Cross-linking peptide and repurposed drugs inhibit both entry pathways of SARS-CoV-2

GiGs: graph-based integrated Gaussian kernel similarity for virus-drug association prediction

The prediction of virus-drug associations (VDAs) is crucial for drug repositioning, contributing to the identification of latent antiviral drugs. In this study, we developed a graph-based integrated Gaussian kernel similarity (GiGs) method for predicting potential VDAs in drug repositioning. The GiGs model comprises three components: (i) collection of experimentally validated VDA information and calculation virus sequence, drug chemical structure, and drug side effect similarity; (ii) integration of viruses and drugs similarity based on the above information and Gaussian interaction profile kernel (GIPK); and (iii) utilization of similarity-constrained weight graph normalization matrix factorization to predict antiviral drugs. The GiGs model enhances correlation matrix quality through the integration of multiple biological data, improves performance via similarity constraints, and prevents overfitting and predicts missing data more accurately through graph regularization. Extensive experimental results indicated that the GiGs model outperforms five other advanced association prediction methods. A case study identified broad-spectrum drugs for treating highly pathogenic human coronavirus infections, with molecular docking experiments confirming the model's accuracy.

Computational and Experimental Studies on the α-Functionalization of Ketones Using Domino Reactions: A Strategy to Increase Chemoselectivity at the α-Carbon of Ketones

A facile strategy to increase the chemoselectivity of domino reactions was proposed and successfully applied in the α-functionalization of ketones. The strategy involved widening the activation energy of the main reaction and side reaction through intermolecular interactions, thereby increasing the chemoselectivity of the domino reaction. In the proposed α-functionalization reaction, TMSCF3 acted as an excellent reagent which increased the nucleophilicity of DMF through the Van der Waals force and reduced the nucleophilicity of H2O through a hydrogen bond. We found that TMSCF3 can increase the activation energy difference between the main reaction and side reaction using DFT calculations, which greatly increased chemoselectivity and avoided the formation of by-products. TMSCF3 was recycled by rectification, and the average recovery rate was 87.2%. DFT calculations, XRD experiments, and control experiments were performed to support this mechanism. We are confident that this strategy has the potential to deliver significant practical advancements while simultaneously fostering broader innovation in the field of domino synthesis.

Supramolecular Architectures of Dendritic Polymers Provide Irreversible Inhibitor to Block Viral Infection

In Nature, most known objects can perform their functions only when in supramolecular self-assembled from, e.g. protein complexes and cell membranes. Here, a dendritic polymer is presented that inhibits severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) with an irreversible (virucidal) mechanism only when self-assembled into a Two-dimmensional supramolecular polymer (2D-SupraPol). Monomeric analogs of the dendritic polymer can only inhibit SARS-CoV-2 reversibly, thus allowing for the virus to regain infectivity after dilution. Upon assembly, 2D-SupraPol shows a remarkable half-inhibitory concentration (IC50 30 nM) in vitro and in vivo in a Syrian Hamster model has a good efficacy. Using cryo-TEM, it is shown that the 2D-SupraPol has a controllable lateral size that can be tuned by adjusting the pH and use small angle X-ray and neutron scattering to unveil the architecture of the supramolecular assembly. This functional 2D-SupraPol, and its supramolecular architecture are proposed, as a prophylaxis nasal spray to inhibit the virus interaction with the respiratory tract.

Unveiling the Dynamic Mechanism of SARS-CoV-2 Entry Host Cells at the Single-Particle Level

Understanding the dynamic features of severe acute respiratory coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) binding to the cell membrane and entry cells is crucial for comprehending viral pathogenesis and transmission and facilitating the development of effective drugs against COVID-19. Herein, we employed atomic force microscopy (AFM)-based single-molecule force spectroscopy (SMFS) to study the binding dynamics between the virus and cell membrane. Our findings revealed that the Omicron variant of SARS-CoV-2 virus-like particles (VLPs) exhibited a slightly stronger affinity for the angiotensin-converting enzyme-2 (ACE2) receptor compared with the Delta variant and was significantly higher than the wild-type (WT). Using a real-time force-tracing technique, we quantified the dynamic parameters for a single SARS-CoV-2 VLP entry into cells, showing that approximately 200 ms and 60 pN are required. The parameters aligned with the analysis obtained from coarse-grained molecular dynamics (CGMD) simulations. Additionally, the Omicron variant invades cells at a higher entry cell speed, smaller force, and higher probability. Furthermore, single-particle fluorescence tracking visually demonstrated clathrin-dependent endocytosis for SARS-CoV-2 entry into A549 cells. The dynamic features of endocytosis provide valuable insights into the SARS-CoV-2 entry mechanism and possible intervention strategies targeting the viral infection process.

COVID-19 drug discovery and treatment options

The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) has caused substantial morbidity and mortality, and serious social and economic disruptions worldwide. Unvaccinated or incompletely vaccinated older individuals with underlying diseases are especially prone to severe disease. In patients with non-fatal disease, long COVID affecting multiple body systems may persist for months. Unlike SARS-CoV and Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus, which have either been mitigated or remained geographically restricted, SARS-CoV-2 has disseminated globally and is likely to continue circulating in humans with possible emergence of new variants that may render vaccines less effective. Thus, safe, effective and readily available COVID-19 therapeutics are urgently needed. In this Review, we summarize the major drug discovery approaches, preclinical antiviral evaluation models, representative virus-targeting and host-targeting therapeutic options, and key therapeutics currently in clinical use for COVID-19. Preparedness against future coronavirus pandemics relies not only on effective vaccines but also on broad-spectrum antivirals targeting conserved viral components or universal host targets, and new therapeutics that can precisely modulate the immune response during infection.

SARS-CoV-2: pathogenesis, therapeutics, variants, and vaccines

Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), emerged in December 2019 with staggering economic fallout and human suffering. The unique structure of SARS-CoV-2 and its underlying pathogenic mechanism were responsible for the global pandemic. In addition to the direct damage caused by the virus, SARS-CoV-2 triggers an abnormal immune response leading to a cytokine storm, culminating in acute respiratory distress syndrome and other fatal diseases that pose a significant challenge to clinicians. Therefore, potential treatments should focus not only on eliminating the virus but also on alleviating or controlling acute immune/inflammatory responses. Current management strategies for COVID-19 include preventative measures and supportive care, while the role of the host immune/inflammatory response in disease progression has largely been overlooked. Understanding the interaction between SARS-CoV-2 and its receptors, as well as the underlying pathogenesis, has proven to be helpful for disease prevention, early recognition of disease progression, vaccine development, and interventions aimed at reducing immunopathology have been shown to reduce adverse clinical outcomes and improve prognosis. Moreover, several key mutations in the SARS-CoV-2 genome sequence result in an enhanced binding affinity to the host cell receptor, or produce immune escape, leading to either increased virus transmissibility or virulence of variants that carry these mutations. This review characterizes the structural features of SARS-CoV-2, its variants, and their interaction with the immune system, emphasizing the role of dysfunctional immune responses and cytokine storm in disease progression. Additionally, potential therapeutic options are reviewed, providing critical insights into disease management, exploring effective approaches to deal with the public health crises caused by SARS-CoV-2.

Development of SARS-CoV-2 entry antivirals

The global outbreak of the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) threatened human health and public safety. The development of anti-SARS-CoV-2 therapies have been essential to curb the spread of SARS-CoV-2. Particularly, antivirals targeting viral entry have become an attractive target for the development of anti-SARS-CoV-2 therapies. In this review, we elucidate the mechanism of SARS-CoV-2 viral entry and summarize the development of antiviral inhibitors targeting viral entry. Moreover, we speculate upon future directions toward more potent inhibitors of SARS-CoV-2 entry. This study is expected to provide novel insights for the efficient discovery of promising candidate drugs against the entry of SARS-CoV-2, and contribute to the development of broad-spectrum anti-coronavirus drugs.

The role of SARS-CoV-2-mediated NF-κB activation in COVID-19 patients

The SARS-CoV-2 pandemic, now in its third year, has had a profound impact on public health and economics all over the world. Different populations showed varied susceptibility to this virus and mortality after infection. Clinical and laboratory data revealed that the uncontrolled inflammatory response plays an important role in their poor outcome. Herein, we summarized the role of NF-κB activation during SARS-CoV-2 invasion and replication, particularly the angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2)-mediated NF-κB activation. Then we summarized the COVID-19 drugs' impact on NF-κB activation and their problems. A favorable prognosis is linked with timely treatment with NF-κB activation inhibitors, such as TNFα, IL-1β, and IL-6 monoclonal antibodies. However, further clinical researches are still required to clarify the time window, dosage of administration, contraindication, and potential side effects of these drugs, particularly for COVID-19 patients with hypertension, hyperglycemia, diabetes, or other chronic diseases.

Antibacterial and Antiviral Properties of Chenopodin-Derived Synthetic Peptides

Antimicrobial peptides have been developed based on plant-derived molecular scaffolds for the treatment of infectious diseases. Chenopodin is an abundant seed storage protein in quinoa, an Andean plant with high nutritional and therapeutic properties. Here, we used computer- and physicochemical-based strategies and designed four peptides derived from the primary structure of Chenopodin. Two peptides reproduce natural fragments of 14 amino acids from Chenopodin, named Chen1 and Chen2, and two engineered peptides of the same length were designed based on the Chen1 sequence. The two amino acids of Chen1 containing amide side chains were replaced by arginine (ChenR) or tryptophan (ChenW) to generate engineered cationic and hydrophobic peptides. The evaluation of these 14-mer peptides on Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli showed that Chen1 does not have antibacterial activity up to 512 µM against these strains, while other peptides exhibited antibacterial effects at lower concentrations. The chemical substitutions of glutamine and asparagine by amino acids with cationic or aromatic side chains significantly favoured their antibacterial effects. These peptides did not show significant hemolytic activity. The fluorescence microscopy analysis highlighted the membranolytic nature of Chenopodin-derived peptides. Using molecular dynamic simulations, we found that a pore is formed when multiple peptides are assembled in the membrane. Whereas, some of them form secondary structures when interacting with the membrane, allowing water translocations during the simulations. Finally, Chen2 and ChenR significantly reduced SARS-CoV-2 infection. These findings demonstrate that Chenopodin is a highly useful template for the design, engineering, and manufacturing of non-toxic, antibacterial, and antiviral peptides.

Long-term effects of SARS-CoV-2 infection on human brain and memory

The severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) variants have caused several waves of outbreaks. From the ancestral strain to Omicron variant, SARS-CoV-2 has evolved with the high transmissibility and increased immune escape against vaccines. Because of the multiple basic amino acids in the S1-S2 junction of spike protein, the widespread distribution of angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) receptor in human body and the high transmissibility, SARS-CoV-2 can infect multiple organs and has led to over 0.7 billion infectious cases. Studies showed that SARS-CoV-2 infection can cause more than 10% patients with the Long-COVID syndrome, including pathological changes in brains. This review mainly provides the molecular foundations for understanding the mechanism of SARS-CoV-2 invading human brain and the molecular basis of SARS-CoV-2 infection interfering with human brain and memory, which are associated with the immune dysfunction, syncytia-induced cell death, the persistence of SARS-CoV-2 infection, microclots and biopsychosocial aspects. We also discuss the strategies for reducing the Long-COVID syndrome. Further studies and analysis of shared researches will allow for further clarity regarding the long-term health consequences.

Targetable elements in SARS-CoV-2 S2 subunit for the design of pan-coronavirus fusion inhibitors and vaccines

The ongoing global pandemic of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), has caused devastating impacts on the public health and the global economy. Rapid viral antigenic evolution has led to the continual generation of new variants. Of special note is the recently expanding Omicron subvariants that are capable of immune evasion from most of the existing neutralizing antibodies (nAbs). This has posed new challenges for the prevention and treatment of COVID-19. Therefore, exploring broad-spectrum antiviral agents to combat the emerging variants is imperative. In sharp contrast to the massive accumulation of mutations within the SARS-CoV-2 receptor-binding domain (RBD), the S2 fusion subunit has remained highly conserved among variants. Hence, S2-based therapeutics may provide effective cross-protection against new SARS-CoV-2 variants. Here, we summarize the most recently developed broad-spectrum fusion inhibitors (e.g., nAbs, peptides, proteins, and small-molecule compounds) and candidate vaccines targeting the conserved elements in SARS-CoV-2 S2 subunit. The main focus includes all the targetable S2 elements, namely, the fusion peptide, stem helix, and heptad repeats 1 and 2 (HR1-HR2) bundle. Moreover, we provide a detailed summary of the characteristics and action-mechanisms for each class of cross-reactive fusion inhibitors, which should guide and promote future design of S2-based inhibitors and vaccines against new coronaviruses.

Computational drug repurposing by exploiting large-scale gene expression data: Strategy, methods and applications

De novo drug development is an extremely complex, time-consuming and costly task. Urgent needs for therapies of various diseases have greatly accelerated searches for more effective drug development methods. Luckily, drug repurposing provides a new and effective perspective on disease treatment. Rapidly increased large-scale transcriptome data paints a detailed prospect of gene expression during disease onset and thus has received wide attention in the field of computational drug repurposing. However, how to efficiently mine transcriptome data and identify new indications for old drugs remains a critical challenge. This review discussed the irreplaceable role of transcriptome data in computational drug repurposing and summarized some representative databases, tools and strategies. More importantly, it proposed a practical guideline through establishing the correspondence between three gene expression data types and five strategies, which would facilitate researchers to adopt appropriate strategies to deeply mine large-scale transcriptome data and discover more effective therapies.

Structure based Drug Designing Approaches in SARS-CoV-2 Spike Inhibitor Design

The COVID-19 outbreak and the pandemic situation have hastened the research community to design a novel drug and vaccine against its causative organism, the SARS-CoV-2. The spike glycoprotein present on the surface of this pathogenic organism plays an immense role in viral entry and antigenicity. Hence, it is considered an important drug target in COVID-19 drug design. Several three-dimensional crystal structures of this SARS-CoV-2 spike protein have been identified and deposited in the Protein DataBank during the pandemic period. This accelerated the research in computer- aided drug designing, especially in the field of structure-based drug designing. This review summarizes various structure-based drug design approaches applied to this SARS-CoV-2 spike protein and its findings. Specifically, it is focused on different structure-based approaches such as molecular docking, high-throughput virtual screening, molecular dynamics simulation, drug repurposing, and target-based pharmacophore modelling and screening. These structural approaches have been applied to different ligands and datasets such as FDA-approved drugs, small molecular chemical compounds, chemical libraries, chemical databases, structural analogs, and natural compounds, which resulted in the prediction of spike inhibitors, spike-ACE-2 interface inhibitors, and allosteric inhibitors.

COVID-19 vaccine uptake and vaccine hesitancy in rural-to-urban migrant workers at the first round of COVID-19 vaccination in China

BACKGROUND

Migration can be linked to the transmission of COVID-19. COVID-19 vaccine uptake and hesitancy among rural-to-urban migrant workers in China, the largest group of internal migrants in the world, has not been characterized.

OBJECTIVE

To investigate COVID-19 vaccine uptake and identify vaccine hesitancy-associated factors among rural-to-urban migrant workers in the first round of COVID-19 vaccination in China.

METHODS

A cross-sectional questionnaire-based survey was conducted, including 14,917 participants. Socio-demographics, COVID-19 vaccine uptake, vaccine hesitancy and its associated factors based on Vaccine Hesitancy Determinants Matrix (VHDM) were applied for the survey. Data were principally analyzed by logistic regression analysis.

RESULTS

The COVID-19 vaccine uptake and vaccine hesitancy rates were 7.1% and 57.7%, respectively. Vaccine hesitancy was strongly associated with VHDM, including individual factors (female, higher annual income and fewer medical knowledge), group factors (less family support, friend support and public opinion support), COVID-19 epidemic factors (lower fatality, infection and emotional distress) and vaccine factors (less vaccine necessity, vaccine safety, vaccine efficacy, vaccine importance and vaccine reliability).

CONCLUSION

The VHDM model has the potential utility in efforts to reduce COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy. Greater efforts should be put into addressing positive predictors associated with vaccine hesitancy.

Peptide-based inhibitors hold great promise as the broad-spectrum agents against coronavirus

Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus (SARS-CoV), Middle East Respiratory Syndrome (MERS), and the recent SARS-CoV-2 are lethal coronaviruses (CoVs) that have caused dreadful epidemic or pandemic in a large region or globally. Infections of human respiratory systems and other important organs by these pathogenic viruses often results in high rates of morbidity and mortality. Efficient anti-viral drugs are needed. Herein, we firstly take SARS-CoV-2 as an example to present the molecular mechanism of CoV infection cycle, including the receptor binding, viral entry, intracellular replication, virion assembly, and release. Then according to their mode of action, we provide a summary of anti-viral peptides that have been reported in peer-reviewed publications. Even though CoVs can rapidly evolve to gain resistance to the conventional small molecule drugs, peptide-based inhibitors targeting various steps of CoV lifecycle remain a promising approach. Peptides can be continuously modified to improve their antiviral efficacy and spectrum along with the emergence of new viral variants.

Vaccination with Span, an antigen guided by SARS-CoV-2 S protein evolution, protects against challenge with viral variants in mice

SARS-CoV-2 continues to accumulate mutations to evade immunity, leading to breakthrough infections after vaccination. How researchers can anticipate the evolutionary trajectory of the virus in advance in the design of next-generation vaccines requires investigation. Here, we performed a comprehensive study of 11,650,487 SARS-CoV-2 sequences, which revealed that the SARS-CoV-2 spike (S) protein evolved not randomly but into directional paths of either high infectivity plus low immune resistance or low infectivity plus high immune resistance. The viral infectivity and immune resistance of variants are generally incompatible, except for limited variants such as Beta and Kappa. The Omicron variant has the highest immune resistance but showed high infectivity in only one of the tested cell lines. To provide cross-clade immunity against variants that undergo diverse evolutionary pathways, we designed a new pan-vaccine antigen (S_pan). S_pan was designed by analyzing the homology of 2675 SARS-CoV-2 S protein sequences from the NCBI database before the Delta variant emerged. The refined S_pan protein harbors high-frequency residues at given positions that reflect cross-clade generality in sequence evolution. Compared with a prototype wild-type (S_wt) vaccine, which, when administered to mice, induced serum with decreased neutralization activity against emerging variants, S_pan vaccination of mice elicited broad immunity to a wide range of variants, including those that emerged after our design. Moreover, vaccinating mice with a heterologous S_pan booster conferred complete protection against lethal infection with the Omicron variant. Our results highlight the importance and feasibility of a universal vaccine to fight against SARS-CoV-2 antigenic drift.

Oral SARS-CoV-2 reduction by local treatment: A plasma technology application?

The SARS-CoV-2 pandemic reemphasized the importance of and need for efficient hygiene and disinfection measures. The coronavirus' efficient spread capitalizes on its airborne transmission routes via virus aerosol release from human oral and nasopharyngeal cavities. Besides the upper respiratory tract, efficient viral replication has been described in the epithelium of these two body cavities. To this end, the idea emerged to employ plasma technology to locally reduce mucosal viral loads as an additional measure to reduce patient infectivity. We here outline conceptual ideas of such treatment concepts within what is known in the antiviral actions of plasma treatment so far.

Fusion-inhibition peptide broadly inhibits influenza virus and SARS-CoV-2, including Delta and Omicron variants

Pandemic influenza virus and SARS-CoV-2 vaiants have posed major global threats to public health. Broad-spectrum antivirals blocking viral entry can be an effective strategy for combating these viruses. Here, we demonstrate a frog-defensin-derived basic peptide (FBP), which broadly inhibits the influenza virus by binding to haemagglutinin so as to block low pH-induced HA-mediated fusion and antagonizes endosomal acidification to inhibit the influenza virus. Moreover, FBP can bind to the SARS-CoV-2 spike to block spike-mediated cell–cell fusion in 293T/ACE2 cells endocytosis. Omicron spike shows a weak cell–cell fusion mediated by TMPRSS2 in Calu3 cells, making the Omicron variant sensitive to endosomal inhibitors. In vivo studies show that FBP broadly inhibits the A(H1N1)pdm09 virus in mice and SARS-CoV-2 (HKU001a and Delta)in hamsters. Notably, FBP shows significant inhibition of Omicron variant replication even though it has a high number of mutations in spike. In conclusion, these results suggest that virus-targeting FBP with a high barrier to drug resistance can be an effective entry-fusion inhibitor against influenza virus and SARS-CoV-2 in vivo.

SARS-CoV-2 Omicron variant shows less efficient replication and fusion activity when compared with Delta variant in TMPRSS2-expressed cells

The novel SARS-CoV-2 Omicron variant (B.1.1.529), first found in early November 2021, has sparked considerable global concern and it has >50 mutations, many of which are known to affect transmissibility or cause immune escape. In this study, we sought to investigate the virological characteristics of the Omicron variant and compared it with the Delta variant which has dominated the world since mid-2021. Omicron variant replicated more slowly than the Delta variant in transmembrane serine protease 2 (TMPRSS2)-overexpressing VeroE6 (VeroE6/TMPRSS2) cells. Notably, the Delta variant replicated well in Calu3 cell line which has robust TMPRSS2 expression, while the Omicron variant replicated poorly in this cell line. Competition assay showed that Delta variant outcompeted Omicron variant in VeroE6/TMPRSS2 and Calu3 cells. To confirm the difference in entry pathway between the Omicron and Delta variants, we assessed the antiviral effect of bafilomycin A1, chloroquine (inhibiting endocytic pathway), and camostat (inhibiting TMPRSS2 pathway). Camostat potently inhibited the Delta variant but not the Omicron variant, while bafilomycin A1 and chloroquine could inhibit both Omicron and Delta variants. Moreover, the Omicron variant also showed weaker cell-cell fusion activity when compared with Delta variant in VeroE6/TMPRSS2 cells. Collectively, our results suggest that Omicron variant infection is not enhanced by TMPRSS2 but is largely mediated via the endocytic pathway. The difference in entry pathway between Omicron and Delta variants may have an implication on the clinical manifestations or disease severity.

Beyond the vaccines: a glance at the small molecule and peptide-based anti-COVID19 arsenal

Unprecedented efforts of the researchers have been witnessed in the recent past towards the development of vaccine platforms for the control of the COVID-19 pandemic. Albeit, vaccination stands as a practical strategy to prevent SARS-CoV-2 infection, supplementing the anti-COVID19 arsenal with therapeutic options such as small molecules/peptides and antibodies is being conceived as a prudent strategy to tackle the emerging SARS-CoV-2 variants. Noteworthy to mention that collective efforts from numerous teams have led to the generation of a voluminous library composed of chemically and mechanistically diverse small molecules as anti-COVID19 scaffolds. This review article presents an overview of medicinal chemistry campaigns and drug repurposing programs that culminated in the identification of a plethora of small molecule-based anti-COVID19 drugs mediating their antiviral effects through inhibition of proteases, S protein, RdRp, ACE2, TMPRSS2, cathepsin and other targets. In light of the evidence ascertaining the potential of small molecule drugs to approach conserved proteins required for the viral replication of all coronaviruses, accelerated FDA approvals are anticipated for small molecules for the treatment of COVID19 shortly. Though the recent attempts invested in this direction in pursuit of enrichment of the anti-COVID-19 armoury (chemical tools) are praiseworthy, some strategies need to be implemented to extract conclusive benefits of the recently reported small molecule viz. (i) detailed preclinical investigation of the generated anti-COVID19 scaffolds (ii) in-vitro profiling of the inhibitors against the emerging SARS-CoV-2 variants (iii) development of assays enabling rapid screening of the libraries of anti-COVID19 scaffold (iv) leveraging the applications of machine learning based predictive models to expedite the anti-COVID19 drug discovery campaign (v) design of antibody-drug conjugates.

Protease-Responsive Peptide-Conjugated Mitochondrial-Targeting AIEgens for Selective Imaging and Inhibition of SARS-CoV-2-Infected Cells

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is a serious threat to human health and lacks an effective treatment. There is an urgent need for both real-time tracking and precise treatment of the SARS-CoV-2-infected cells to mitigate and ultimately prevent viral transmission. However, selective triggering and tracking of the therapeutic process in the infected cells remains challenging. Here, we report a main protease (Mpro)-responsive, mitochondrial-targeting, and modular-peptide-conjugated probe (PSGMR) for selective imaging and inhibition of SARS-CoV-2-infected cells via enzyme-instructed self-assembly and aggregation-induced emission (AIE) effect. The amphiphilic PSGMR was constructed with tunable structure and responsive efficiency and validated with recombinant proteins, cells transfected with Mpro plasmid or infected by SARS-CoV-2, and a Mpro inhibitor. By rational construction of AIE luminogen (AIEgen) with modular peptides and Mpro, we verified that the cleavage of PSGMR yielded gradual aggregation with bright fluorescence and enhanced cytotoxicity to induce mitochondrial interference of the infected cells. This strategy may have value for selective detection and treatment of SARS-CoV-2-infected cells.

Peptidic defective interfering gene nanoparticles against Omicron, Delta SARS-CoV-2 variants and influenza A virus in vivo

Defective interfering genes (DIGs) are short viral genomes and interfere with wild-type viral replication. Here, we demonstrate that the new designed SARS-CoV-2 DIG (CD3600) can significantly inhibit the replication of SARS-CoV-2 including Alpha, Delta, Kappa and Omicron variants in human HK-2 cells and influenza DIG (PAD4) can significantly inhibit influenza virus replication in human A549 cells. One dose of influenza DIGs prophylactically protects 90% mice from lethal challenge of A(H1N1)pdm09 virus and CD3600 inhibits SARS-CoV-2 replication in hamster lungs when DIGs are administrated to lungs one day before viral challenge. To further investigate the gene delivery vector in the respiratory tract, a peptidic TAT2-P1&LAH4, which can package genes to form small spherical nanoparticles with high endosomal escape ability, is demonstrated to dramatically increase gene expression in the lung airway. TAT2-P1&LAH4, with the dual-functional TAT2-P1 (gene-delivery and antiviral), can deliver CD3600 to significantly inhibit the replication of Delta and Omicron SARS-CoV-2 in hamster lungs. This peptide-based nanoparticle system can effectively transfect genes in lungs and deliver DIGs to inhibit SARS-CoV-2 variants and influenza virus in vivo, which provides the new insight into the drug delivery system for gene therapy against respiratory viruses.

In vitro characterization of the furin inhibitor MI-1851: Albumin binding, interaction with cytochrome P450 enzymes and cytotoxicity

The substrate-analog furin inhibitor MI-1851 can suppress the cleavage of SARS-CoV-2 spike protein and consequently produces significant antiviral effect on infected human airway epithelial cells. In this study, the interaction of inhibitor MI-1851 was examined with human serum albumin using fluorescence spectroscopy and ultrafiltration techniques. Furthermore, the impacts of MI-1851 on human microsomal hepatic cytochrome P450 (CYP) 1A2, 2C9, 2C19, 2D6 and 3A4 activities were assessed based on fluorometric assays. The inhibitory action was also examined on human recombinant CYP3A4 enzyme and on hepatocytes. In addition, microsomal stability (60 min) and cytotoxicity were tested as well. MI-1851 showed no relevant interaction with human serum albumin and was significantly depleted by human microsomes. Furthermore, it did not inhibit CYP1A2, 2C9, 2C19 and 2D6 enzymes. In human hepatocytes, CYP3A4 was significantly suppressed by MI-1851 and weak inhibition was noticed in regard to human microsomes and human recombinant CYP3A4. Finally, MI-1851 did not impair the viability and the oxidative status of primary human hepatocytes (up to 100 μM concentration). Based on these observations, furin inhibitor MI-1851 appears to be potential drug candidates in the treatment of COVID-19, due to the involvement of furin in S protein priming and thus activation of the pandemic SARS-CoV-2.

Comparison of Cell Fusions Induced by Influenza Virus and SARS-CoV-2

Virus–cell fusion is the key step for viral infection in host cells. Studies on virus binding and fusion with host cells are important for understanding the virus–host interaction and viral pathogenesis for the discovery of antiviral drugs. In this review, we focus on the virus–cell fusions induced by the two major pandemic viruses, including the influenza virus and SARS-CoV-2. We further compare the cell fusions induced by the influenza virus and SARS-CoV-2, especially the pH-dependent fusion of the influenza virus and the fusion of SARS-CoV-2 in the type-II transmembrane serine protease 2 negative (TMPRSS2^-) cells with syncytia formation. Finally, we present the development of drugs used against SARA-CoV-2 and the influenza virus through the discovery of anti-fusion drugs and the prevention of pandemic respiratory viruses.

A trifunctional peptide broadly inhibits SARS-CoV-2 Delta and Omicron variants in hamsters

The emergence of highly transmissible SARS-CoV-2 variants has led to the waves of the resurgence of COVID-19 cases. Effective antivirals against variants are required. Here we demonstrate that a human-derived peptide 4H30 has broad antiviral activity against the ancestral virus and four Variants of Concern (VOCs) in vitro. Mechanistically, 4H30 can inhibit three distinct steps of the SARS-CoV-2 life cycle. Specifically, 4H30 blocks viral entry by clustering SARS-CoV-2 virions; prevents membrane fusion by inhibiting endosomal acidification; and inhibits the release of virions by cross-linking SARS-CoV-2 with cellular glycosaminoglycans. In vivo studies show that 4H30 significantly reduces the lung viral titers in hamsters, with a more potent reduction for the Omicron variant than the Delta variant. This is likely because the entry of the Omicron variant mainly relies on the endocytic pathway which is targeted by 4H30. Moreover, 4H30 reduces syncytia formation in infected hamster lungs. These findings provide a proof of concept that a single antiviral can inhibit viral entry, fusion, and release.

Antimicrobial peptides: A plausible approach for COVID-19 treatment

INTRODUCTION

Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), which emerged as a major public health threat, has affected >400 million people globally leading to >5 million mortalities to date. Treatments of COVID-19 are still to be developed as the available therapeutic approaches are not able to combat the virus causing the disease (severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2; SARS-CoV-2) satisfactorily. However, antiviral peptides (AVPs) have demonstrated prophylactic and therapeutic effects against many coronaviruses (CoVs).

AREAS COVERED

This review critically discusses various types of AVPs evaluated for the treatment of COVID-19 along with their mechanisms of action. Furthermore, the peptides inhibiting the entry of the virus by targeting its binding to angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) or integrins, fusion mechanism as well as activation of proteolytic enzymes (cathepsin L, transmembrane serine protease 2 (TMPRSS2), or furin) are also discussed.

EXPERT OPINION

Although extensively investigated, successful treatment of COVID-19 is still a challenge due to emergence of virus mutants. Antiviral peptides are anticipated to be blockbuster drugs for the management of this serious infection because of their formulation and therapeutic advantages. Although they may act on different pathways, AVPs having a multi-targeted approach are considered to have the upper hand in the management of this infection.

Semi-Mechanistic Pharmacokinetic-Pharmacodynamic Model of Camostat Mesylate-Predicted Efficacy against SARS-CoV-2 in COVID-19

The SARS-CoV-2 coronavirus, which causes COVID-19, uses a viral surface spike protein for host cell entry and the human cell-surface transmembrane serine protease, TMPRSS2, to process the spike protein. Camostat mesylate, an orally available and clinically used serine protease inhibitor, inhibits TMPRSS2, supporting clinical trials to investigate its use in COVID-19. A one-compartment pharmacokinetic (PK)/pharmacodynamic (PD) model for camostat and the active metabolite FOY-251 was developed, incorporating TMPRSS2 reversible covalent inhibition by FOY-251, and empirical equations linking TMPRSS2 inhibition of SARS-CoV-2 cell entry. The model predicts that 95% inhibition of TMPRSS2 is required for 50% inhibition of viral entry efficiency. For camostat 200 mg dosed four times daily, 90% inhibition of TMPRSS2 is predicted to occur but with only about 40% viral entry inhibition. For 3-fold higher camostat dosing, marginal improvement of viral entry rate inhibition, up to 54%, is predicted. Because respiratory tract viral load may be associated with negative outcome, even modestly reducing viral entry and respiratory tract viral load may reduce disease progression. This modeling also supports medicinal chemistry approaches to enhancing PK/PD and potency of the camostat molecule. IMPORTANCE Strategies to repurpose already-approved drugs for the treatment of COVID-19 has been attractive since the beginning of the pandemic. Camostat mesylate, a serine protease inhibitor approved in Japan for the treatment of acute exacerbations of chronic pancreatitis, inhibits TMPRSS1, a host cell surface serine protease essential for SARS-CoV-2 viral entry. In vitro experiments provided data suggesting that camostat might be effective in the treatment of COVID-19. Multiple clinical trials were planned to test the hypothesis that camostat would be beneficial for treating COVID-19 (for example, clinicaltrials.gov, NCT04353284). The present work used a one-compartment pharmacokinetic (PK)/pharmacodynamic (PD) mathematical model for camostat and the active metabolite FOY-251, incorporating TMPRSS2 reversible covalent inhibition by FOY-251, and empirical equations linking TMPRSS2 inhibition of SARS-CoV-2 cell entry. This work is valuable to guide further development of camostat mesylate and possible medicinal chemistry derivatives for the treatment of COVID-19.

SARS-CoV-2 pan-variant inhibitory peptides deter S1-ACE2 interaction and neutralize delta and omicron pseudoviruses

Approved neutralizing antibodies that target the prototype Spike are losing their potency against the emerging variants of concern (VOCs) of SARS-CoV-2, particularly Omicron. Although SARS-CoV-2 is continuously adapting the host environment, emerging variants recognize the same ACE2 receptor for cell entry. Protein and peptide decoys derived from ACE2 or Spike proteins may hold the pan-variant inhibitory potential. Here, we deployed interactive structure- and pharmacophore-based approaches to design short and stable peptides -Coronavirus Spike Neutralizing Peptides (CSNPs)- capable of neutralizing all SARS-CoV-2 VOCs. After in silico structural stability investigation and free energies perturbation of the isolated and target-bound peptides, nine candidate peptides were evaluated for the biophysical interaction through SPR assay. CSNP1, CSNP2, and Pep1 dose-dependently bind the S1 domain of the prototype Spike, whereas CSNP4 binds both S1 and ACE2. After safety and immunocytochemistry evaluation, peptides were probed for their pan-variant inhibitory effects. CSNP1, CSNP2, and CSNP4 inhibited all VOCs dose-dependently, whereas Pep1 had a moderate effect. CSNP2 and CSNP4 could neutralize the wild-type pseudovirus up to 80 % when treated at 0.5 µM. Furthermore, CSNP4 synergize the neutralization effect of monoclonal antibody and CSNP1 in Delta variant pseudovirus assay as they target different regions on the RBD. Thus, we suggest that CSNPs are SARS-CoV-2 pan-variant inhibitory candidates for COVID-19 therapy, which may pave the way for combating the emerging immune-escaping variants. We also propose that CSNP1/2-CSNP4 peptide cocktail or CSNP1/4 mAbs cocktail with no overlapping epitopes could be effective therapeutic strategies against COVID-19.

Peptide-Based Vaccines and Therapeutics for COVID-19

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) has been prevalent in the humans since 2019 and has given rise to a pandemic situation. With the discovery and ongoing use of drugs and vaccines against SARS-CoV-2, there is still no surety of its complete suppression of this disease or if there is a need for additional booster doses. There is an urgent need for alternative treatment strategies against COVID-19. Peptides and peptidomimetics have several advantages as therapeutic agents because of their target selectivity, better interactions, and lower toxicity. Minor structural alterations to peptides can help prevent their fast metabolism and provide long-action. This comprehensive review provides an overview of different peptide-based vaccines and therapeutics against SARS-CoV-2. It discusses the design and mechanism of action of the peptide-based vaccines, peptide immunomodulators, anti-inflammatory agents, and peptides as entry inhibitors of SARS-CoV-2. Moreover, the mechanism of action, sequences and current clinical trial studies are also summarized. The review also discusses the future aspects of peptide-based vaccines and therapeutics for COVID-19.

Graphical Abstract

Recent advances in developing small-molecule inhibitors against SARS-CoV-2

The COVID-19 pandemic caused by the novel SARS-CoV-2 virus has caused havoc across the entire world. Even though several COVID-19 vaccines are currently in distribution worldwide, with others in the pipeline, treatment modalities lag behind. Accordingly, researchers have been working hard to understand the nature of the virus, its mutant strains, and the pathogenesis of the disease in order to uncover possible drug targets and effective therapeutic agents. As the research continues, we now know the genome structure, epidemiological and clinical features, and pathogenic mechanism of SARS-CoV-2. Here, we summarized the potential therapeutic targets involved in the life cycle of the virus. On the basis of these targets, small-molecule prophylactic and therapeutic agents have been or are being developed for prevention and treatment of SARS-CoV-2 infection.

The discovery and development of transmembrane serine protease 2 (TMPRSS2) inhibitors as candidate drugs for the treatment of COVID-19

INTRODUCTION

Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) has caused the devastating pandemic named coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Unfortunately, the discovery of antiviral agents to combat COVID-19 is still an unmet need. Transmembrane serine protease 2 (TMPRSS2) is an important mediator in viral infection and thus, TMPRRS2 inhibitors may be attractive agents for COVID-19 treatment.

AREAS COVERED

This review article discusses the role of TMPRSS2 in SARS-CoV-2 cell entry and summarizes the inhibitors of TMPRSS2 and their potential anti-SARS activity. Two known TMPRSS2 inhibitors, namely camostat and nafamostat, approved drugs for the treatment of pancreatitis, are under clinical trials as potential drugs against COVID-19.

EXPERT OPINION

Due to the lack of the crystal structure of TMPRSS2, homology models have been developed to study the interactions of known inhibitors, including repurposed drugs, with the enzyme. However, novel TMPRSS2 inhibitors have been identified through high-throughput screening, and appropriate assays studying their in vitro activity have been set up. The discovery of TMPRSS2's crystal structure will facilitate the rational design of novel inhibitors and in vivo studies and clinical trials will give a clear answer if TMPRSS2 inhibitors could be a new weapon against COVID-19.

Multitalented Synthetic Antimicrobial Peptides and Their Antibacterial, Antifungal and Antiviral Mechanisms

Despite the great strides in healthcare during the last century, some challenges still remained unanswered. The development of multi-drug resistant bacteria, the alarming growth of fungal infections, the emerging/re-emerging of viral diseases are yet a worldwide threat. Since the discovery of natural antimicrobial peptides able to broadly hit several pathogens, peptide-based therapeutics have been under the lenses of the researchers. This review aims to focus on synthetic peptides and elucidate their multifaceted mechanisms of action as antiviral, antibacterial and antifungal agents. Antimicrobial peptides generally affect highly preserved structures, e.g., the phospholipid membrane via pore formation or other constitutive targets like peptidoglycans in Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria, and glucan in the fungal cell wall. Additionally, some peptides are particularly active on biofilm destabilizing the microbial communities. They can also act intracellularly, e.g., on protein biosynthesis or DNA replication. Their intracellular properties are extended upon viral infection since peptides can influence several steps along the virus life cycle starting from viral receptor-cell interaction to the budding. Besides their mode of action, improvements in manufacturing to increase their half-life and performances are also taken into consideration together with advantages and impairments in the clinical usage. Thus far, the progress of new synthetic peptide-based approaches is making them a promising tool to counteract emerging infections.

Peptides and peptidomimetics as therapeutic agents for Covid-19

The severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) Covid-19 pandemic has caused high morbidity and mortality rates worldwide. Virus entry into cells can be blocked using several strategies, including inhibition of protein-protein interactions (PPIs) between the viral spike glycoprotein and cellular receptors, as well as blocking of spike protein conformational changes that are required for cleavage/activation and fusogenicity. The spike-mediated viral attachment and entry into cells via fusion of the viral envelope with cellular membranes involve PPIs mediated by short peptide fragments exhibiting particular secondary structures. Thus, peptides that can inhibit these PPIs may be used as potential antiviral agents preventing virus entry and spread. This review is focused on peptides and peptidomimetics as PPI modulators and protease inhibitors against SARS-CoV-2.

What Is the Role of HLA-I on Cancer Derived Extracellular Vesicles? Defining the Challenges in Characterisation and Potential Uses of This Ligandome

The Human Leukocyte Antigen class I (HLA-I) system is an essential part of the immune system that is fundamental to the successful activation of cytotoxic lymphocytes, and an effective subsequent immune attack against both pathogen-infected and cancer cells. The importance of cytotoxic T cell activity and ability to detect foreign cancer-related antigenic peptides has recently been highlighted by the successful application of monoclonal antibody-based checkpoint inhibitors as novel immune therapies. Thus, there is an increased interest in fully characterising the repertoire of peptides that are being presented to cytotoxic CD8+ T cells by cancer cells. However, HLA-I is also known to be present on the surface of extracellular vesicles, which are released by most if not all cancer cells. Whilst the peptide ligandome presented by cell surface HLA class I molecules on cancer cells has been studied extensively, the ligandome of extracellular vesicles remains relatively poorly defined. Here, we will describe the current understanding of the HLA-I peptide ligandome and its role on cancer-derived extracellular vesicles, and evaluate the aspects of the system that have the potential to advance immune-based therapeutic approaches for the effective treatment of cancer.

Antiviral Peptides with in vivo Activity: Development and Modes of Action

The viral pandemic has resulted in a growing demand for antiviral drugs. The existing small-molecule antiviral drugs are limited, due to their incidence of drug resistance and adverse side effects. As potential drugs, antiviral peptides have the benefits of high activity, high stability, and few side effects. Furthermore, the diversity of acquisition methods allows antiviral peptides to be quickly designed and yielded. The drug properties (such as high bioavailability and in vivo stability) of antiviral peptides can be improved by the developed modifications. Currently, two peptide antiviral drugs have been approved for the treatment of acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). Many antiviral peptides have entered clinical trials for the treatment of diseases caused by viruses. In addition, new antiviral peptides are continuously being identified and validated against virus infections. Given the benefits of antiviral peptides, they will become major antiviral drugs to combat new outbreaks caused by unknown viruses in the future. This review provides an overview of recent developments in antiviral peptides with in vivo activity.

Effective SARS-CoV-2 antiviral activity of hyperbranched polylysine nanopolymers

The coronavirus pandemic (COVID-19) had spread rapidly since December 2019, when it was first identified in Wuhan, China. As of April 2021, more than 130 million cases have been confirmed, with more than 3 million deaths, making it one of the deadliest pandemics in history. Different approaches must be put in place to confront a new pandemic: community-based behaviours (i.e., isolation and social distancing), antiviral treatments, and vaccines. Although behaviour-based actions have produced significant benefits and several efficacious vaccines are now available, there is still an urgent need for treatment options. Remdesivir represents the first antiviral drug approved by the Food and Drug Administration for COVID-19 but has several limitations in terms of safety and treatment benefits. There is still a strong request for other effective, safe, and broad-spectrum antiviral systems in light of future emergent coronaviruses. Here, we describe a polymeric nanomaterial derived from L-lysine, with an antiviral activity against SARS-CoV-2 associated with a good safety profile in vitro. Nanoparticles of hyperbranched polylysine, synthesized by L-lysine's thermal polymerization catalyzed by boric acid, effectively inhibit the SARS-CoV-2 replication. The virucidal activity is associated with the charge and dimension of the nanomaterial, favouring the electrostatic interaction with the viral surface being only slightly larger than the virions' dimensions. Low-cost production and easiness of synthesis strongly support the further development of such innovative nanomaterials as a tool for potential treatments of COVID-19 and, in general, as broad-spectrum antivirals.

COVIDrugNet: a network-based web tool to investigate the drugs currently in clinical trial to contrast COVID-19

The COVID-19 pandemic poses a huge problem of public health that requires the implementation of all available means to contrast it, and drugs are one of them. In this context, we observed an unmet need of depicting the continuously evolving scenario of the ongoing drug clinical trials through an easy-to-use, freely accessible online tool. Starting from this consideration, we developed COVIDrugNet ( http://compmedchem.unibo.it/covidrugnet ), a web application that allows users to capture a holistic view and keep up to date on how the clinical drug research is responding to the SARS-CoV-2 infection. Here, we describe the web app and show through some examples how one can explore the whole landscape of medicines in clinical trial for the treatment of COVID-19 and try to probe the consistency of the current approaches with the available biological and pharmacological evidence. We conclude that careful analyses of the COVID-19 drug-target system based on COVIDrugNet can help to understand the biological implications of the proposed drug options, and eventually improve the search for more effective therapies.

Developing Cytokine Storm-Sensitive Therapeutic Strategy in COVID-19 Using 8P9R Chimeric Peptide and Soluble ACE2

Currently, the COVID-19 pandemic is an international challenge, largely due to lack of effective therapies. Pharmacotherapy has not yet been able to find a definitive treatment for COVID-19. Since SARS-CoV-2 affects several organs, treatment strategies that target the virus in a wider range are expected to be ultimately more successful. To this end, a two-step treatment strategy has been presented. In the first phase of the disease, when the patient is newly infected with the virus and the cytokine storm has not yet been developed, a chimeric peptide is used to inhibit virus entry into the host cell cytosol (by inhibiting endosomal pH acidification) and viral replication. After the virus entry and decrease of angiotensin converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) level, some people are unable to properly compensate for the ACE2 pathway and progress toward the cytokine storm. In the beginning of the cytokine storm, sACE2 protein is very effective in regulating the immune system toward the anti-inflammatory pathway, including M2 macrophages. Hence, the genes of 8P9R chimeric peptide and sACE2 would be inserted in an episomal vector with a separate promoter for each gene: the chimeric peptide gene promoter is a CMV promoter, while the sACE2 gene promoter is a NF-κB-sensitive promoter. The NF-κB-sensitive promoter induces the expression of sACE2 gene soon after elevation of NF-κB which is the main transcription factor of inflammatory genes. Thus, as the expression of inflammatory cytokines increases, the expression of sACE2 increases simultaneously. In this condition, sACE2 can prevent the cytokine storm by inhibiting the pro-inflammatory pathways. To deliver the designed vector to the target cells, mesenchymal stem cell-derived (MSC-derived) exosome-liposome hybrids are used. Herein, the strategy can be considered as a personalized clinical therapy for COVID-19, that can prevent morbidity and mortality in the future.

Discrepancies in Infectivity of Flavivirus and SARS-CoV-2 Clinical Samples: An Improved Assay for Infectious Virus Shedding and Viremia Assessment

Infectivity and neutralizing antibody titers of flavivirus and severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) are frequently measured using the conventional plaque assay. While the assay is useful in the determination of infectivity, conventional plaque assays generally possess lower sensitivity and are time-consuming compared to nucleic acid amplification tests. In this study, a microcrystalline cellulose (MCC), Avicel, was evaluated as an alternative to the conventional virus overlay medium, methylcellulose, for a plaque assay. The plaque assay was performed using dengue and COVID-19 clinical samples and laboratory-established flavivirus and SARS-CoV-2 strains. In virus titration of clinical samples, the plaques were significantly larger, and the virus titers were higher when Avicel MCC-containing overlay medium was used than with conventional methylcellulose overlay medium. In addition, for some clinical samples and laboratory virus strains, infectious particles were detected as plaques in the Avicel MCC-containing medium, but not in the conventional methylcellulose medium. The results suggest that the viremia titer determined using the new overlay medium containing Avicel MCC may better reflect the innate infectious and plaque-forming capabilities of clinical samples and better reflect virus infectivity.

The Effect of COVID-19 on NF-κB and Neurological Manifestations of Disease

The coronavirus disease that presumably began in 2019 (COVID-19) is a highly infectious disease caused by the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) and has resulted in a pandemic. Initially, COVID-19 was thought to only affect respiration. However, accumulating evidence shows a wide range of neurological symptoms are also associated with COVID-19, such as anosmia/ageusia, headaches, seizures, demyelination, mental confusion, delirium, and coma. Neurological symptoms in COVID-19 patients may arise due to a cytokine storm and a heighten state of inflammation. The nuclear factor kappa-light-chain enhancer of activated B cells (NF-κB) is a central pathway involved with inflammation and is shown to be elevated in a dose-dependent matter in response to coronaviruses. NF-κB has a role in cytokine storm syndrome, which is associated with greater severity in COVID-19-related symptoms. Therefore, therapeutics that reduce the NF-κB pathway should be considered in the treatment of COVID-19. Neuro-COVID-19 units have been established across the world to examine the neurological symptoms associated with COVID-19. Neuro-COVID-19 is increasingly becoming an accepted term among scientists and clinicians, and interdisciplinary teams should be created to implement strategies for treating the wide range of neurological symptoms observed in COVID-19 patients.

Keep out! SARS-CoV-2 entry inhibitors: their role and utility as COVID-19 therapeutics

The COVID-19 pandemic has put healthcare infrastructures and our social and economic lives under unprecedented strain. Effective solutions are needed to end the pandemic while significantly lessening its further impact on mortality and social and economic life. Effective and widely-available vaccines have appropriately long been seen as the best way to end the pandemic. Indeed, the current availability of several effective vaccines are already making a significant progress towards achieving that goal. Nevertheless, concerns have risen due to new SARS-CoV-2 variants that harbor mutations against which current vaccines are less effective. Furthermore, some individuals are unwilling or unable to take the vaccine. As health officials across the globe scramble to vaccinate their populations to reach herd immunity, the challenges noted above indicate that COVID-19 therapeutics are still needed to work alongside the vaccines. Here we describe the impact that neutralizing antibodies have had on those with early or mild COVID-19, and what their approval for early management of COVID-19 means for other viral entry inhibitors that have a similar mechanism of action. Importantly, we also highlight studies that show that therapeutic strategies involving various viral entry inhibitors such as multivalent antibodies, recombinant ACE2 and miniproteins can be effective not only for pre-exposure prophylaxis, but also in protecting against SARS-CoV-2 antigenic drift and future zoonotic sarbecoviruses.

Potential Therapeutic Targets and Vaccine Development for SARS-CoV-2/COVID-19 Pandemic Management: A Review on the Recent Update

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) is a highly pathogenic novel virus that has caused a massive pandemic called coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) worldwide. Wuhan, a city in China became the epicenter of the outbreak of COVID-19 in December 2019. The disease was declared a pandemic globally by the World Health Organization (WHO) on 11 March 2020. SARS-CoV-2 is a beta CoV of the Coronaviridae family which usually causes respiratory symptoms that resemble common cold. Multiple countries have experienced multiple waves of the disease and scientific experts are consistently working to find answers to several unresolved questions, with the aim to find the most suitable ways to contain the virus. Furthermore, potential therapeutic strategies and vaccine development for COVID-19 management are also considered. Currently, substantial efforts have been made to develop successful and safe treatments and SARS-CoV-2 vaccines. Some vaccines, such as inactivated vaccines, nucleic acid-based, and vector-based vaccines, have entered phase 3 clinical trials. Additionally, diverse small molecule drugs, peptides and antibodies are being developed to treat COVID-19. We present here an overview of the virus interaction with the host and environment and anti-CoV therapeutic strategies; including vaccines and other methodologies, designed for prophylaxis and treatment of SARS-CoV-2 infection with the hope that this integrative analysis could help develop novel therapeutic approaches against COVID-19.

The Fight against COVID-19 on the Multi-Protease Front and Surroundings: Could an Early Therapeutic Approach with Repositioning Drugs Prevent the Disease Severity?

The interaction between the membrane spike (S) protein of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) and the transmembrane angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) receptor of the human epithelial host cell is the first step of infection, which has a critical role for viral pathogenesis of the current coronavirus disease-2019 (COVID-19) pandemic. Following the binding between S1 subunit and ACE2 receptor, different serine proteases, including TMPRSS2 and furin, trigger and participate in the fusion of the viral envelope with the host cell membrane. On the basis of the high virulence and pathogenicity of SARS-CoV-2, other receptors have been found involved for viral binding and invasiveness of host cells. This review comprehensively discusses the mechanisms underlying the binding of SARS-CoV2 to ACE2 and putative alternative receptors, and the role of potential co-receptors and proteases in the early stages of SARS-CoV-2 infection. Given the short therapeutic time window within which to act to avoid the devastating evolution of the disease, we focused on potential therapeutic treatments-selected mainly among repurposing drugs-able to counteract the invasive front of proteases and mild inflammatory conditions, in order to prevent severe infection. Using existing approved drugs has the advantage of rapidly proceeding to clinical trials, low cost and, consequently, immediate and worldwide availability.

Molecular mechanism of interaction between SARS-CoV-2 and host cells and interventional therapy

The pandemic of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection has resulted in an unprecedented setback for global economy and health. SARS-CoV-2 has an exceptionally high level of transmissibility and extremely broad tissue tropism. However, the underlying molecular mechanism responsible for sustaining this degree of virulence remains largely unexplored. In this article, we review the current knowledge and crucial information about how SARS-CoV-2 attaches on the surface of host cells through a variety of receptors, such as ACE2, neuropilin-1, AXL, and antibody-FcγR complexes. We further explain how its spike (S) protein undergoes conformational transition from prefusion to postfusion with the help of proteases like furin, TMPRSS2, and cathepsins. We then review the ongoing experimental studies and clinical trials of antibodies, peptides, or small-molecule compounds with anti-SARS-CoV-2 activity, and discuss how these antiviral therapies targeting host-pathogen interaction could potentially suppress viral attachment, reduce the exposure of fusion peptide to curtail membrane fusion and block the formation of six-helix bundle (6-HB) fusion core. Finally, the specter of rapidly emerging SARS-CoV-2 variants deserves a serious review of broad-spectrum drugs or vaccines for long-term prevention and control of COVID-19 in the future.