Imaging the polymerization of multivalent nanoparticles in solution

Trehalose enhanced cold atmospheric plasma-mediated cancer treatment

Cold atmospheric plasma (CAP) is a unique form of physical plasma that has shown great potential for cancer therapy. CAP uses ionized gas to induce lethal oxidative stress on cancer cells; however, the efficacy of CAP therapy continues to be improved. Here, we report an injectable hydrogel-mediated approach to enhance the anti-tumor efficacy of CAP by regulating the phosphorylation of eIF2α. We discovered that reactive oxygen and nitrogen species (ROS/RNS), two main anti-tumor components in CAP, can lead to lethal oxidative stress on tumor cells. Elevated oxidative stress subsequently induces eIF2α phosphorylation, a pathognomonic marker of immunogenic cell death (ICD). Trehalose, a natural disaccharide sugar, can further enhance CAP-induced ICD by elevating the phosphorylation of eIF2α. Moreover, injectable hydrogel-mediated delivery of CAP/trehalose treatment promoted dendritic cell (DC) maturation, initiating tumor-specific T-cell mediated anti-tumor immune responses. The combination therapy also supported the polarization of tumor-associated macrophages to an M1-like phenotype, reversing the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment and promoting tumor antigen presentation to T cells. In combination with immune checkpoint inhibitors (i.e., anti-programmed cell death protein 1 antibody, aPD1), CAP/trehalose therapy further inhibited tumor growth. Importantly, our findings also indicated that this hydrogel-mediated local combination therapy engaged the host systemic innate and adaptive immune systems to impair the growth of distant tumors.

Molecular dynamics simulations of anisotropic particles accelerated by neural-net predicted interactions

Rigid bodies, made of smaller composite beads, are commonly used to simulate anisotropic particles with molecular dynamics or Monte Carlo methods. To accurately represent the particle shape and to obtain smooth and realistic effective pair interactions between two rigid bodies, each body may need to contain hundreds of spherical beads. Given an interacting pair of particles, traditional molecular dynamics methods calculate all the inter-body distances between the beads of the rigid bodies within a certain distance. For a system containing many anisotropic particles, these distance calculations are computationally costly and limit the attainable system size and simulation time. However, the effective interaction between two rigid particles should only depend on the distance between their center of masses and their relative orientation. Therefore, a function capable of directly mapping the center of mass distance and orientation to the interaction energy between the two rigid bodies would completely bypass inter-bead distance calculations. It is challenging to derive such a general function analytically for almost any non-spherical rigid body. In this study, we have trained neural nets, powerful tools to fit nonlinear functions to complex datasets, to achieve this task. The pair configuration (center of mass distance and relative orientation) is taken as an input, and the energy, forces, and torques between two rigid particles are predicted directly. We show that molecular dynamics simulations of cubes and cylinders performed with forces and torques obtained from the gradients of the energy neural-nets quantitatively match traditional simulations that use composite rigid bodies. Both structural quantities and dynamic measures are in agreement, while achieving up to 23 times speedup over traditional molecular dynamics, depending on hardware and system size. The method presented here can, in principle, be applied to any irregular concave or convex shape with any pair interaction, provided that sufficient training data can be obtained.

Non-destructive real-time monitoring and investigation of the self-assembly process using fluorescent probes

Self-assembly has been considered as a strategy to construct superstructures with specific functions, which has been widely used in many different fields, such as bionics, catalysis, and pharmacology. A detailed and in-depth analysis of the self-assembly mechanism is beneficial for directionally and accurately regulating the self-assembly process of substances. Fluorescent probes exhibit unique advantages of sensitivity, non-destructiveness, and real-time self-assembly tracking, compared with traditional methods. In this work, the design principle of fluorescent probes with different functions and their applications for the detection of thermodynamic and kinetic parameters during the self-assembly process were systematically reviewed. Their efficiency, limitations and advantages are also discussed. Furthermore, the promising perspectives of fluorescent probes for investigating the self-assembly process are also discussed and suggested.

Direct Imaging of "Patch-Clasping" and Relaxation in Robust and Flexible Nanoparticle Assemblies

Polymer patching on inorganic nanoparticles (NPs) enables multifunctionality and directed self-assembly into nonclosely packed optical and mechanical metamaterials. However, experimental demonstration of such assemblies has been scant due to challenges in leveraging patch-induced NP-NP attractions and understanding NP self-assembly dynamics. Here we use low-dose liquid-phase transmission electron microscopy to visualize the dynamic behaviors of tip-patched triangular nanoprisms upon patch-clasping, where polymer patches interpenetrate to form cohesive bonds that connect NPs. Notably, these bonds are longitudinally robust but rotationally flexible. Patch-clasping is found to allow highly selective tip-tip assembly, interconversion between dimeric bowtie and sawtooth configurations, and collective structural relaxation of NP networks. The integration of single particle tracking, polymer physics theory, and molecular dynamics simulation reveals the macromolecular origin of patch-clasping-induced NP dynamics. Our experiment-computation integration can aid the design of stimuli-responsive nanomaterials, such as topological metamaterials for chiral sensors, waveguides, and nanoantennas.

Confinement Effects on the Structure of Entropy-Induced Supercrystals

Depletion-induced self-assembly is routinely used to separate plasmonic nanoparticles (NPs) of different shapes, but less often for its ability to create supercrystals (SCs) in suspension. Therefore, these plasmonic assemblies have not yet reached a high level of maturity and their in-depth characterization by a combination of in situ techniques is still very much needed. In this work, gold triangles (AuNTs) and silver nanorods (AgNRs) are assembled by depletion-induced self-assembly. Small Angle X-ray Scattering (SAXS) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analysis shows that the AuNTs and AgNRs form 3D and 2D hexagonal lattices in bulk, respectively. The colloidal crystals are also imaged by in situ Liquid-Cell Transmission Electron Microscopy. Under confinement, the affinity of the NPs for the liquid cell windows reduces their ability to stack perpendicularly to the membrane and lead to SCs with a lower dimensionality than their bulk counterparts. Moreover, extended beam irradiation leads to disassembly of the lattices, which is well described by a model accounting for the desorption kinetics highlighting the key role of the NP-membrane interaction in the structural properties of SCs in the liquid-cell. The results shed light on the reconfigurability of NP superlattices obtained by depletion-induced self-assembly, which can rearrange under confinement.

Step-growth polymerization of supracolloidal chains from patchy micelles of diblock copolymers

HYPOTHESIS

The formation of supracolloidal chains from the patchy micelles of diblock copolymers bears a close resemblance to traditional step-growth polymerization of difunctional monomers in many aspects, including chain-length evolution, size distribution, and initial-concentration dependence. Thus, understanding the colloidal polymerization based on the step-growth mechanism can offer potential control over the formation of supracolloidal chains in terms of chain structure and reaction rate.

EXPERIMENTS

We analyzed the size evolution of supracolloidal chains of patchy micelles of PS-b-P4VP by investigating a large number of colloidal chains visualized in SEM images. We varied the initial concentration of patchy micelles to achieve a high degree of polymerization and a cyclic chain. To manipulate the polymerization rate, we also changed the ratio of water to DMF and adjusted the patch size by employing PS(25)-b-P4VP(7) and PS(145)-b-P4VP(40).

FINDINGS

We confirmed the step-growth mechanism for the formation supracolloidal chains from patchy micelles of PS-b-P4VP. Based on this mechanism, we were able to achieve a high degree of polymerization early in the reaction by increasing the initial concentration and form cyclic chains by diluting the solution. We also accelerated colloidal polymerization by increasing the ratio of water to DMF in the solution and patch size by using PS-b-P4VP with a larger molecular weight.

Nanoparticle Assembly and Oriented Attachment: Correlating Controlling Factors to the Resulting Structures

Nanoparticle assembly and attachment are common pathways of crystal growth by which particles organize into larger scale materials with hierarchical structure and long-range order. In particular, oriented attachment (OA), which is a special type of particle assembly, has attracted great attention in recent years because of the wide range of material structures that result from this process, such as one-dimensional (1D) nanowires, two-dimensional (2D) sheets, three-dimensional (3D) branched structures, twinned crystals, defects, etc. Utilizing in situ transmission electron microscopy techniques, researchers observed orientation-specific forces that act over short distances (∼1 nm) from the particle surfaces and drive the OA process. Integrating recently developed 3D fast force mapping via atomic force microscopy with theories and simulations, researchers have resolved the near-surface solution structure, the molecular details of charge states at particle/fluid interfaces, inhomogeneity of surface charges, and dielectric/magnetic properties of particles that influence short- and long-range forces, such as electrostatic, van der Waals, hydration, and dipole-dipole forces. In this review, we discuss the fundamental principles for understanding particle assembly and attachment processes, and the controlling factors and resulting structures. We review recent progress in the field via examples of both experiments and modeling, and discuss current developments and the future outlook.

Direct Imaging of the Kinetic Crystallization Pathway: Simulation and Liquid-Phase Transmission Electron Microscopy Observations

The crystallization of materials from a suspension determines the structure and function of the final product, and numerous pieces of evidence have pointed out that the classical crystallization pathway may not capture the whole picture of the crystallization pathways. However, visualizing the initial nucleation and further growth of a crystal at the nanoscale has been challenging due to the difficulties of imaging individual atoms or nanoparticles during the crystallization process in solution. Recent progress in nanoscale microscopy had tackled this problem by monitoring the dynamic structural evolution of crystallization in a liquid environment. In this review, we summarized several crystallization pathways captured by the liquid-phase transmission electron microscopy technique and compared the observations with computer simulation. Apart from the classical nucleation pathway, we highlight three nonclassical pathways that are both observed in experiments and computer simulations: formation of an amorphous cluster below the critical nucleus size, nucleation of the crystalline phase from an amorphous intermediate, and transition between multiple crystalline structures before achieving the final product. Among these pathways, we also highlight the similarities and differences between the experimental results of the crystallization of single nanocrystals from atoms and the assembly of a colloidal superlattice from a large number of colloidal nanoparticles. By comparing the experimental results with computer simulations, we point out the importance of theory and simulation in developing a mechanistic approach to facilitate the understanding of the crystallization pathway in experimental systems. We also discuss the challenges and future perspectives for investigating the crystallization pathways at the nanoscale with the development of in situ nanoscale imaging techniques and potential applications to the understanding of biomineralization and protein self-assembly.

Time-resolved transmission electron microscopy for nanoscale chemical dynamics

The ability of transmission electron microscopy (TEM) to image a structure ranging from millimetres to Ångströms has made it an indispensable component of the toolkit of modern chemists. TEM has enabled unprecedented understanding of the atomic structures of materials and how structure relates to properties and functions. Recent developments in TEM have advanced the technique beyond static material characterization to probing structural evolution on the nanoscale in real time. Accompanying advances in data collection have pushed the temporal resolution into the microsecond regime with the use of direct-electron detectors and down to the femtosecond regime with pump-probe microscopy. Consequently, studies have deftly applied TEM for understanding nanoscale dynamics, often in operando. In this Review, time-resolved in situ TEM techniques and their applications for probing chemical and physical processes are discussed, along with emerging directions in the TEM field.

Seeking regularity from irregularity: unveiling the synthesis-nanomorphology relationships of heterogeneous nanomaterials using unsupervised machine learning

Nanoscale morphology of functional materials determines their chemical and physical properties. However, despite increasing use of transmission electron microscopy (TEM) to directly image nanomorphology, it remains challenging to quantify the information embedded in TEM data sets, and to use nanomorphology to link synthesis and processing conditions to properties. We develop an automated, descriptor-free analysis workflow for TEM data that utilizes convolutional neural networks and unsupervised learning to quantify and classify nanomorphology, and thereby reveal synthesis-nanomorphology relationships in three different systems. While TEM records nanomorphology readily in two-dimensional (2D) images or three-dimensional (3D) tomograms, we advance the analysis of these images by identifying and applying a universal shape fingerprint function to characterize nanomorphology. After dimensionality reduction through principal component analysis, this function then serves as the input for morphology grouping through unsupervised learning. We demonstrate the wide applicability of our workflow to both 2D and 3D TEM data sets, and to both inorganic and organic nanomaterials, including tetrahedral gold nanoparticles mixed with irregularly shaped impurities, hybrid polymer-patched gold nanoprisms, and polyamide membranes with irregular and heterogeneous 3D crumple structures. In each of these systems, unsupervised nanomorphology grouping identifies both the diversity and the similarity of the nanomaterial across different synthesis conditions, revealing how synthetic parameters guide nanomorphology development. Our work opens possibilities for enhancing synthesis of nanomaterials through artificial intelligence and for understanding and controlling complex nanomorphology, both for 2D systems and in the far less explored case of 3D structures, such as those with embedded voids or hidden interfaces.

Chain Assembly Kinetics from Magnetic Colloidal Spheres

Magnetic colloidal chains are a microrobotic system with promising applications due to their versatility, biocompatibility, and ease of manipulation under magnetic fields. Their synthesis involves kinetic pathways that control chain quality, length, and flexibility, a process performed by first aligning superparamagnetic particles under a one-dimensional magnetic field and then chemically linking them using a four-armed maleimide-functionalized poly(ethylene glycol). Here, we systematically vary the concentration of the poly(ethylene glycol) linkers, the reaction temperature, and the magnetic field strength to study their impact on the physical properties of synthesized chains, including the chain length distribution, reaction temperature, and bending modulus. We find that this chain fabrication process resembles step-growth polymerization and can be accurately described by the Flory-Schulz model. Under optimized experimental conditions, we have successfully synthesized long flexible colloidal chains with a bending modulus, which is 4 orders of magnitude smaller than previous studies. Such flexible and long chains can be folded entirely into concentric rings and helices with multiple turns, demonstrating the potential for investigating the actuation, assembly, and folding behaviors of these colloidal polymer analogues.

A New Strategy to Fabricate Nanoporous Gold and Its Application in Photodetector

Nanoporous gold (NPG) plays an important role in high-performance electronic devices, including sensors, electrocatalysis, and energy storage systems. However, the traditional fabricating methods of NPG, dealloying technique or electrochemical reduction technique, usually require complex experimental procedures and sophisticated equipment. In this work, we reported a unique and simple method to prepare the NPG through a low-temperature solution process. More importantly, the structure of the NPG-based electrode can be further controlled by using the post-treatment process, such as thermal treatment and plasma treatment. Additionally, we also demonstrate the application of the resulting NPG electrodes in flexible photodetectors, which performs a higher sensitivity than common planar photodetectors. We believe that our work opens a possibility for the nanoporous metal in future electronics that is flexible, large scale, with facile fabrication, and low cost.

Nanoscale Faceting and Ligand Shell Structure Dominate the Self-Assembly of Nonpolar Nanoparticles into Superlattices

Self-assembly of nanoscale structures at liquid-solid interfaces occurs in a broad range of industrial processes and is found in various phenomena in nature. Conventional theory assumes spherical particles and homogeneous surfaces, but that model is oversimplified, and nanoscale in situ observations are needed for a more complete understanding. Liquid-phase scanning transmission electron microscopy (LP-STEM) is used to examine the interactions that direct the self-assembly of superlattices formed by gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) in nonpolar liquids. Varying the molecular coating of the substrate modulates short-range attraction and leads to switching between a range of different geometric structures, including hexagonal close-packed (hcp), simple hexagonal (sh), dodecahedral quasi-crystal (dqc), and body-centered cubic (bcc) lattices, as well as random distributions. Langevin dynamics simulations explain the experimental results in terms of the interplay between nanoparticle faceting, ligand shell structure, and substrate-NP interactions.

Triangles on a triangular lattice: Insights into self-assembly in two dimensions driven by shape complementarity

A series of models for reversible filling of a triangular lattice with equilateral triangles has been developed and investigated. There are eight distinct models that vary in the set of prohibitions. In zeroth approximation, these models allow one to estimate the influence of the particles' shape and complementarity of their pair configurations on the self-assembly of dense monolayers formed by reversible filling. The most symmetrical models were found to be equivalent to hard-disk models on the hexagonal lattice. When any contact of hard triangles by vertices is prohibited, the dense monolayers are disordered, and their entropy tends to the constant. If only one pair configuration is prohibited, the close-packed layer appears through the continuous phase transition. In other cases, the weak first-order transition resulting in the self-assembly of close-packed layers is observed.

Controlling the Shrinkage of 3D Hot Spot Droplets as a Microreactor for Quantitative SERS Detection of Anticancer Drugs in Serum Using a Handheld Raman Spectrometer

Quantitative measurement is one of the ultimate targets for surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS), but it suffers from difficulties in controlling the uniformity of hot spots and placing the target molecules in the hot spot space. Here, a convenient approach of three-phase equilibrium controlling the shrinkage of three-dimensional (3D) hot spot droplets has been demonstrated for the quantitative detection of the anticancer drug 5-fluorouracil (5-FU) in serum using a handheld Raman spectrometer. Droplet shrinkage, triggered by the shaking of aqueous nanoparticle (NP) colloids with immiscible oil chloroform (CHCl₃) after the addition of negative ions and acetone, not only brings the nanoparticles in close proximity but can also act as a microreactor to enhance the spatial enrichment capability of the analyte in plasmonic sites and thereby realize simultaneously controlling 3D hot spots and placing target molecules in hot spots. Moreover, the shrinking process of Ag colloid droplets has been investigated using a high-speed camera, an in situ transmission electron microscope (in situ TEM), and a dark-field microscope (DFM), demonstrating the high stability and uniformity of nanoparticles in droplets. The shrunk Ag NP droplets exhibit excellent SERS sensitivity and reproducibility for the quantitative analysis of 5-FU over a large range of 50-1000 ppb. Hence, it is promising for quantitative analysis of complex systems and long-term monitoring of bioreactions.

In Situ Liquid Phase TEM of Nanoparticle Formation and Diffusion in a Phase-Separated Medium

Colloidal nanoparticles are synthesized in a complex reaction mixture that has an inhomogeneous chemical environment induced by local phase separation of the medium. Nanoparticle syntheses based on micelles, emulsions, flow of different fluids, injection of ionic precursors in organic solvents, and mixing the metal organic phase of precursors with an aqueous phase of reducing agents are well established. However, the formation mechanism of nanoparticles in the phase-separated medium is not well understood because of the complexity originating from the presence of phase boundaries as well as nonuniform chemical species, concentrations, and viscosity in different phases. Herein, we investigate the formation mechanism and diffusion of silver nanoparticles in a phase-separated medium by using liquid phase transmission electron microscopy and many-body dissipative particle dynamics simulations. A quantitative analysis of the individual growth trajectories reveals that a large portion of silver nanoparticles nucleate and grow rapidly at the phase boundaries, where metal ion precursors and reducing agents from the two separated phases react to form monomers. The results suggest that the motion of the silver nanoparticles at the interfaces is highly affected by the interaction with polymers and exhibits superdiffusive dynamics because of the polymer relaxation.

Intracellular Thermal Probing Using Aggregated Fluorescent Nanodiamonds

Intracellular thermometry provides important information about the physiological activity of single cells and has been implemented using diverse temperature-sensitive materials as nanoprobes. However, measuring the temperature of specific organelles or subcellular structures is challenging because it requires precise positioning of the nanoprobes. Here, it is shown that dispersed fluorescent nanodiamonds (FNDs) endocytosed in living cells can be aggregated into microspheres using optical forces and used as intracellular temperature probes. The aggregation of the FNDs and electromagnetic resonance between individual nanodiamonds in the microspheres lead to a sevenfold intensity enhancement of 546-nm laser excitation. With the assistance of a scanning optical tweezing system, the FND microspheres can be precisely patterned and positioned within the cells. By measuring the fluorescence spectra of the microspheres, the temperatures at different locations within the cells are detected. The method provides an approach to the constructing and positioning of nanoprobes in an intracellular manner, which has potential applications in high-precision and flexible single-cell analysis.

Observation of Liquid-Liquid-Phase Separation and Vesicle Spreading during Supported Bilayer Formation via Liquid-Phase Transmission Electron Microscopy

Liquid-phase transmission electron microscopy (LP-TEM) enables the real-time visualization of nanoscale dynamics in solution. This technique has been used to study the formation and transformation mechanisms of organic and inorganic nanomaterials. Here, we study the formation of block-copolymer-supported bilayers using LP-TEM. We observe two formation pathways that involve either liquid droplets or vesicles as intermediates toward supported bilayers. Quantitative image analysis methods are used to characterize vesicle spread rates and show the origin of defect formation in supported bilayers. Our results suggest that bilayer assembly methods that proceed via liquid droplet intermediates should be beneficial for forming pristine supported bilayers. Furthermore, supported bilayers inside the liquid cells may be used to image membrane interactions with proteins and nanoparticles in the future.

Observation of Surface Ligands-Controlled Etching of Palladium Nanocrystals

Selective adsorption of ligands on nanocrystal surfaces can affect oxidative etching. Here, we report the etching of palladium nanocrystals imaged using liquid cell transmission electron microscopy. The adsorption of surface ligands (i.e., iron acetylacetonate and its derivatives) and their role as inhibitor molecules on the etching process were investigated. Our observations revealed that the etching was dominated by the interplay between palladium facets and ligands and that the etching exhibited different pathways at different concentrations of ligands. At a low concentration of iron acetylacetonate (0.1 mM), rapid etching primarily at {100} facets led to a concave structure. At a high concentration (1.0 mM), the etch rate was decreased owing to a protective film of iron acetylacetonate on the {100} facets and a round nanoparticle was achieved. Ab initio calculations showed that the differences in adsorption energy of inhibitor molecules on palladium facets were responsible for the etching behavior.

Revealing Reactions between the Electron Beam and Nanoparticle Capping Ligands with Correlative Fluorescence and Liquid-Phase Electron Microscopy

Liquid-phase transmission electron microscopy (LP-TEM) enables real-time imaging of nanoparticle self-assembly, formation, and etching with single nanometer resolution. Despite the importance of organic nanoparticle capping ligands in these processes, the effect of electron beam irradiation on surface-bound and soluble capping ligands during LP-TEM imaging has not been investigated. Here, we use correlative LP-TEM and fluorescence microscopy (FM) to demonstrate that polymeric nanoparticle ligands undergo competing crosslinking and chain scission reactions that nonmonotonically modify ligand coverage over time. Branched polyethylenimine (BPEI)-coated silver nanoparticles were imaged with dose-controlled LP-TEM followed by labeling their primary amine groups with fluorophores to visualize the local thickness of adsorbed capping ligands. FM images showed that free ligands crosslinked in the LP-TEM image area over imaging times of tens of seconds, enhancing local capping ligand coverage on nanoparticles and silicon nitride membranes. Nanoparticle surface ligands underwent chain scission over irradiation times of minutes to tens of minutes, which depleted surface ligands from the nanoparticle and silicon nitride surface. Conversely, solutions of only soluble capping ligand underwent successive crosslinking reactions with no chain scission, suggesting that nanoparticles enhanced the chain scission reactions by acting as radiolysis hotspots. The addition of a hydroxyl radical scavenger, tert-butanol, eliminated chain scission reactions and slowed the progression of crosslinking reactions. These experiments have important implications for performing controlled and reproducible LP-TEM nanoparticle imaging as they demonstrate that the electron beam can significantly alter ligand coverage on nanoparticles in a nonintuitive manner. They emphasize the need to understand and control the electron beam radiation chemistry of a given sample to avoid significant perturbations to the nanoparticle capping ligand chemistry, which are invisible in electron micrographs.

A Close Look at Molecular Self-Assembly with the Transmission Electron Microscope

Molecular self-assembly is pervasive in the formation of living and synthetic materials. Knowledge gained from research into the principles of molecular self-assembly drives innovation in the biological, chemical, and materials sciences. Self-assembly processes span a wide range of temporal and spatial domains and are often unintuitive and complex. Studying such complex processes requires an arsenal of analytical and computational tools. Within this arsenal, the transmission electron microscope stands out for its unique ability to visualize and quantify self-assembly structures and processes. This review describes the contribution that the transmission electron microscope has made to the field of molecular self-assembly. An emphasis is placed on which TEM methods are applicable to different structures and processes and how TEM can be used in combination with other experimental or computational methods. Finally, we provide an outlook on the current challenges to, and opportunities for, increasing the impact that the transmission electron microscope can have on molecular self-assembly.

Van der Waals force-driven indomethacin-ss-paclitaxel nanodrugs for reversing multidrug resistance and enhancing NSCLC therapy

The high expression of multidrug resistance-associated protein 1 (MRP1) in cancer cells caused serious multidrug resistance (MDR), which limited the effectiveness of paclitaxel (PTX) in non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) chemotherapy. Indomethacin (IND), a kind of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), which has been confirmed to be a potential MRP1 inhibitor. Taking into account the advantages of old drugs without extra controversial biosafety issue, in this manuscript, the disulfide bond (-S-S-) was employed for connecting IND and PTX to construct conjugate IND-S-S-PTX, which was further self-assembled and formed nanodrug (IND-S-S-PTX NPs). The particle size of IND-S-S-PTX NPs was ~160 nm with a narrow PDI value of 0.099, which distributed well in water and also exhibited a stable characteristic. Moreover, due to the existence of disulfide bond, the NPs were sensitive to the high level of glutathione (GSH) in tumor microenvironment. Molecular dynamics (MD) simulation presented the process of self-assembly in detail. Density functional theory (DFT) calculations revealed that the main driving force in self-assembly process was originated from the van der waals force. In addition, this carrier-free nano drug delivery systems (nDDs) could reverse the MDR by downregulating the expression of MRP1 protein in A549/taxol.

Graphene Liquid Cell Electron Microscopy: Progress, Applications, and Perspectives

Graphene liquid cell electron microscopy (GLC-EM), a cutting-edge liquid-phase EM technique, has become a powerful tool to directly visualize wet biological samples and the microstructural dynamics of nanomaterials in liquids. GLC uses graphene sheets with a one carbon atom thickness as a viewing window and a liquid container. As a result, GLC facilitates atomic-scale observation while sustaining intact liquids inside an ultra-high-vacuum transmission electron microscopy chamber. Using GLC-EM, diverse scientific results have been recently reported in the material, colloidal, environmental, and life science fields. Here, the developments of GLC fabrications, such as first-generation veil-type cells, second-generation well-type cells, and third-generation liquid-flowing cells, are summarized. Moreover, recent GLC-EM studies on colloidal nanoparticles, battery electrodes, mineralization, and wet biological samples are also highlighted. Finally, the considerations and future opportunities associated with GLC-EM are discussed to offer broad understanding and insight on atomic-resolution imaging in liquid-state dynamics.

In Situ Tracking of Colloidally Stable and Ordered Assemblies of Gold Nanorods

Solution-phase self-assembly of anisotropic nanoparticles into complex 2D and 3D assemblies is one of the most promising strategies toward obtaining nanoparticle-based materials and devices with unique optical properties at the macroscale. However, controlling this process with single-particle precision is highly demanding, mostly due to insufficient understanding of the self-assembly process at the nanoscale. We report the use of in situ environmental scanning transmission electron microscopy (WetSTEM), combined with UV/vis spectroscopy, small-angle X-ray diffraction (SAXRD) and multiscale modeling, to draw a detailed picture of the dynamics of vertically aligned assemblies of gold nanorods. Detailed understanding of the self-assembly/disassembly mechanisms is obtained from real-time observations, which provide direct evidence of the colloidal stability of side-to-side nanorod clusters. Structural details and the forces governing the disassembly process are revealed with single particle resolution as well as in bulk samples, by combined experimental and theoretical modeling. In particular, this study provides unique information on the evolution of the orientational order of nanorods within side-to-side 2D assemblies and shows that both electrostatic (at the nanoscale) and thermal (in bulk) stimuli can be used to drive the process. These results not only give insight into the interactions between nanorods and the stability of their assemblies, thereby assisting the design of ordered, anisotropic nanomaterials but also broaden the available toolbox for in situ tracking of nanoparticle behavior at the single-particle level.

Imaging how thermal capillary waves and anisotropic interfacial stiffness shape nanoparticle supracrystals

Development of the surface morphology and shape of crystalline nanostructures governs the functionality of various materials, ranging from phonon transport to biocompatibility. However, the kinetic pathways, following which such development occurs, have been largely unexplored due to the lack of real-space imaging at single particle resolution. Here, we use colloidal nanoparticles assembling into supracrystals as a model system, and pinpoint the key role of surface fluctuation in shaping supracrystals. Utilizing liquid-phase transmission electron microscopy, we map the spatiotemporal surface profiles of supracrystals, which follow a capillary wave theory. Based on this theory, we measure otherwise elusive interfacial properties such as interfacial stiffness and mobility, the former of which demonstrates a remarkable dependence on the exposed facet of the supracrystal. The facet of lower surface energy is favored, consistent with the Wulff construction rule. Our imaging–analysis framework can be applicable to other phenomena, such as electrodeposition, nucleation, and membrane deformation.

Interfacial fluctuations at the nanoscale, such as shape evolution of a growing crystal, are prohibitively difficult to study experimentally. Here, the authors are able to map the kinetic and thermodynamic parameters involved in shaping of nanoparticle supracrystals by directly imaging the fluctuating crystal surface by liquid-phase TEM, and analyzing it in the context of capillary wave theory.

Machine Learning to Reveal Nanoparticle Dynamics from Liquid-Phase TEM Videos

Liquid-phase transmission electron microscopy (TEM) has been recently applied to materials chemistry to gain fundamental understanding of various reaction and phase transition dynamics at nanometer resolution. However, quantitative extraction of physical and chemical parameters from the liquid-phase TEM videos remains bottlenecked by the lack of automated analysis methods compatible with the videos' high noisiness and spatial heterogeneity. Here, we integrate, for the first time, liquid-phase TEM imaging with our customized analysis framework based on a machine learning model called U-Net neural network. This combination is made possible by our workflow to generate simulated TEM images as the training data with well-defined ground truth. We apply this framework to three typical systems of colloidal nanoparticles, concerning their diffusion and interaction, reaction kinetics, and assembly dynamics, all resolved in real-time and real-space by liquid-phase TEM. A diversity of properties for differently shaped anisotropic nanoparticles are mapped, including the anisotropic interaction landscape of nanoprisms, curvature-dependent and staged etching profiles of nanorods, and an unexpected kinetic law of first-order chaining assembly of concave nanocubes. These systems representing properties at the nanoscale are otherwise experimentally inaccessible. Compared to the prevalent image segmentation methods, U-Net shows a superior capability to predict the position and shape boundary of nanoparticles from highly noisy and fluctuating background-a challenge common and sometimes inevitable in liquid-phase TEM videos. We expect our framework to push the potency of liquid-phase TEM to its full quantitative level and to shed insights, in high-throughput and statistically significant fashion, on the nanoscale dynamics of synthetic and biological nanomaterials.

"Colloid-Atom Duality" in the Assembly Dynamics of Concave Gold Nanoarrows

We use liquid-phase transmission electron microscopy (TEM) to study self-assembly dynamics of charged gold nanoarrows (GNAs), which reveal an unexpected "colloid-atom duality". On one hand, they assemble following the Derjaguin-Landau-Verwey-Overbeek (DLVO) theory for colloids when van der Waals attraction overruns slightly screened electrostatic repulsion. Due to concaveness in shape, GNAs adopt zipper motifs with lateral offset in their assembly matching with our modeling of inter-GNA interaction, which form into unconventional structures resembling degenerate crystals. On the other hand, further screening of electrostatic repulsion leads to merging of clusters assembled from GNAs, reminiscent of the coalescence growth mode in atomic crystals driven by minimization of surface energy, as we measure from the surface fluctuation of clusters. Liquid-phase TEM captures the initial formation of highly curved necks bridging the two clusters. Analysis of the real-time evolution of neck width illustrates the first-time observation of coalescence in colloidal assemblies facilitated by rapid surface diffusion of GNAs. We attribute the duality to the confluence of factors (e.g., nanoscale colloidal interaction, diffusional dynamics) that we access by liquid-phase TEM, taking turns to dominate at different conditions, which is potentially generic to the nanoscale. The atom aspect, in particular, can inspire utilization of atomic crystal synthesis strategies to encode structure and dynamics in nanoscale assembly.

Imaging the kinetics of anisotropic dissolution of bimetallic core-shell nanocubes using graphene liquid cells

Chemical design of multicomponent nanocrystals requires atomic-level understanding of reaction kinetics. Here, we apply single-particle imaging coupled with atomistic simulation to study reaction pathways and rates of Pd@Au and Cu@Au core-shell nanocubes undergoing oxidative dissolution. Quantitative analysis of etching kinetics using in situ transmission electron microscopy (TEM) imaging reveals that the dissolution mechanism changes from predominantly edge-selective to layer-by-layer removal of Au atoms as the reaction progresses. Dissolution of the Au shell slows down when both metals are exposed, which we attribute to galvanic corrosion protection. Morphological transformations are determined by intrinsic anisotropy due to coordination-number-dependent atom removal rates and extrinsic anisotropy induced by the graphene window. Our work demonstrates that bimetallic core-shell nanocrystals are excellent probes for the local physicochemical conditions inside TEM liquid cells. Furthermore, single-particle TEM imaging and atomistic simulation of reaction trajectories can inform future design strategies for compositionally and architecturally sophisticated nanocrystals.

Rational design of multicomponent nanocrystals requires atomic-level understanding of reaction kinetics. Here, the authors apply single-particle liquid-cell electron microscopy imaging coupled with atomistic simulations to understand pathways and rates of bimetallic core-shell nanocubes undergoing oxidative dissolution.

Kinetic pathways of crystallization at the nanoscale

Nucleation and growth are universally important in systems from the atomic to the micrometre scale as they dictate structural and functional attributes of crystals. However, at the nanoscale, the pathways towards crystallization have been largely unexplored owing to the challenge of resolving the motion of individual building blocks in a liquid medium. Here we address this gap by directly imaging the full transition of dispersed gold nanoprisms to a superlattice at the single-particle level. We utilize liquid-phase transmission electron microscopy at low dose rates to control nanoparticle interactions without affecting their motions. Combining particle tracking with Monte Carlo simulations, we reveal that positional ordering of the superlattice emerges from orientational disorder. This method allows us to measure parameters such as line tension and phase coordinates, charting the nonclassical nucleation pathway involving a dense, amorphous intermediate. We demonstrate the versatility of our approach via crystallization of different nanoparticles, pointing the way to more general applications.

Archimedean lattices emerge in template-directed eutectic solidification

Template-directed assembly has been shown to yield a broad diversity of highly ordered mesostructures^1,2, which in a few cases exhibit symmetries not present in the native material^3-5. However, this technique has not yet been applied to eutectic materials, which underpin many modern technologies ranging from high-performance turbine blades to solder alloys. Here we use directional solidification of a simple AgCl-KCl lamellar eutectic material within a pillar template to show that interactions of the material with the template lead to the emergence of a set of microstructures that are distinct from the eutectic's native lamellar structure and the template's hexagonal lattice structure. By modifying the solidification rate of this material-template system, trefoil, quatrefoil, cinquefoil and hexafoil mesostructures with submicrometre-size features are realized. Phase-field simulations suggest that these mesostructures appear owing to constraints imposed on diffusion by the hexagonally arrayed pillar template. We note that the trefoil and hexafoil patterns resemble Archimedean honeycomb and square-hexagonal-dodecagonal lattices⁶, respectively. We also find that by using monolayer colloidal crystals as templates, a variety of eutectic mesostructures including trefoil and hexafoil are observed, the former resembling the Archimedean kagome lattice. Potential emerging applications for the structures provided by templated eutectics include non-reciprocal metasurfaces⁷, magnetic spin-ice systems^8,9, and micro- and nano-lattices with enhanced mechanical properties^10,11.

Liquid-phase electron microscopy imaging of cellular and biomolecular systems

Liquid-phase electron microscopy, a new method for real-time nanoscopic imaging in liquid, makes it possible to study cells or biomolecules with a singular combination of spatial and temporal resolution. We review the state of the art in biological research in this growing and promising field.

Interactions of sub-five-nanometer diameter colloidal palladium nanoparticles in solution investigated via liquid cell transmission electron microscopy

Inter-particle interactions play important roles in controlling the structures, dispersion state and chemo-physical properties of colloidal nanoparticles (NPs) in liquid media. In this work, we prepared palladium (Pd) NPs with an average diameter of ∼4.6 nm in situ inside the liquid cell, and investigated their coupled diffusion and aggregation behaviors through liquid cell transmission electron microscopy (LCTEM). Via analyzing the interaction energies and forces, we derived the effective working range for repulsive double layer interaction experimentally, a value larger than two times the Debye length, suggesting a different interaction behavior of sub-5 nm NPs from that of colloidal NPs in larger sizes. Our results provide insights for the interactions between colloidal ultrafine nanoparticles in solution and will also shed light on the precisely controlled assembly of colloidal nanocrystals for practical applications.

In this paper, sub-5 nm diameter palladium nanoparticles were prepared in situ inside the liquid cell, and the interactions between them were investigated via liquid cell transmission electron microscopy.

Polymer-guided assembly of inorganic nanoparticles

The self-assembly of inorganic nanoparticles is of great importance in realizing their enormous potentials for broad applications due to the advanced collective properties of nanoparticle ensembles. Various molecular ligands (e.g., small molecules, DNAs, proteins, and polymers) have been used to assist the organization of inorganic nanoparticles into functional structures at different hierarchical levels. Among others, polymers are particularly attractive for use in nanoparticle assembly, because of the complex architectures and rich functionalities of assembled structures enabled by polymers. Polymer-guided assembly of nanoparticles has emerged as a powerful route to fabricate functional materials with desired mechanical, optical, electronic or magnetic properties for a broad range of applications such as sensing, nanomedicine, catalysis, energy storage/conversion, data storage, electronics and photonics. In this review article, we summarize recent advances in the polymer-guided self-assembly of inorganic nanoparticles in both bulk thin films and solution, with an emphasis on the role of polymers in the assembly process and functions of resulting nanostructures. Precise control over the location/arrangement, interparticle interaction, and packing of inorganic nanoparticles at various scales are highlighted.

Directed Self-Assembly of Patchy Microgels into Anisotropic Nanostructures

Multi-geometry nanostructures with high-order, complex, and controllable geometries have attracted extensive attention in the development of functional nanomaterials. A simple and versatile strategy is proposed to construct various anisotropic nanostructures through the directed self-assembly (DSA) of patchy microgels. A general criterion for interaction parameters is developed by the variance analysis method to achieve the formation of 1D nanorods by the single directional DSA process, and 2D or 3D polymorphs including V/T/h/cross shapes, multiple arms, multi-directional bending, single/multiple rings, nanocages, etc., by the multi-directional DSA process of binary microgel blends. At the optimum interaction parameters, the nanorods exhibit the quickest formation process and the most thermodynamically stable geometry, while the various 2D or 3D assemblies exhibit controlled jointing behaviors for versatile assembly geometries. The number of recognition sites on the patchy microgel surface guides the aggregation modes of microgels during the DSA process. These assemblies can bear large curvature variance with the increase of shear rates due to the high flexibility and the ability of adjusting orientation spontaneously. The DSA behavior of patchy microgels differs from the traditional self-assembly process of block copolymers, which may open a new route for guiding the formation of controllable nanoparticle architectures.

Refocusing in Situ Electron Microscopy: Moving beyond Visualization of Nanoparticle Self-Assembly To Gain Practical Insights into Advanced Material Fabrication

Despite incredible progress in preparing extended nanoparticle superlattices by self-assembly, theoretically predicted collective properties of extended nanoparticle superlattices are rarely correlated to observations due to the presence of defects. Enhanced fundamental understanding of the kinetics involved in nanoparticle superlattice self-assembly, specifically defect formation and annealing kinetics and mechanisms, is needed to prepare defect-free nanoparticle superlattices. In situ transmission electron microscopy (TEM) enables direct visualization of nanoparticle self-assembly phenomena in real time and at atomic spatial resolution; however, effective translation of in situ TEM data into new predictive models and material synthesis design rules remains a persistent challenge. Recent work by Ondry et al. in this issue of ACS Nano utilized atomic resolution in situ TEM to establish defect removal kinetics in epitaxially attached CdSe nanocrystal pairs, revealing a set of practical guidelines for minimizing defect formation in extended nanoparticle solids. Motivated by this work, in this Perspective, I explore and discuss the most effective and impactful uses of in situ TEM for nanoscience research and the associated technical barriers for performing in situ TEM measurements that are meaningful to bulk-scale self-assembly experiments.

Reversible Polymerization-like Kinetics for Programmable Self-Assembly of DNA-Encoded Nanoparticles with Limited Valence

A similarity between the polymerization reaction of molecules and the self-assembly of nanoparticles provides a unique way to reliably predict structural characteristics of nanoparticle ensembles. However, the quantitative elucidation of programmable self-assembly kinetics of DNA-encoded nanoparticles is still challenging due to the existence of hybridization and dehybridization of DNA strands. Herein, a joint theoretical-computational method is developed to explicate the mechanism and kinetics of programmable self-assembly of limited-valence nanoparticles with surface encoding of complementary DNA strands. It is revealed that the DNA-encoded nanoparticles are programmed to form a diverse range of self-assembled superstructures with complex architecture, such as linear chains, sols, and gels of nanoparticles. It is theoretically demonstrated that the programmable self-assembly of DNA-encoded nanoparticles with limited valence generally obeys the kinetics and statistics of reversible step-growth polymerization originally proposed in polymer science. Furthermore, the theoretical-computational method is applied to capture the programmable self-assembly behavior of bivalent DNA-protein conjugates. The obtained results not only provide fundamental insights into the programmable self-assembly of DNA-encoded nanoparticles but also offer design rules for the DNA-programmed superstructures with elaborate architecture.

Architectural Design of Self-Assembled Hollow Superstructures

Colloidal nanoparticle assemblies are widely designed and fabricated via various building blocks to enhance their intrinsic properties and potential applications. Self-assembled hollow superstructures have been a focal point in nanotechnology for several decades and are likely to remain so for the foreseeable future. The novel properties of self-assembled hollow superstructures stem from their effective spatial utilization. As such, a comprehensive appreciation of the interactive forces at play among individual building blocks is a prerequisite for designing and managing the self-assembly process, toward the fabrication of optimal hollow nanoproducts. Herein, the emerging approaches to the fabrication of self-assembled hollow superstructures, including hard-templated, soft-templated, self-templated, and template-free methods, are classified and discussed. The corresponding reinforcement mechanisms, such as strong ligand interaction strategies and extra-capping strategies, are discussed in detail. Finally, possible future directions for the construction of multifunctional hollow superstructures with highly efficient catalytic reaction systems and an integration platform for bioapplications are discussed.

Self-Assembly of Ultrathin Nanocrystals to Multidimensional Superstructures

The self-assembly of ultrathin nanocrystals (UTNCs) into well-organized multidimensional superstructures is one of the key topics in material chemistry and physics. Highly ordered nanocrystal assemblies also known as superstructures or synthetic structures have remained a focus for researchers over the past few years due to synergy in their properties as compared to their components. Here, we aim to present the recent progress being made in this field with highlights of our research group endeavors in the engineering of self-assembled complex multidimensional superstructures of various inorganic materials, including polyoxometalates. The driving forces for the assembly process and its kinetics along with the potential applications associated with these unique ordered and spatially complex superstructures are also discussed.

Programmable Atom Equivalents: Atomic Crystallization as a Framework for Synthesizing Nanoparticle Superlattices

Decades of research efforts into atomic crystallization phenomenon have led to a comprehensive understanding of the pathways through which atoms form different crystal structures. With the onset of nanotechnology, methods that use colloidal nanoparticles (NPs) as nanoscale "artificial atoms" to generate hierarchically ordered materials are being developed as an alternative strategy for materials synthesis. However, the assembly mechanisms of NP-based crystals are not always as well-understood as their atomic counterparts. The creation of a tunable nanoscale synthon whose assembly can be explained using the context of extensively examined atomic crystallization will therefore provide significant advancement in nanomaterials synthesis. DNA-grafted NPs have emerged as a strong candidate for such a "programmable atom equivalent" (PAE), because the predictable nature of DNA base-pairing allows for complex yet easily controlled assembly. This Review highlights the characteristics of these PAEs that enable controlled assembly behaviors analogous to atomic phenomena, which allows for rational material design well beyond what can be achieved with other crystallization techniques.

Direct Observation of Redox Mediator-Assisted Solution-Phase Discharging of Li-O2 Battery by Liquid-Phase Transmission Electron Microscopy

Li-O₂ battery is one of the important next-generation energy storage systems, as it can potentially offer the highest theoretical energy density among battery chemistries reported thus far. However, realization of its high discharge capacity still remains challenging and is hampered by the nature of how the discharge products are formed, causing premature passivation of the air electrode. Redox mediators are exploited to solve this problem, as they can promote the charge transfer from electrodes to the solution phase. The mechanistic understanding of the fundamental electrochemical reaction involving the redox mediators would aid in the further development of Li-O₂ batteries along with rational design of new redox mediators. Herein, we attempt to monitor the discharge reaction of a Li-O₂ battery in real time by liquid-phase transmission electron microscopy (TEM). Direct in situ TEM observation reveals the gradual growth of toroidal Li₂O₂ discharge product in the electrolyte with the redox mediator upon discharge. Moreover, quantitative analyses of the growth profiles elucidate that the growth mechanism involves two steps: dominant lateral growth of Li₂O₂ into disclike structures in the early stage followed by vertical growth with morphology transformation into a toroidal structure.

Hierarchical self-assembly of 3D lattices from polydisperse anisometric colloids

Colloids are mainly divided into two types defined by size. Micron-scale colloids are widely used as model systems to study phase transitions, while nanoparticles have physicochemical properties unique to their size. Here we study a promising yet underexplored third type: anisometric colloids, which integrate micrometer and nanometer dimensions into the same particle. We show that our prototypical system of anisometric silver plates with a high polydispersity assemble, unexpectedly, into an ordered, three-dimensional lattice. Real-time imaging and interaction modeling elucidate the crucial role of anisometry, which directs hierarchical assembly into secondary building blocks-columns-which are sufficiently monodisperse for further ordering. Ionic strength and plate tip morphology control the shape of the columns, and therefore the final lattice structures (hexagonal versus honeycomb). Our joint experiment-modeling study demonstrates potentials of encoding unconventional assembly in anisometric colloids, which can likely introduce properties and phase behaviors inaccessible to micron- or nanometer-scale colloids.

Sequence-Regulated Supracolloidal Copolymers via Copolymerization-Like Coassembly of Binary Mixtures of Patchy Nanoparticles

Synthetic copolymers of molecular systems serve as an inspiration for creation of one-dimensional copolymer-like superstructures via coassembly of anisometric nanoparticles. In contrast to the covalent and molecular copolymers, the details of formation mechanisms of copolymer-like superstructures, as well as the factors determining their length and the sequences of arranged nanoparticles, are still poorly understood. Herein, we propose a joint theoretical-computational framework to probe into the coassembly mechanism and kinetics of binary mixtures of patchy nanoparticles. By applying the coarse-grained molecular dynamics simulations, it is demonstrated that the coassembly of patchy nanoparticles markedly resembles many aspects of molecular step-growth copolymerization, and the sequences of nanoparticles inside the copolymer-like superstructures can be finely regulated by the relative activity and the initial ingredient of patchy nanoparticles as well as the coassembly strategy. A quantitatively copolymerization-like model is developed to account for the coassembly kinetics of patchy nanoparticles and the sequence distribution of arranged nanoparticles, all governed by the elaborate design of lower-level building units. The jointly theoretical and simulated studies offer mechanistic insights into the copolymerization-like kinetics and the sequence prediction for the coassembly of binary mixtures of patchy nanoparticles, paving the way toward the rational design of copolymer-like superstructures with various sequences and functionalities.

Colloidal Metal-Organic Framework Hexapods Prepared from Postsynthesis Etching with Enhanced Catalytic Activity and Rollable Packing

Recent studies on the effect of particle shapes have led to extensive applications of anisotropic colloids as complex materials building blocks. Although much research has been devoted to colloids of convex polyhedral shapes, branched colloids remain largely underexplored because of limited synthesis strategies. Here we achieved the preparation of metal-organic framework (MOF) colloids in a hexapod shape, not directly from growth but from postsynthesis etching of truncated rhombic dodecahedron (TRD) parent particles. To understand the branch development, we used in situ optical microscopy to track the local surface curvature evolution of the colloids as well as facet-dependent etching rate. The hexapods show unique properties, such as improved catalytic activity in a model Knoevenagel reaction likely due to enhanced access to active sites, and the assembly into open structures which can be easily integrated with a self-rolled-up nanomembrane structure. Both the postsynthesis etching and the hexapod colloids demonstrated here show a new route of engineering micrometer-sized building blocks with exotic shapes and intrinsic functionalities originated from the molecular structure of materials.

Polymerization-like kinetics of the self-assembly of colloidal nanoparticles into supracolloidal polymers

The self-assembly of colloidal nanoparticles is conceptually analogous to the polymerization of reactive monomers in molecular systems. However, less is known about the polymerization of colloidal nanoparticles into supracolloidal polymers. Herein, using coarse-grained molecular dynamics and theoretical analysis, we reveal the self-assembly mechanism and kinetics of colloidal nanoparticles constructed from triblock terpolymers. The results show that the formation pathway of supracolloidal polymers involves monomer condensation and oligomer coalescence through the manner of end-to-end collisions. In contrast to the polymerization kinetics of molecular systems, the simulations and theoretical analysis definitely demonstrate that the growth of supracolloidal polymers obeys diffusion-controlled step-growth polymerization kinetics with a variable rate coefficient, where the growth rate is dependent upon the concentration of colloidal nanoparticles and the molecular information of triblock terpolymers. Our findings possess wide implications for understanding the growth of supracolloidal polymers, which is important for the rational and precise design of one-dimensional self-assembled superstructures with new horizons for biomedical applications.

Exploiting limited valence patchy particles to understand autocatalytic kinetics

Autocatalysis, i.e., the speeding up of a reaction through the very same molecule which is produced, is common in chemistry, biophysics, and material science. Rate-equation-based approaches are often used to model the time dependence of products, but the key physical mechanisms behind the reaction cannot be properly recognized. Here, we develop a patchy particle model inspired by a bicomponent reactive mixture and endowed with adjustable autocatalytic ability. Such a coarse-grained model captures all general features of an autocatalytic aggregation process that takes place under controlled and realistic conditions, including crowded environments. Simulation reveals that a full understanding of the kinetics involves an unexpected effect that eludes the chemistry of the reaction, and which is crucially related to the presence of an activation barrier. The resulting analytical description can be exported to real systems, as confirmed by experimental data on epoxy-amine polymerizations, solving a long-standing issue in their mechanistic description.