento De Microbiología Molecular, Instituto De Biotecnología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma De México, Avenida Universidad 2001, Colonia Chamilpa, Cuernavaca, Morelos, México
| | - Mata-Espinosa Dulce Adriana
- Sección De Patología Experimental, Departamento De Patología, Instituto Nacional De Ciencias Médicas Y Nutrición Salvador Zubirán, Ciudad De México, México
| | - Bini Estela Isabel
- Sección De Patología Experimental, Departamento De Patología, Instituto Nacional De Ciencias Médicas Y Nutrición Salvador Zubirán, Ciudad De México, México
| | - Marquina–Casitllo Brenda Nohemí
- Sección De Patología Experimental, Departamento De Patología, Instituto Nacional De Ciencias Médicas Y Nutrición Salvador Zubirán, Ciudad De México, México
| | - Barrios Payan Jorge
- Sección De Patología Experimental, Departamento De Patología, Instituto Nacional De Ciencias Médicas Y Nutrición Salvador Zubirán, Ciudad De México, México
| | - Zatarain-Barrón Zyanya Lucía
- Sección De Patología Experimental, Departamento De Patología, Instituto Nacional De Ciencias Médicas Y Nutrición Salvador Zubirán, Ciudad De México, México
| | - Bobadilla del Valle Myriam
- Departamento De Microbiología Clínica, Instituto Nacional De Ciencias Médicas Y Nutrición Salvador Zubirán Ciudad De México, México
| | - Cornejo-Granados Fernanda
- Departamento De Microbiología Molecular, Instituto De Biotecnología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma De México, Avenida Universidad 2001, Colonia Chamilpa, Cuernavaca, Morelos, México
| | - Ochoa-Leyva Adrian
- Departamento De Microbiología Molecular, Instituto De Biotecnología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma De México, Avenida Universidad 2001, Colonia Chamilpa, Cuernavaca, Morelos, México
| | - Murcia Martha Isabel
- Universidad Nacional De Colombia, Facultad De Medicina, Departamento De Microbiología, Laboratorio De Micobacterias
| | - Hernández-Pando Rogelio
- Sección De Patología Experimental, Departamento De Patología, Instituto Nacional De Ciencias Médicas Y Nutrición Salvador Zubirán, Ciudad De México, México
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21
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Figueira MBDA, de Lima DS, Boechat AL, Filho MGDN, Antunes IA, Matsuda JDS, Ribeiro TRDA, Felix LS, Gonçalves ASF, da Costa AG, Ramasawmy R, Pontillo A, Ogusku MM, Sadahiro A. Single-Nucleotide Variants in the AIM2 - Absent in Melanoma 2 Gene (rs1103577) Associated With Protection for Tuberculosis. Front Immunol 2021; 12:604975. [PMID: 33868225 PMCID: PMC8047195 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2021.604975] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2020] [Accepted: 03/03/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Tuberculosis (TB) remains a serious public health burden worldwide. TB is an infectious disease caused by the Mycobacterium tuberculosis Complex. Innate immune response is critical for controlling mycobacterial infection. NOD-like receptor pyrin domain containing 3/ absent in melanoma 2 (NLRP3/AIM2) inflammasomes are suggested to play an important role in TB. NLRP3/AIM2 mediate the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-1β and IL-18 to control M. tuberculosis infection. Variants of genes involved in inflammasomes may contribute to elucidation of host immune responses to TB infection. The present study evaluated single-nucleotide variants (SNVs) in inflammasome genes AIM2 (rs1103577), CARD8 (rs2009373), and CTSB (rs1692816) in 401 patients with pulmonary TB (PTB), 133 patients with extrapulmonary TB (EPTB), and 366 healthy control (HC) subjects with no history of TB residing in the Amazonas state. Quantitative Real Time PCR was performed for allelic discrimination. The SNV of AIM2 (rs1103577) is associated with protection for PTB (padj: 0.033, ORadj: 0.69, 95% CI: 0.49-0.97). CTSB (rs1692816) is associated with reduced risk for EPTB when compared with PTB (padj: 0.034, ORadj: 0.50, 95% CI: 0.27-0.94). Serum IL-1β concentrations were higher in patients with PTB than those in HCs (p = 0,0003). The SNV rs1103577 of AIM2 appeared to influence IL-1β release. In a dominant model, individuals with the CC genotype (mean 3.78 ± SD 0.81) appeared to have a higher level of IL-1β compared to carriers of the T allele (mean 3.45 ± SD 0.84) among the patients with PTB (p = 0,0040). We found that SNVs of AIM2 and CTSB were associated with TB, and the mechanisms involved in this process require further study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mariana Brasil de Andrade Figueira
- Laboratório de Imunologia Molecular, Departamento de Parasitologia, Universidade Federal do Amazonas (UFAM), Manaus, Brazil.,Programa de Pós-Graduação em Imunologia Básica e Aplicada, Universidade Federal do Amazonas, Manaus, Brazil
| | - Dhêmerson Souza de Lima
- Laboratório de Imunogenética, Departamento de Imunologia, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas (ICB), Universidade de São Paulo (USP), São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Antonio Luiz Boechat
- Laboratório de Imunologia Molecular, Departamento de Parasitologia, Universidade Federal do Amazonas (UFAM), Manaus, Brazil.,Programa de Pós-Graduação em Imunologia Básica e Aplicada, Universidade Federal do Amazonas, Manaus, Brazil
| | | | | | | | | | - Luana Sousa Felix
- Laboratório de Imunologia Molecular, Departamento de Parasitologia, Universidade Federal do Amazonas (UFAM), Manaus, Brazil
| | - Ariane Senna Fonseca Gonçalves
- Laboratório de Imunologia Molecular, Departamento de Parasitologia, Universidade Federal do Amazonas (UFAM), Manaus, Brazil
| | - Allyson Guimarães da Costa
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Imunologia Básica e Aplicada, Universidade Federal do Amazonas, Manaus, Brazil.,Diretoria de Ensino e Pesquisa, Fundação Hospitalar de Hematologia e Hemoterapia do Amazonas (HEMOAM), Manaus, Brazil
| | - Rajendranath Ramasawmy
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Imunologia Básica e Aplicada, Universidade Federal do Amazonas, Manaus, Brazil.,Instituto de Pesquisa Clínica Carlos Borborema, Fundação de Medicina Tropical Dr. Heitor Vieira Dourado, Manaus, Brazil.,Faculdade de Medicina Nilton Lins, Universidade Nilton Lins, Manaus, Brazil
| | - Alessandra Pontillo
- Laboratório de Imunogenética, Departamento de Imunologia, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas (ICB), Universidade de São Paulo (USP), São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Mauricio Morishi Ogusku
- Laboratório de Micobacteriologia, Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas da Amazônia (INPA), Manaus, Brazil
| | - Aya Sadahiro
- Laboratório de Imunologia Molecular, Departamento de Parasitologia, Universidade Federal do Amazonas (UFAM), Manaus, Brazil.,Programa de Pós-Graduação em Imunologia Básica e Aplicada, Universidade Federal do Amazonas, Manaus, Brazil
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22
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Ciccosanti F, Di Rienzo M, Romagnoli A, Colavita F, Refolo G, Castilletti C, Agrati C, Brai A, Manetti F, Botta L, Capobianchi MR, Ippolito G, Piacentini M, Fimia GM. Proteomic analysis identifies the RNA helicase DDX3X as a host target against SARS-CoV-2 infection. Antiviral Res 2021; 190:105064. [PMID: 33781803 PMCID: PMC7997689 DOI: 10.1016/j.antiviral.2021.105064] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2020] [Revised: 03/09/2021] [Accepted: 03/13/2021] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
COVID-19 is currently a highly pressing health threat and therapeutic strategies to mitigate the infection impact are urgently needed. Characterization of the SARS-CoV-2 interactome in infected cells may represent a powerful tool to identify cellular proteins hijacked by viruses for their life cycle and develop host-oriented antiviral therapeutics. Here we report the proteomic characterization of host proteins interacting with SARS-CoV-2 Nucleoprotein in infected Vero E6 cells. We identified 24 high-confidence proteins mainly playing a role in RNA metabolism and translation, including RNA helicases and scaffold proteins involved in the formation of stress granules, cytoplasmic aggregates of messenger ribonucleoproteins that accumulate as a result of stress-induced translation arrest. Analysis of stress granules upon SARS-CoV-2 infection showed that these structures are not induced in infected cells, neither eIF2α phosphorylation, an upstream event leading to stress-induced translation inhibition. Notably, we found that G3BP1, a stress granule component that associates with the Nucleoprotein, is required for efficient SARS-CoV-2 replication. Moreover, we showed that the Nucleoprotein-interacting RNA helicase DDX3X colocalizes with viral RNA foci and its inhibition by small molecules or small interfering RNAs significantly reduces viral replication. Altogether, these results indicate that SARS-CoV-2 subverts the stress granule machinery and exploits G3BP1 and DDX3X for its replication cycle, offering groundwork for future development of host-directed therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fabiola Ciccosanti
- Department of Epidemiology, Preclinical Research and Advanced Diagnostics, National Institute for Infectious Diseases 'L. Spallanzani' IRCCS, Rome, Italy
| | - Martina Di Rienzo
- Department of Epidemiology, Preclinical Research and Advanced Diagnostics, National Institute for Infectious Diseases 'L. Spallanzani' IRCCS, Rome, Italy
| | - Alessandra Romagnoli
- Department of Epidemiology, Preclinical Research and Advanced Diagnostics, National Institute for Infectious Diseases 'L. Spallanzani' IRCCS, Rome, Italy
| | - Francesca Colavita
- Department of Epidemiology, Preclinical Research and Advanced Diagnostics, National Institute for Infectious Diseases 'L. Spallanzani' IRCCS, Rome, Italy
| | - Giulia Refolo
- Department of Epidemiology, Preclinical Research and Advanced Diagnostics, National Institute for Infectious Diseases 'L. Spallanzani' IRCCS, Rome, Italy
| | - Concetta Castilletti
- Department of Epidemiology, Preclinical Research and Advanced Diagnostics, National Institute for Infectious Diseases 'L. Spallanzani' IRCCS, Rome, Italy
| | - Chiara Agrati
- Department of Epidemiology, Preclinical Research and Advanced Diagnostics, National Institute for Infectious Diseases 'L. Spallanzani' IRCCS, Rome, Italy
| | - Annalaura Brai
- Department of Biotechnology, Chemistry and Pharmacy, University of Siena, Siena, Italy
| | - Fabrizio Manetti
- Department of Biotechnology, Chemistry and Pharmacy, University of Siena, Siena, Italy
| | - Lorenzo Botta
- Department of Ecological and Biological Sciences, University of Tuscia, Viterbo, Italy
| | - Maria Rosaria Capobianchi
- Department of Epidemiology, Preclinical Research and Advanced Diagnostics, National Institute for Infectious Diseases 'L. Spallanzani' IRCCS, Rome, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Ippolito
- Department of Epidemiology, Preclinical Research and Advanced Diagnostics, National Institute for Infectious Diseases 'L. Spallanzani' IRCCS, Rome, Italy
| | - Mauro Piacentini
- Department of Epidemiology, Preclinical Research and Advanced Diagnostics, National Institute for Infectious Diseases 'L. Spallanzani' IRCCS, Rome, Italy; Department of Biology, University of Rome 'Tor Vergata', Rome, Italy.
| | - Gian Maria Fimia
- Department of Epidemiology, Preclinical Research and Advanced Diagnostics, National Institute for Infectious Diseases 'L. Spallanzani' IRCCS, Rome, Italy; Department of Molecular Medicine, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy.
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23
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Pinto SAG, Nagai MYO, Alvares-Saraiva A, Peres GB, Waisse S, Perez EC, Bonamin LV. Silicea terra and Zincum metallicum Modulate the Activity of Macrophages Challenged with BCG In Vitro. HOMEOPATHY 2020; 110:52-61. [PMID: 33348418 DOI: 10.1055/s-0040-1716367] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The homeopathic medicines Silicea terra (Sil) and Zincum metallicum (Zinc) modulate macrophage activity and were assessed in an experimental study in-vitro for their effects on macrophage-BCG (Bacillus Calmette-Guérin) interaction. METHODS RAW 264.7 macrophages were infected with BCG, treated with different potencies of Sil and Zinc (6cH, 30cH and 200cH) or vehicle, and assessed 24 and 48 h later for bacilli internalization, hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) and cytokine production, and lysosomal activity. RESULTS Treatment with vehicle was associated with non-specific inhibition of H2O2 production to the levels exhibited by uninfected macrophages. Sil 200cH induced significant reduction of H2O2 production (p < 0.001) compared with the vehicle and all other treatments, as well as higher lysosomal activity (p ≤ 0.001) and increased IL-10 production (p ≤ 0.05). Such effects were considered specific for this remedy and potency. The number of internalized bacilli was inversely proportional to Zinc potencies, with statistically significant interaction between dilution and treatment (p = 0.003). Such linear-like behavior was not observed for Sil dilutions: peak internalization occurred with the 30cH dilution, accompanied by cellular degeneration, and IL-6 and IL-10 increased (p ≤ 0.05) only in the cells treated with Sil 6cH. CONCLUSION Sil and Zinc presented different patterns of potency-dependent effect on macrophage activity. Bacterial digestion and a balanced IL-6/IL-10 production were related to Sil 6cH, though reduced oxidative stress with increased lysosomal activity was related to Sil 200cH. Degenerative effects were exclusively related to Sil 30cH, and potency-dependent phagocytosis was related only to Zinc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandra Augusta G Pinto
- Research Center, Graduation Program in Environmental and Experimental Pathology, Universidade Paulista-UNIP, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Mirian Yaeko O Nagai
- Research Center, Graduation Program in Environmental and Experimental Pathology, Universidade Paulista-UNIP, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Anuska Alvares-Saraiva
- Research Center, Graduation Program in Environmental and Experimental Pathology, Universidade Paulista-UNIP, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Giovani B Peres
- Research Center, Graduation Program in Environmental and Experimental Pathology, Universidade Paulista-UNIP, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Silvia Waisse
- Pontificia Universidade Católica de São Paulo, Graduation Program in History of Science, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Elizabeth C Perez
- Research Center, Graduation Program in Environmental and Experimental Pathology, Universidade Paulista-UNIP, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Leoni Villano Bonamin
- Research Center, Graduation Program in Environmental and Experimental Pathology, Universidade Paulista-UNIP, São Paulo, Brazil
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24
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Homoplastic single nucleotide polymorphisms contributed to phenotypic diversity in Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Sci Rep 2020; 10:8024. [PMID: 32415151 PMCID: PMC7229016 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-64895-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2019] [Accepted: 04/20/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Homoplastic mutations are mutations independently occurring in different clades of an organism. The homoplastic changes may be a result of convergence evolution due to selective pressures. Reports on the analysis of homoplastic mutations in Mycobacterium tuberculosis have been limited. Here we characterized the distribution of homoplastic single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) among genomes of 1,170 clinical M. tuberculosis isolates. They were present in all functional categories of genes, with pe/ppe gene family having the highest ratio of homoplastic SNPs compared to the total SNPs identified in the same functional category. Among the pe/ppe genes, the homoplastic SNPs were common in a relatively small number of homologous genes, including ppe18, the protein of which is a component of a promising candidate vaccine, M72/AS01E. The homoplastic SNPs in ppe18 were particularly common among M. tuberculosis Lineage 1 isolates, suggesting the need for caution in extrapolating the results of the vaccine trial to the population where L1 is endemic in Asia. As expected, homoplastic SNPs strongly associated with drug resistance. Most of these mutations are already well known. However, a number of novel mutations associated with streptomycin resistance were identified, which warrants further investigation. A SNP in the intergenic region upstream of Rv0079 (DATIN) was experimentally shown to increase transcriptional activity of the downstream gene, suggesting that intergenic homoplastic SNPs should have effects on the physiology of the bacterial cells. Our study highlights the potential of homoplastic mutations to produce phenotypic changes. Under selective pressure and during interaction with the host, homoplastic mutations may confer advantages to M. tuberculosis and deserve further characterization.
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25
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Sousa J, Cá B, Maceiras AR, Simões-Costa L, Fonseca KL, Fernandes AI, Ramos A, Carvalho T, Barros L, Magalhães C, Chiner-Oms Á, Machado H, Veiga MI, Singh A, Pereira R, Amorim A, Vieira J, Vieira CP, Bhatt A, Rodrigues F, Rodrigues PNS, Gagneux S, Castro AG, Guimarães JT, Bastos HN, Osório NS, Comas I, Saraiva M. Mycobacterium tuberculosis associated with severe tuberculosis evades cytosolic surveillance systems and modulates IL-1β production. Nat Commun 2020; 11:1949. [PMID: 32327653 PMCID: PMC7181847 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-020-15832-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2019] [Accepted: 03/23/2020] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Genetic diversity of Mycobacterium tuberculosis affects immune responses and clinical outcomes of tuberculosis (TB). However, how bacterial diversity orchestrates immune responses to direct distinct TB severities is unknown. Here we study 681 patients with pulmonary TB and show that M. tuberculosis isolates from cases with mild disease consistently induce robust cytokine responses in macrophages across multiple donors. By contrast, bacteria from patients with severe TB do not do so. Secretion of IL-1β is a good surrogate of the differences observed, and thus to classify strains as probable drivers of different TB severities. Furthermore, we demonstrate that M. tuberculosis isolates that induce low levels of IL-1β production can evade macrophage cytosolic surveillance systems, including cGAS and the inflammasome. Isolates exhibiting this evasion strategy carry candidate mutations, generating sigA recognition boxes or affecting components of the ESX-1 secretion system. Therefore, we provide evidence that M. tuberculosis strains manipulate host-pathogen interactions to drive variable TB severities.
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Grants
- The authors thank the excellent support from the i3S scientific platforms, namely Animal facility, Advanced Light Microscopy and BioSciences Screening, member of the national infrastructure PPBI - Portuguese Platform of Bioimaging (PPBI-POCI-01-0145-FEDER-022122). This work was financed by FCT - Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia/ Ministério da Ciência, Tecnologia e Inovação grant POCI-01-0145-FEDER-028955 (to MS) and by the Northern Portugal Regional Operational Programme (NORTE 2020), under the Portugal 2020 Partnership Agreement, through the European Regional Development Fund (FEDER) (NORTE-01-0145-FEDER-000013, to MIV, FR, AGC and NSO). IC acknowledges the support of Ministerio de Ciencia, Innovación y Universidades (SAF2016-77346-R) and the European Research Council (638553-TB-ACCELERATE). HNB acknowledges the support of Bolsa D. Manuel de Mello and of the Portuguese Society for Pneumology; AB and MS were also recipients of an International Exchanges Grant from the Royal Society. JS is funded by a research fellow NORTE-01-0145-FEDER-000012; BC and KLF are funded by FCT PhD scholarships SFRH/BD/114403/2016 and SFRH/BD/114405/2016, respectively; MIV is funded by FCT through DL 57/2016 (CRP) and MS through Estimulo Individual ao Emprego Científico.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeremy Sousa
- i3S-Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
- IBMC-Instituto de Biologia Molecular e Celular, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
- Doctoral Program in Molecular and Cell Biology, ICBAS-Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas Abel Salazar, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Baltazar Cá
- i3S-Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
- IBMC-Instituto de Biologia Molecular e Celular, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
- Doctoral Program in Molecular and Cell Biology, ICBAS-Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas Abel Salazar, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Ana Raquel Maceiras
- i3S-Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
- IBMC-Instituto de Biologia Molecular e Celular, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Luisa Simões-Costa
- i3S-Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
- IBMC-Instituto de Biologia Molecular e Celular, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Kaori L Fonseca
- i3S-Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
- IBMC-Instituto de Biologia Molecular e Celular, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
- Doctoral Program in Molecular and Cell Biology, ICBAS-Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas Abel Salazar, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Ana Isabel Fernandes
- i3S-Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
- IBMC-Instituto de Biologia Molecular e Celular, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Angélica Ramos
- São João Hospital Center & EPIUnit-Institute of Public Health, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Teresa Carvalho
- São João Hospital Center & EPIUnit-Institute of Public Health, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Leandro Barros
- i3S-Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
- IBMC-Instituto de Biologia Molecular e Celular, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Carlos Magalhães
- Life and Health Sciences Research Institute, University of Minho, Braga, Portugal
- ICVS/3B's-PT Government Associate Laboratory, Braga/Guimarães, Portugal
| | | | - Henrique Machado
- Life and Health Sciences Research Institute, University of Minho, Braga, Portugal
- ICVS/3B's-PT Government Associate Laboratory, Braga/Guimarães, Portugal
| | - Maria Isabel Veiga
- Life and Health Sciences Research Institute, University of Minho, Braga, Portugal
- ICVS/3B's-PT Government Associate Laboratory, Braga/Guimarães, Portugal
| | - Albel Singh
- School of Biosciences and Institute of Microbiology and Infection, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK
| | - Rui Pereira
- i3S-Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
- IPATIMUP-Institute of Molecular Pathology and Immunology of the University of Porto, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - António Amorim
- i3S-Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
- IPATIMUP-Institute of Molecular Pathology and Immunology of the University of Porto, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
- Faculty of Sciences, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Jorge Vieira
- i3S-Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
- IBMC-Instituto de Biologia Molecular e Celular, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Cristina P Vieira
- i3S-Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
- IBMC-Instituto de Biologia Molecular e Celular, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Apoorva Bhatt
- School of Biosciences and Institute of Microbiology and Infection, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK
| | - Fernando Rodrigues
- Life and Health Sciences Research Institute, University of Minho, Braga, Portugal
- ICVS/3B's-PT Government Associate Laboratory, Braga/Guimarães, Portugal
| | - Pedro N S Rodrigues
- i3S-Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
- IBMC-Instituto de Biologia Molecular e Celular, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
- ICBAS-Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas Abel Salazar, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Sebastien Gagneux
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Basel, Switzerland
- University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - António Gil Castro
- Life and Health Sciences Research Institute, University of Minho, Braga, Portugal
- ICVS/3B's-PT Government Associate Laboratory, Braga/Guimarães, Portugal
| | - João Tiago Guimarães
- São João Hospital Center & EPIUnit-Institute of Public Health, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Helder Novais Bastos
- i3S-Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
- IBMC-Instituto de Biologia Molecular e Celular, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
- São João Hospital Center, Porto, Portugal
| | - Nuno S Osório
- Life and Health Sciences Research Institute, University of Minho, Braga, Portugal
- ICVS/3B's-PT Government Associate Laboratory, Braga/Guimarães, Portugal
| | - Iñaki Comas
- Biomedicine Institute of Valencia (CSIC), Valencia, Spain
- CIBER in Epidemiology and Public Health (CIBERESP), Madrid, Spain
| | - Margarida Saraiva
- i3S-Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal.
- IBMC-Instituto de Biologia Molecular e Celular, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal.
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26
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Lubbers R, Sutherland JS, Goletti D, de Paus RA, Dijkstra DJ, van Moorsel CHM, Veltkamp M, Vestjens SMT, Bos WJW, Petrone L, Malherbe ST, Walzl G, Gelderman KA, Groeneveld GH, Geluk A, Ottenhoff THM, Joosten SA, Trouw LA. Expression and production of the SERPING1-encoded endogenous complement regulator C1-inhibitor in multiple cohorts of tuberculosis patients. Mol Immunol 2020; 120:187-195. [PMID: 32179338 DOI: 10.1016/j.molimm.2020.02.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2019] [Revised: 02/03/2020] [Accepted: 02/10/2020] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND To facilitate better discrimination between patients with active tuberculosis (TB) and latent TB infection (LTBI), whole blood transcriptomic studies have been performed to identify novel candidate host biomarkers. SERPING1, which encodes C1-inhibitor (C1-INH), the natural inhibitor of the C1-complex has emerged as candidate biomarker. Here we collated and analysed SERPING1 expression data and subsequently determined C1-INH protein levels in four cohorts of patients with TB. METHODS SERPING1 expression data were extracted from online deposited datasets. C1-INH protein levels were determined by ELISA in sera from individuals with active TB, LTBI as well as other disease controls in geographically diverse cohorts. FINDINGS SERPING1 expression was increased in patients with active TB compared to healthy controls (8/11 cohorts), LTBI (13/14 cohorts) and patients with other (non-TB) lung-diseases (7/7 cohorts). Serum levels of C1-INH were significantly increased in The Gambia and Italy in patients with active TB relative to the endemic controls but not in South Africa or Korea. In the largest cohort (n = 50), with samples collected longitudinally, normalization of C1-INH levels following successful TB treatment was observed. This cohort, also showed the most abundant increase in C1-INH, and a positive correlation between C1q and C1-INH levels. Combined presence of increased levels of both C1q and C1-INH had high specificity for active TB (96 %) but only very modest sensitivity 38 % compared to the endemic controls. INTERPRETATION SERPING1 transcript expression is increased in TB patients, while serum protein levels of C1-INH were increased in half of the cohorts analysed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rosalie Lubbers
- Department of Rheumatology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, the Netherlands
| | - Jayne S Sutherland
- Vaccines and Immunity Theme, Medical Research Council Unit The Gambia at the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Banjul, The Gambia
| | - Delia Goletti
- Translational Research Unit, Department of Epidemiology and Preclinical Research, National Institute for Infectious Diseases L. Spallanzani-IRCCS, Rome, Italy
| | - Roelof A de Paus
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, the Netherlands
| | - Douwe J Dijkstra
- Department of Immunohematology and Blood Transfusion, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, the Netherlands
| | | | - Marcel Veltkamp
- Department of Pulmonology, St. Antonius Hospital, Nieuwegein, the Netherlands
| | - Stefan M T Vestjens
- Department of Internal Medicine, St. Antonius Hospital, Nieuwegein, the Netherlands
| | - Willem J W Bos
- Department of Internal Medicine, St. Antonius Hospital, Nieuwegein, the Netherlands; Department of Nephrology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, the Netherlands
| | - Linda Petrone
- Translational Research Unit, Department of Epidemiology and Preclinical Research, National Institute for Infectious Diseases L. Spallanzani-IRCCS, Rome, Italy
| | - Stephanus T Malherbe
- DST/NRF Centre of Excellence for Biomedical TB Research and SAMRC Centre for TB Research, Division of Molecular Biology and Human Genetics, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Stellenbosch University, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Gerhard Walzl
- DST/NRF Centre of Excellence for Biomedical TB Research and SAMRC Centre for TB Research, Division of Molecular Biology and Human Genetics, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Stellenbosch University, Cape Town, South Africa
| | | | - Geert H Groeneveld
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, the Netherlands
| | - Annemieke Geluk
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, the Netherlands
| | - Tom H M Ottenhoff
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, the Netherlands
| | - Simone A Joosten
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, the Netherlands
| | - Leendert A Trouw
- Department of Immunohematology and Blood Transfusion, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, the Netherlands.
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27
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Subbarao S, Sanchez-Garrido J, Krishnan N, Shenoy AR, Robertson BD. Genetic and pharmacological inhibition of inflammasomes reduces the survival of Mycobacterium tuberculosis strains in macrophages. Sci Rep 2020; 10:3709. [PMID: 32111888 PMCID: PMC7048741 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-60560-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2019] [Accepted: 02/13/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection causes high rates of morbidity and mortality. Host-directed therapy may enhance the immune response, reduce tissue damage and shorten treatment duration. The inflammasome is integral to innate immune responses but over-activation has been described in tuberculosis (TB) pathology and TB-immune reconstitution syndrome. Here we explore how clinical isolates differentially activate the inflammasome and how inflammasome inhibition can lead to enhanced bacterial clearance. Wild-type, Nlrp3−/−/Aim2−/−, Casp1/11−/− and Asc−/− murine bone-marrow derived macrophages (BMDMs) were infected with laboratory strain M. tuberculosis H37Rv or clinical isolates from various lineages. Inflammasome activation and bacterial numbers were measured, and pharmacological inhibition of NLRP3 was achieved using MCC950. Clinical isolates of M. tuberculosis differed in their ability to activate inflammasomes. Beijing isolates had contrasting effects on IL-1β and caspase-1 activation, but all clinical isolates induced lower IL-1β release than H37Rv. Our studies suggest the involvement of NLRP3, AIM2 and an additional unknown sensor in IL-1β maturation. Pharmacological blockade of NLRP3 with MCC950 reduced bacterial survival, and combined treatment with the antimycobacterial drug rifampicin enhanced the effect. Modulating the inflammasome is an attractive adjunct to current anti-mycobacterial therapy that warrants further investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sathyavani Subbarao
- MRC Centre for Molecular Bacteriology and Infection, Department of Infectious Disease, Flowers Building, Imperial College London, London, SW7 2AZ, UK
| | - Julia Sanchez-Garrido
- MRC Centre for Molecular Bacteriology and Infection, Department of Infectious Disease, Flowers Building, Imperial College London, London, SW7 2AZ, UK
| | - Nitya Krishnan
- MRC Centre for Molecular Bacteriology and Infection, Department of Infectious Disease, Flowers Building, Imperial College London, London, SW7 2AZ, UK
| | - Avinash R Shenoy
- MRC Centre for Molecular Bacteriology and Infection, Department of Infectious Disease, Flowers Building, Imperial College London, London, SW7 2AZ, UK.
| | - Brian D Robertson
- MRC Centre for Molecular Bacteriology and Infection, Department of Infectious Disease, Flowers Building, Imperial College London, London, SW7 2AZ, UK.
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28
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TbD1 deletion as a driver of the evolutionary success of modern epidemic Mycobacterium tuberculosis lineages. Nat Commun 2020; 11:684. [PMID: 32019932 PMCID: PMC7000671 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-020-14508-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2019] [Accepted: 01/09/2020] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) strains are classified into different phylogenetic lineages (L), three of which (L2/L3/L4) emerged from a common progenitor after the loss of the MmpS6/MmpL6-encoding Mtb-specific deletion 1 region (TbD1). These TbD1-deleted “modern” lineages are responsible for globally-spread tuberculosis epidemics, whereas TbD1-intact “ancestral” lineages tend to be restricted to specific geographical areas, such as South India and South East Asia (L1) or East Africa (L7). By constructing and characterizing a panel of recombinant TbD1-knock-in and knock-out strains and comparison with clinical isolates, here we show that deletion of TbD1 confers to Mtb a significant increase in resistance to oxidative stress and hypoxia, which correlates with enhanced virulence in selected cellular, guinea pig and C3HeB/FeJ mouse infection models, the latter two mirroring in part the development of hypoxic granulomas in human disease progression. Our results suggest that loss of TbD1 at the origin of the L2/L3/L4 Mtb lineages was a key driver for their global epidemic spread and outstanding evolutionary success. Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) modern strains emerged from a common progenitor after the loss of Mtb-specific deletion 1 region (TbD1). Here, the authors show that deletion of TbD1 correlates with enhanced Mtb virulence in animal models, mirroring the development of hypoxic granulomas in human disease progression.
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29
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Larsen ES, Joensen UN, Poulsen AM, Goletti D, Johansen IS. Bacillus Calmette-Guérin immunotherapy for bladder cancer: a review of immunological aspects, clinical effects and BCG infections. APMIS 2020; 128:92-103. [PMID: 31755155 DOI: 10.1111/apm.13011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2019] [Accepted: 11/10/2019] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG) immunotherapy for bladder cancer has been used since 1976 when the first evidence of its ability to lower recurrence and progression rates was published. Today, BCG immunotherapy is the choice of care for high-grade non-muscle invasive bladder cancer (NMIBC) after transurethral resection. This article presents indications and procedure of BCG instillations, and outlines the effects on recurrence and progression of NMIBC. The BCG-induced immunity in NMIBC is not yet fully understood. Animal studies point towards BCG inducing specific tumour immunity. We describe the current knowledge of how this immunity is induced, from internalization of BCG bacilli in urothelial cells, to cytokine- and chemokine-mediated recruitment of neutrophils, monocytes, macrophages, T cells, B cells and natural killer cells. In addition, we describe the process of trained immunity, the non-specific protective effects of BCG. Recent studies also indicate that dysbiosis of the urinary microbiome may cause lower urinary tract dysfunction. Side effects of BCG bladder instillations range from common, mild and transient symptoms, such as dysuria and flu-like symptoms, to more severe and rarely occurring life-threatening complications. We review the literature and give an overview of reported incidences and management of BCG infections after intravesical instillation.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Ulla Nordström Joensen
- Department of Urology, Copenhagen University Hospital Rigshospitalet, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Alicia Martin Poulsen
- Department of Urology, Copenhagen University Hospital Rigshospitalet, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Delia Goletti
- Translational Research Unit, Department of Epidemiology and Preclinical Research, National Institute for Infectious Diseases IRCCS L. Spallanzani, Rome, Italy
| | - Isik Somuncu Johansen
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Odense University Hospital, Odense, Denmark.,Department of Clinical Research, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark.,Mycobacterial Centre for Research Southern Denmark - MyCRESD, Odense, Denmark
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30
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Palucci I, Maulucci G, De Maio F, Sali M, Romagnoli A, Petrone L, Fimia GM, Sanguinetti M, Goletti D, De Spirito M, Piacentini M, Delogu G. Inhibition of Transglutaminase 2 as a Potential Host-Directed Therapy Against Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Front Immunol 2020; 10:3042. [PMID: 32038614 PMCID: PMC6992558 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2019.03042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2019] [Accepted: 12/11/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Host-directed therapies (HDTs) are emerging as a potential valid support in the treatment of drug-resistant tuberculosis (TB). Following our recent report indicating that genetic and pharmacological inhibition of transglutaminase 2 (TG2) restricts Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) replication in macrophages, we aimed to investigate the potentials of the TG2 inhibitors cystamine and cysteamine as HDTs against TB. We showed that both cysteamine and cystamine restricted Mtb replication in infected macrophages when provided at equimolar concentrations and did not exert any antibacterial activity when administered directly on Mtb cultures. Interestingly, infection of differentiated THP-1 mRFP-GFP-LC3B cells followed by the determination of the autophagic intermediates pH distribution (AIPD) showed that cystamine inhibited the autophagic flux while restricting Mtb replication. Moreover, both cystamine and cysteamine had a similar antimicrobial activity in primary macrophages infected with a panel of Mtb clinical strains belonging to different phylogeographic lineages. Evaluation of cysteamine and cystamine activity in the human ex vivo model of granuloma-like structures (GLS) further confirmed the ability of these drugs to restrict Mtb replication and to reduce the size of GLS. The antimicrobial activity of the TG2 inhibitors synergized with a second-line anti-TB drug as amikacin in human monocyte-derived macrophages and in the GLS model. Overall, the results of this study support the potential usefulness of the TG2-inhibitors cysteamine and cystamine as HDTs against TB.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ivana Palucci
- Fondazione Policlinico Universitario A. Gemelli IRCCS, Rome, Italy.,Institute of Microbiology, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Rome, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Maulucci
- Fondazione Policlinico Universitario A. Gemelli IRCCS, Rome, Italy.,Institute of Physics, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Rome, Italy
| | - Flavio De Maio
- Fondazione Policlinico Universitario A. Gemelli IRCCS, Rome, Italy.,Institute of Microbiology, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Rome, Italy
| | - Michela Sali
- Fondazione Policlinico Universitario A. Gemelli IRCCS, Rome, Italy.,Institute of Microbiology, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Rome, Italy
| | - Alessandra Romagnoli
- Electron Microscopy and Cell Biology Unit, Department of Epidemiology and Preclinical Research, "L. Spallanzani" National Institute for Infectious Diseases (INMI), IRCCS, Rome, Italy
| | - Linda Petrone
- Translational Research Unit, Department of Epidemiology and Preclinical Research, "L. Spallanzani" National Institute for Infectious Diseases (INMI), IRCCS, Rome, Italy
| | - Gian Maria Fimia
- Electron Microscopy and Cell Biology Unit, Department of Epidemiology and Preclinical Research, "L. Spallanzani" National Institute for Infectious Diseases (INMI), IRCCS, Rome, Italy.,Department of Molecular Medicine, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy
| | - Maurizio Sanguinetti
- Fondazione Policlinico Universitario A. Gemelli IRCCS, Rome, Italy.,Institute of Microbiology, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Rome, Italy
| | - Delia Goletti
- Translational Research Unit, Department of Epidemiology and Preclinical Research, "L. Spallanzani" National Institute for Infectious Diseases (INMI), IRCCS, Rome, Italy
| | - Marco De Spirito
- Fondazione Policlinico Universitario A. Gemelli IRCCS, Rome, Italy.,Institute of Physics, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Rome, Italy
| | - Mauro Piacentini
- Electron Microscopy and Cell Biology Unit, Department of Epidemiology and Preclinical Research, "L. Spallanzani" National Institute for Infectious Diseases (INMI), IRCCS, Rome, Italy.,Department of Biology, University of Rome "Tor Vergata", Rome, Italy
| | - Giovanni Delogu
- Fondazione Policlinico Universitario A. Gemelli IRCCS, Rome, Italy.,Institute of Microbiology, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Rome, Italy.,Mater Olbia Hospital, Olbia, Italy
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31
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A Repurposing Approach for Uncovering the Anti-Tubercular Activity of FDA-Approved Drugs with Potential Multi-Targeting Profiles. Molecules 2019; 24:molecules24234373. [PMID: 31795400 PMCID: PMC6930672 DOI: 10.3390/molecules24234373] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2019] [Revised: 11/23/2019] [Accepted: 11/25/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Tuberculosis (TB) is one of the top 10 causes of death worldwide. This scenario is further complicated by the insurgence of multidrug-resistant (MDR) and extensively drug-resistant (XDR) TB. The identification of appropriate drugs with multi-target affinity profiles is considered to be a widely accepted strategy to overcome the rapid development of resistance. The aim of this study was to discover Food and Drug Administration (FDA)-approved drugs possessing antimycobacterial activity, potentially coupled to an effective multi-target profile. An integrated screening platform was implemented based on computational procedures (high-throughput docking techniques on the target enzymes peptide deformylase and Zmp1) and in vitro phenotypic screening assays using two models to evaluate the activity of the selected drugs against Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb), namely, growth of Mtb H37Rv and of two clinical isolates in axenic media, and infection of peripheral blood mononuclear cells with Mtb. Starting from over 3000 FDA-approved drugs, we selected 29 marketed drugs for submission to biological evaluation. Out of 29 drugs selected, 20 showed antimycobacterial activity. Further characterization suggested that five drugs possessed promising profiles for further studies. Following a repurposing strategy, by combining computational and biological efforts, we identified marketed drugs with relevant antimycobacterial profiles.
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32
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Alonzi T, Petruccioli E, Vanini V, Fimia GM, Goletti D. Optimization of the autophagy measurement in a human cell line and primary cells by flow cytometry. Eur J Histochem 2019; 63. [PMID: 31243942 PMCID: PMC6610717 DOI: 10.4081/ejh.2019.3044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2019] [Accepted: 06/05/2019] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
The limited availability of rapid and reliable flow cytometry-based assays for ex vivo quantification of autophagy has hampered their clinical applications for studies of diseases pathogenesis or for the implementation of autophagy-targeting therapies. To this aim, we modified and improved the protocol of a commercial kit developed for quantifying the microtubule-associated protein 1A/1B light chain 3B (LC3), the most reliable marker for autophagosomes currently available. The protocol modifications were set up measuring the autophagic flux in neoplastic (THP-1 cells) and primary cells (peripheral blood mononuclear cells; PBMC) of healthy donors. Moreover, PBMC of active tuberculosis (TB) patients were stimulated with the Mycobacterium tuberculosis purified protein derivatives or infected with live Mycobacterium bovis bacillus Calmette-Guerin (BCG). We found that the baseline median fluorescent intensity (MFI) of THP-1 cells changed depending on the time of sample acquisition to the flow cytometer. To solve this problem, a fixation step was introduced in different stages of the assay's protocol, obtaining more reproducible and sensitive results when a post-LC3 staining fixation was performed, in either THP1 or PBMC. Furthermore, since we found that results are influenced by the type and the dose of the lysosome inhibitor used, the best dose of Chloroquine for LC3 accumulation were set up in either THP-1 cells or PBMC. Finally, applying these experimental settings, we measured the autophagic flux in CD14+ cells from active TB patients' PBMC upon BCG infection. In conclusion, our data indicate that the protocol modifications here described in this work improve the stability and accuracy of a flow cytometry-based assay for the evaluation of autophagy, thus assuring more standardised cell analyses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tonino Alonzi
- Translational Research Unit, Department of Epidemiology and Preclinical Research, National Institute for Infectious Diseases Lazzaro Spallanzani-IRCCS, Rome.
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33
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Oliveira-de-Souza D, Vinhaes CL, Arriaga MB, Kumar NP, Cubillos-Angulo JM, Shi R, Wei W, Yuan X, Zhang G, Cai Y, Barry CE, Via LE, Sher A, Babu S, Mayer-Barber KD, Nakaya HI, Fukutani KF, Andrade BB. Molecular degree of perturbation of plasma inflammatory markers associated with tuberculosis reveals distinct disease profiles between Indian and Chinese populations. Sci Rep 2019; 9:8002. [PMID: 31142816 PMCID: PMC6541651 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-44513-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2019] [Accepted: 05/17/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Tuberculosis (TB) is a chronic inflammatory disease caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection which causes tremendous morbidity and mortality worldwide. Clinical presentation of TB patients is very diverse and disease heterogeneity is associated with changes in biomarker signatures. Here, we compared at the molecular level the extent of individual inflammatory perturbation of plasma protein and lipid mediators associated with TB in patients in China versus India. We performed a cross-sectional study analyzing the overall degree of inflammatory perturbation in treatment-naïve pulmonary TB patients and uninfected individuals from India (TB: n = 97, healthy: n = 20) and China (TB: n = 100, healthy: n = 11). We employed the molecular degree of perturbation (MDP) adapted to plasma biomarkers to examine the overall changes in inflammation between these countries. M. tuberculosis infection caused a significant degree of molecular perturbation in patients from both countries, with higher perturbation detected in India. Interestingly, there were differences in biomarker perturbation patterns and the overall degree of inflammation. Patients with severe TB exhibited increased MDP values and Indian patients with this condition exhibited even higher degree of perturbation compared to Chinese patients. Network analyses identified IFN-α, IFN-β, IL-1RI and TNF-α as combined biomarkers that account for the overall molecular perturbation in the entire study population. Our results delineate the magnitude of the systemic inflammatory perturbation in pulmonary TB and reveal qualitative changes in inflammatory profiles between two countries with high disease prevalence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Deivide Oliveira-de-Souza
- Instituto Gonçalo Moniz, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Salvador, 40296-710, Brazil
- Multinational Organization Network Sponsoring Translational and Epidemiological Research (MONSTER) Initiative, Fundação José Silveira, Salvador, 40210-320, Brazil
- Curso de Medicina, Faculdade de Tecnologia e Ciências (FTC), Salvador, 40290-150, Brazil
| | - Caian L Vinhaes
- Instituto Gonçalo Moniz, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Salvador, 40296-710, Brazil
- Multinational Organization Network Sponsoring Translational and Epidemiological Research (MONSTER) Initiative, Fundação José Silveira, Salvador, 40210-320, Brazil
- Curso de Medicina, Faculdade de Tecnologia e Ciências (FTC), Salvador, 40290-150, Brazil
| | - Maria B Arriaga
- Instituto Gonçalo Moniz, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Salvador, 40296-710, Brazil
- Multinational Organization Network Sponsoring Translational and Epidemiological Research (MONSTER) Initiative, Fundação José Silveira, Salvador, 40210-320, Brazil
| | - Nathella Pavan Kumar
- National Institutes of Health- National Institute for Research in Tuberculosis, International Center for Excellence in Research, Chennai, 600031, India
| | - Juan M Cubillos-Angulo
- Instituto Gonçalo Moniz, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Salvador, 40296-710, Brazil
- Multinational Organization Network Sponsoring Translational and Epidemiological Research (MONSTER) Initiative, Fundação José Silveira, Salvador, 40210-320, Brazil
| | - Ruiru Shi
- Henan Chest Hospital, Zhengzhou, 450000, China
| | - Wang Wei
- Henan Chest Hospital, Zhengzhou, 450000, China
| | - Xing Yuan
- Henan Chest Hospital, Zhengzhou, 450000, China
| | - Guolong Zhang
- Sino-US International Research Center for Tuberculosis, and Henan Public Health Center, Zhengzhou, 450000, China
| | - Ying Cai
- Laboratory of Clinical Immunology and Microbiology, NIAID, NIH, Bethesda, 20892, USA
| | - Clifton E Barry
- Laboratory of Clinical Immunology and Microbiology, NIAID, NIH, Bethesda, 20892, USA
| | - Laura E Via
- Laboratory of Clinical Immunology and Microbiology, NIAID, NIH, Bethesda, 20892, USA
| | - Alan Sher
- Laboratory of Parasitic Diseases, NIAID, NIH, Bethesda, 20892, USA
| | - Subash Babu
- National Institutes of Health- National Institute for Research in Tuberculosis, International Center for Excellence in Research, Chennai, 600031, India
| | - Katrin D Mayer-Barber
- Laboratory of Clinical Immunology and Microbiology, NIAID, NIH, Bethesda, 20892, USA
| | - Helder I Nakaya
- Department of Pathophysiology and Toxicology, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, 05508, Brazil
| | - Kiyoshi F Fukutani
- Instituto Gonçalo Moniz, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Salvador, 40296-710, Brazil
- Multinational Organization Network Sponsoring Translational and Epidemiological Research (MONSTER) Initiative, Fundação José Silveira, Salvador, 40210-320, Brazil
- Curso de Medicina, Faculdade de Tecnologia e Ciências (FTC), Salvador, 40290-150, Brazil
| | - Bruno B Andrade
- Instituto Gonçalo Moniz, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Salvador, 40296-710, Brazil.
- Multinational Organization Network Sponsoring Translational and Epidemiological Research (MONSTER) Initiative, Fundação José Silveira, Salvador, 40210-320, Brazil.
- Curso de Medicina, Faculdade de Tecnologia e Ciências (FTC), Salvador, 40290-150, Brazil.
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN, 37232, USA.
- Universidade Salvador (UNIFACS), Laureate Universities, Salvador, 41720-200, Brazil.
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34
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Palucci I, Battah B, Salustri A, De Maio F, Petrone L, Ciccosanti F, Sali M, Bondet V, Duffy D, Fimia GM, Goletti D, Delogu G. IP-10 contributes to the inhibition of mycobacterial growth in an ex vivo whole blood assay. Int J Med Microbiol 2019; 309:299-306. [PMID: 31147175 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijmm.2019.05.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2019] [Revised: 04/17/2019] [Accepted: 05/21/2019] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Interferon-γ inducible protein 10 (IP-10), is a potent chemoattractant that promotes migration of monocytes and activated T-cells to inflammation foci. IP-10 is elevated in serum of patients with chronic hepatitis C virus (HCV) and tuberculosis (TB) infections, although it remains to be determined the contribution of IP-10 in restricting Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) replication. Here, we investigated the impact of IP-10 on mycobacteria replication using the ex vivo model of human whole-blood (WB) assay. In particular, we compared the levels of IP-10 upon infection with different Mtb clinical strains and species of non-tuberculous mycobacteria (NTM) and evaluated how IP-10 may contain bacterial replication. Interestingly, we observed that the inhibition of the host enzyme dipeptidyl peptidase IV (DPP-IV), which inactivates IP-10 through cleavage of two amino acids at the chemokine N-terminus, restricted mycobacterial persistence in WB, supporting the critical role of full length IP-10 in mediating an anti-Mtb response. Addition of recombinant IP-10 expressed in eukaryotic cells enhanced the anti-mycobacterial activity in WB, although no differences were observed when IP-10 containing different proportions of cleaved and non-cleaved forms of the chemokine were added. Moreover, recombinant IP-10 did not exert a direct anti-mycobacterial effect. Our results underscore the clinical relevance of IP-10 in mycobacteria pathogenesis and support the potential outcomes that may derive by targeting the IP-10/CXCR3 pathway as host directed therapies for the treatment of Mtb or NTM infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ivana Palucci
- Fondazione Policlinico Universitario A. Gemelli IRCCS, Roma, Italy; Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Roma, Italy
| | - Basem Battah
- Fondazione Policlinico Universitario A. Gemelli IRCCS, Roma, Italy; Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Roma, Italy
| | | | - Flavio De Maio
- Fondazione Policlinico Universitario A. Gemelli IRCCS, Roma, Italy
| | - Linda Petrone
- Translational Research Unit, Department of Epidemiology and Preclinical Research, National Institute for Infectious Diseases, L. Spallanzani IRCCS, Rome, Italy
| | - Fabiola Ciccosanti
- Cellular Biology Unit, Department of Epidemiology and Preclinical Research, National Institute for Infectious Diseases, L. Spallanzani IRCCS, Rome, Italy
| | - Michela Sali
- Fondazione Policlinico Universitario A. Gemelli IRCCS, Roma, Italy; Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Roma, Italy
| | - Vincent Bondet
- Institut Pasteur, Laboratoire Immunobiologie des Cellules Dendritiques, Département d'Immunologie, INSERM U1223, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France
| | - Darragh Duffy
- Institut Pasteur, Laboratoire Immunobiologie des Cellules Dendritiques, Département d'Immunologie, INSERM U1223, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France
| | - Gian Maria Fimia
- Cellular Biology Unit, Department of Epidemiology and Preclinical Research, National Institute for Infectious Diseases, L. Spallanzani IRCCS, Rome, Italy; Dipartimento di Scienze e Tecnologie Biologiche ed Ambientali, University of Salento, Lecce, 73100, Italy
| | - Delia Goletti
- Translational Research Unit, Department of Epidemiology and Preclinical Research, National Institute for Infectious Diseases, L. Spallanzani IRCCS, Rome, Italy
| | - Giovanni Delogu
- Fondazione Policlinico Universitario A. Gemelli IRCCS, Roma, Italy; Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Roma, Italy; Mater Olbia Hospital, Olbia, Italy.
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35
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Ravan P, Nejad Sattari T, Siadat SD, Vaziri F. Evaluation of the expression of cytokines and chemokines in macrophages in response to rifampin-monoresistant Mycobacterium tuberculosis and H37Rv strain. Cytokine 2018; 115:127-134. [PMID: 30594437 DOI: 10.1016/j.cyto.2018.12.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2018] [Revised: 11/17/2018] [Accepted: 12/02/2018] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Macrophages are the primary phagocytes in the lungs and a part of the host defense system against Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb), involved in the primary immune response. While several studies have assessed the effects of resistance to rifampin on Mtb physiology, the consequences of mutations in genes encoding the beta subunit of RNA polymerase (rpoB) for host-pathogen interactions remain poorly understood. In this study, rifampin-monoresistant (RMR) Mtb and H37Rv strains were used to infect the THP-1-derived macrophages. Real-time quantitative reverse transcription PCR assay was carried out to determine mRNA expression in 84 cytokine and chemokine genes. Production of specific cytokines and chemokines was measured by ELISA assay. In conclusion, the current study shed more light on the fitness cost of RMR strain and the potential effects of rpoB gene mutations on Mtb-host interactions. These results initially demonstrate that the Mtb carrying the rpoB-S450L can modulate macrophage responses to mediate bacterial survival.
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Affiliation(s)
- Parvaneh Ravan
- Department of Biology, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran
| | - Taher Nejad Sattari
- Department of Biology, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran
| | - Seyed Davar Siadat
- Department of Mycobacteriology and Pulmonary Research, Pasteur Institute of Iran, Tehran, Iran; Microbiology Research Center (MRC), Pasteur Institute of Iran, Tehran, Iran
| | - Farzam Vaziri
- Department of Mycobacteriology and Pulmonary Research, Pasteur Institute of Iran, Tehran, Iran; Microbiology Research Center (MRC), Pasteur Institute of Iran, Tehran, Iran.
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