Single-cell transcriptomic analysis reveals diversity within mammalian spinal motor neurons

Bidirectional pH Buffer Effect Facilitates High-Reversible Aqueous Zinc Ion Batteries

Aqueous zinc ion batteries (AZIBs) stand out from the crowd of energy storage equipment for their superior energy density, enhanced safety features, and affordability. However, the notorious side reaction in the zinc anode and the dissolution of the cathode materials led to poor cycling stability has hindered their further development. Herein, ammonium salicylate (AS) is a bidirectional electrolyte additive to promote prolonged stable cycles in AZIBs. NH4 + and C6H4OHCOO- collaboratively stabilize the pH at the interface of the electrolyte/electrode and guide the homogeneous deposition of Zn2+ at the zinc anode. The higher adsorption energy of NH4 + compared to H2O on the Zn (002) crystal plane mitigates the side reactions on the anode surface. Moreover, NH4 + is similarly adsorbed on the cathode surface, maintaining the stability of the electrode. C6H4OHCOO- and Zn2+ are co-intercalation/deintercalation during the cycling process, contributing to the higher electrochemical performance of the full cell. As a result, with the presence of AS additive, the Zn//Zn symmetric cells achieved 700 h of highly reversible cycling at 5 mA cm-2. In addition, the assembled NH4V4O10(NVO)//Zn coin and pouch batteries achieved higher capacity and higher cycle lifetime, demonstrating the practicality of the AS electrolyte additive.

Understanding the Role of the SMN Complex Component GEMIN5 and Its Functional Relationship with Demethylase KDM6B in the Flunarizine-Mediated Neuroprotection of Motor Neuron Disease Spinal Muscular Atrophy

Dysregulated RNA metabolism caused by SMN deficiency leads to motor neuron disease spinal muscular atrophy (SMA). Current therapies improve patient outcomes but achieve no definite cure, prompting renewed efforts to better understand disease mechanisms. The calcium channel blocker flunarizine improves motor function in Smn-deficient mice and can help uncover neuroprotective pathways. Murine motor neuron-like NSC34 cells were used to study the molecular cell-autonomous mechanism. Following RNA and protein extraction, RT-qPCR and immunodetection experiments were performed. The relationship between flunarizine mRNA targets and RNA-binding protein GEMIN5 was explored by RNA-immunoprecipitation. Flunarizine increases demethylase Kdm6b transcripts across cell cultures and mouse models. It causes, in NSC34 cells, a temporal expression of GEMIN5 and KDM6B. GEMIN5 binds to flunarizine-modulated mRNAs, including Kdm6b transcripts. Gemin5 depletion reduces Kdm6b mRNA and protein levels and hampers responses to flunarizine, including neurite extension in NSC34 cells. Moreover, flunarizine increases the axonal extension of motor neurons derived from SMA patient-induced pluripotent stem cells. Finally, immunofluorescence studies of spinal cord motor neurons in Smn-deficient mice reveal that flunarizine modulates the expression of KDM6B and its target, the motor neuron-specific transcription factor HB9, driving motor neuron maturation. Our study reveals GEMIN5 regulates Kdm6b expression with implications for motor neuron diseases and therapy.

Multimodal Hox5 activity generates motor neuron diversity

Motor neurons (MNs) are the final output of circuits driving fundamental behaviors, such as respiration and locomotion. Hox proteins are essential in generating the MN diversity required for accomplishing these functions, but the transcriptional mechanisms that enable Hox paralogs to assign distinct MN subtype identities despite their promiscuous DNA binding motif are not well understood. Here we show that Hoxa5 modifies chromatin accessibility in all mouse spinal cervical MN subtypes and engages TALE co-factors to directly bind and regulate subtype-specific genes. We identify a paralog-specific interaction of Hoxa5 with the phrenic MN-specific transcription factor Scip and show that heterologous expression of Hoxa5 and Scip is sufficient to suppress limb-innervating MN identity. We also demonstrate that phrenic MN identity is stable after Hoxa5 downregulation and identify Klf proteins as potential regulators of phrenic MN maintenance. Our data identify multiple modes of Hoxa5 action that converge to induce and maintain MN identity.

Enhancer AAVs for targeting spinal motor neurons and descending motor pathways in rodents and macaque

Experimental access to cell types within the mammalian spinal cord is severely limited by the availability of genetic tools. To enable access to lower motor neurons (LMNs) and LMN subtypes, which function to integrate information from the brain and control movement through direct innervation of effector muscles, we generated single cell multiome datasets from mouse and macaque spinal cords and discovered putative enhancers for each neuronal population. We cloned these enhancers into adeno-associated viral vectors (AAVs) driving a reporter fluorophore and functionally screened them in mouse. The most promising candidate enhancers were then extensively characterized using imaging and molecular techniques and further tested in rat and macaque to show conservation of LMN labeling. Additionally, we combined enhancer elements into a single vector to achieve simultaneous labeling of upper motor neurons (UMNs) and LMNs. This unprecedented LMN toolkit will enable future investigations of cell type function across species and potential therapeutic interventions for human neurodegenerative diseases.

Spinal motor neuron development and metabolism are transcriptionally regulated by Nuclear Factor IA

Neural circuits governing all motor behaviors in vertebrates rely on the proper development of motor neurons and their precise targeting of limb muscles. Transcription factors are essential for motor neuron development, regulating their specification, migration, and axonal targeting. While transcriptional regulation of the early stages of motor neuron specification is well-established, much less is known about the role of transcription factors in the later stages of maturation and terminal arborization. Defining the molecular mechanisms of these later stages is critical for elucidating how motor circuits are constructed. Here, we demonstrate that the transcription factor Nuclear Factor-IA (NFIA) is required for motor neuron positioning, axonal branching, and neuromuscular junction formation. Moreover, we find that NFIA is required for proper mitochondrial function and ATP production, providing a new and important link between transcription factors and metabolism during motor neuron development. Together, these findings underscore the critical role of NFIA in instructing the assembly of spinal circuits for movement.

ScnML models single-cell transcriptome to predict spinal cord neuronal cell status

Injuries to the spinal cord nervous system often result in permanent loss of sensory, motor, and autonomic functions. Accurately identifying the cellular state of spinal cord nerves is extremely important and could facilitate the development of new therapeutic and rehabilitative strategies. Existing experimental techniques for identifying the development of spinal cord nerves are both labor-intensive and costly. In this study, we developed a machine learning predictor, ScnML, for predicting subpopulations of spinal cord nerve cells as well as identifying marker genes. The prediction performance of ScnML was evaluated on the training dataset with an accuracy of 94.33%. Based on XGBoost, ScnML on the test dataset achieved 94.08% 94.24%, 94.26%, and 94.24% accuracies with precision, recall, and F1-measure scores, respectively. Importantly, ScnML identified new significant genes through model interpretation and biological landscape analysis. ScnML can be a powerful tool for predicting the status of spinal cord neuronal cells, revealing potential specific biomarkers quickly and efficiently, and providing crucial insights for precision medicine and rehabilitation recovery.

The Iroquois (Iro/Irx) homeobox genes are conserved Hox targets involved in motor neuron development

The Iroquois (Iro/Irx) homeobox genes encode transcription factors with fundamental roles in animal development. Despite their link to various congenital conditions in humans, our understanding of Iro/Irx gene expression, function, and regulation remains incomplete. Here, we conducted a systematic expression analysis of all six mouse Irx genes in the embryonic spinal cord. We found five Irx genes (Irx1, Irx2, Irx3, Irx5, and Irx6) to be confined mostly to ventral spinal domains, offering new molecular markers for specific groups of post-mitotic motor neurons (MNs). Further, we engineered Irx2, Irx5, and Irx6 mouse mutants and uncovered essential but distinct roles for Irx2 and Irx6 in MN development. Last, we found that the highly conserved regulators of MN development across species, the HOX proteins, directly control Irx gene expression both in mouse and C. elegans MNs, critically expanding the repertoire of HOX target genes in the developing nervous system. Altogether, our study provides important insights into Iro/Irx expression and function in the developing spinal cord, and uncovers an ancient gene regulatory relationship between HOX and Iro/Irx genes.

Disease related changes in ATAC-seq of iPSC-derived motor neuron lines from ALS patients and controls

Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS), like many other neurodegenerative diseases, is highly heritable, but with only a small fraction of cases explained by monogenic disease alleles. To better understand sporadic ALS, we report epigenomic profiles, as measured by ATAC-seq, of motor neuron cultures derived from a diverse group of 380 ALS patients and 80 healthy controls. We find that chromatin accessibility is heavily influenced by sex, the iPSC cell type of origin, ancestry, and the inherent variance arising from sequencing. Once these covariates are corrected for, we are able to identify ALS-specific signals in the data. Additionally, we find that the ATAC-seq data is able to predict ALS disease progression rates with similar accuracy to methods based on biomarkers and clinical status. These results suggest that iPSC-derived motor neurons recapitulate important disease-relevant epigenomic changes.

Intravenous recombinant cerebellin 1 treatment restores signalling by spinal glutamate delta 1 receptors and mitigates chronic pain

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Chronic pain remains a major clinical problem that needs effective therapeutic agents. Glutamate delta 1 (GluD1) receptors and the protein cerebellin 1 (Cbln1) are down-regulated in the central amygdala (CeA) in models of inflammatory and neuropathic pain. One treatment with Cbln1, intracerebroventricularly (ICV) or in CeA, normalized GluD1 and reduced AMPA receptor expression, resulting in lasting (7-10 days) pain relief. Unlike many CNS-targeting biological agents, the structure of Cbln1 suggests potential blood-brain barrier penetration. Here, we have tested whether systemic administration of Cbln1 provides analgesic effects via action in the CNS.

EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH

Analgesic effects of intravenous recombinant Cbln1 was assessed in complete Freund's adjuvant inflammatory pain model in mice. GluD1 knockout and a mutant form of Cbln1 were used.

KEY RESULTS

A single intravenous injection of Cbln1 mitigated nocifensive and averse behaviour in both inflammatory and neuropathic pain models. This effect of Cbln1 was dependent on GluD1 receptors and required binding to the amino terminal domain of GluD1. Time course of analgesic effect was similar to previously reported ICV and intra-CeA injection. GluD1 in both spinal cord and CeA was down -regulated in the inflammatory pain model, whereas GluD1 expression in spinal cord but not in CeA, was partly normalized by intravenous Cbln1. Importantly, recombinant Cbln1 was detected in the synaptoneurosomes in spinal cord but not in the CeA.

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

Our results describe a novel mechanism by which systemic Cbln1 induces analgesia potentially by central actions involving normalization of signalling by spinal cord GluD1 receptors.

A molecular atlas of adult C. elegans motor neurons reveals ancient diversity delineated by conserved transcription factor codes

Motor neurons (MNs) constitute an ancient cell type targeted by multiple adult-onset diseases. It is therefore important to define the molecular makeup of adult MNs in animal models and extract organizing principles. Here, we generate a comprehensive molecular atlas of adult Caenorhabditis elegans MNs and a searchable database. Single-cell RNA sequencing of 13,200 cells reveals that ventral nerve cord MNs cluster into 29 molecularly distinct subclasses. Extending C. elegans Neuronal Gene Expression Map and Network (CeNGEN) findings, all MN subclasses are delineated by distinct expression codes of either neuropeptide or transcription factor gene families. Strikingly, combinatorial codes of homeodomain transcription factor genes succinctly delineate adult MN diversity in both C. elegans and mice. Further, molecularly defined MN subclasses in C. elegans display distinct patterns of connectivity. Hence, our study couples the connectivity map of the C. elegans motor circuit with a molecular atlas of its constituent MNs and uncovers organizing principles and conserved molecular codes of adult MN diversity.

LncRNA Litchi is a regulator for harmonizing maturity and resilient functionality in spinal motor neurons

Long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) play pivotal roles in modulating gene expression during development and disease. Despite their high expression in the central nervous system (CNS), understanding the precise physiological functions of CNS-associated lncRNAs has been challenging, largely due to the in vitro-centric nature of studies in this field. Here, utilizing mouse embryonic stem cell (ESC)-derived motor neurons (MNs), we identified an unexplored MN-specific lncRNA, Litchi (Long Intergenic RNAs in Chat Intron). By employing an "exon-only" deletion strategy in ESCs and a mouse model, we reveal that Litchi deletion profoundly impacts MN dendritic complexity, axonal growth, and altered action potential patterns. Mechanistically, voltage-gated channels and neurite growth-related genes exhibited heightened sensitivity to Litchi deletion. Our Litchi-knockout mouse model displayed compromised motor behaviors and reduced muscle strength, highlighting Litchi's critical role in motor function. This study unveils an underappreciated function of lncRNAs in orchestrating MN maturation and maintaining robust electrophysiological properties.

Multimodal Hox5 activity generates motor neuron diversity

Motor neurons (MNs) are the final output of circuits driving fundamental behaviors, such as respiration and locomotion. Hox proteins are essential in generating the MN diversity required for accomplishing these functions, but the transcriptional mechanisms that enable Hox paralogs to assign distinct MN subtype identities despite their promiscuous DNA binding motif are not well understood. Here we show that Hoxa5 controls chromatin accessibility in all mouse spinal cervical MN subtypes and engages TALE co-factors to directly bind and regulate subtype-specific genes. We identify a paralog-specific interaction of Hoxa5 with the phrenic MN-specific transcription factor Scip and show that heterologous expression of Hoxa5 and Scip is sufficient to suppress limb-innervating MN identity. We also demonstrate that phrenic MN identity is stable after Hoxa5 downregulation and identify Klf proteins as potential regulators of phrenic MN maintenance. Our data identify multiple modes of Hoxa5 action that converge to induce and maintain MN identity.

Molecular blueprints for spinal circuit modules controlling locomotor speed in zebrafish

The flexibility of motor actions is ingrained in the diversity of neurons and how they are organized into functional circuit modules, yet our knowledge of the molecular underpinning of motor circuit modularity remains limited. Here we use adult zebrafish to link the molecular diversity of motoneurons (MNs) and the rhythm-generating V2a interneurons (INs) with the modular circuit organization that is responsible for changes in locomotor speed. We show that the molecular diversity of MNs and V2a INs reflects their functional segregation into slow, intermediate or fast subtypes. Furthermore, we reveal shared molecular signatures between V2a INs and MNs of the three speed circuit modules. Overall, by characterizing how the molecular diversity of MNs and V2a INs relates to their function, connectivity and behavior, our study provides important insights not only into the molecular mechanisms for neuronal and circuit diversity for locomotor flexibility but also for charting circuits for motor actions in general.

Deep scRNA sequencing reveals a broadly applicable Regeneration Classifier and implicates antioxidant response in corticospinal axon regeneration

Despite substantial progress in understanding the biology of axon regeneration in the CNS, our ability to promote regeneration of the clinically important corticospinal tract (CST) after spinal cord injury remains limited. To understand regenerative heterogeneity, we conducted patch-based single-cell RNA sequencing on rare regenerating CST neurons at high depth following PTEN and SOCS3 deletion. Supervised classification with Garnett gave rise to a Regeneration Classifier, which can be broadly applied to predict the regenerative potential of diverse neuronal types across developmental stages or after injury. Network analyses highlighted the importance of antioxidant response and mitochondrial biogenesis. Conditional gene deletion validated a role for NFE2L2 (or NRF2), a master regulator of antioxidant response, in CST regeneration. Our data demonstrate a universal transcriptomic signature underlying the regenerative potential of vastly different neuronal populations and illustrate that deep sequencing of only hundreds of phenotypically identified neurons has the power to advance regenerative biology.

Transcriptional control of motor pool formation and motor circuit connectivity by the LIM-HD protein Isl2

The fidelity of motor control requires the precise positional arrangement of motor pools and the establishment of synaptic connections between them. During neural development in the spinal cord, motor nerves project to specific target muscles and receive proprioceptive input from these muscles via the sensorimotor circuit. LIM-homeodomain transcription factors are known to play a crucial role in successively restricting specific motor neuronal fates. However, their exact contribution to limb-based motor pools and locomotor circuits has not been fully understood. To address this, we conducted an investigation into the role of Isl2, a LIM-homeodomain transcription factor, in motor pool organization. We found that deletion of Isl2 led to the dispersion of motor pools, primarily affecting the median motor column (MMC) and lateral motor column (LMC) populations. Additionally, hindlimb motor pools lacked Etv4 expression, and we observed reduced terminal axon branching and disorganized neuromuscular junctions in Isl2-deficient mice. Furthermore, we performed transcriptomic analysis on the spinal cords of Isl2-deficient mice and identified a variety of downregulated genes associated with motor neuron (MN) differentiation, axon development, and synapse organization in hindlimb motor pools. As a consequence of these disruptions, sensorimotor connectivity and hindlimb locomotion were impaired in Isl2-deficient mice. Taken together, our findings highlight the critical role of Isl2 in organizing motor pool position and sensorimotor circuits in hindlimb motor pools. This research provides valuable insights into the molecular mechanisms governing motor control and its potential implications for understanding motor-related disorders in humans.

A molecular atlas of adult C. elegans motor neurons reveals ancient diversity delineated by conserved transcription factor codes

Motor neurons (MNs) constitute an ancient cell type targeted by multiple adult-onset diseases. It is therefore important to define the molecular makeup of adult MNs in animal models and extract organizing principles. Here, we generated a comprehensive molecular atlas of adult Caenorhabditis elegans MNs and a searchable database (http://celegans.spinalcordatlas.org). Single-cell RNA-sequencing of 13,200 cells revealed that ventral nerve cord MNs cluster into 29 molecularly distinct subclasses. All subclasses are delineated by unique expression codes of either neuropeptide or transcription factor gene families. Strikingly, we found that combinatorial codes of homeodomain transcription factor genes define adult MN diversity both in C. elegans and mice. Further, molecularly defined MN subclasses in C. elegans display distinct patterns of connectivity. Hence, our study couples the connectivity map of the C. elegans motor circuit with a molecular atlas of its constituent MNs, and uncovers organizing principles and conserved molecular codes of adult MN diversity.

Present and future challenges for the investigation of transgenerational epigenetic inheritance

Epigenetic pathways are essential in different biological processes and in phenotype-environment interactions in response to different stressors and they can induce phenotypic plasticity. They encompass several processes that are mitotically and, in some cases, meiotically heritable, so they can be transferred to subsequent generations via the germline. Transgenerational Epigenetic Inheritance (TEI) describes the phenomenon that phenotypic traits, such as changes in fertility, metabolic function, or behavior, induced by environmental factors (e.g., parental care, pathogens, pollutants, climate change), can be transferred to offspring generations via epigenetic mechanisms. Investigations on TEI contribute to deciphering the role of epigenetic mechanisms in adaptation, adversity, and evolution. However, molecular mechanisms underlying the transmission of epigenetic changes between generations, and the downstream chain of events leading to persistent phenotypic changes, remain unclear. Therefore, inter-, (transmission of information between parental and offspring generation via direct exposure) and transgenerational (transmission of information through several generations with disappearance of the triggering factor) consequences of epigenetic modifications remain major issues in the field of modern biology. In this article, we review and describe the major gaps and issues still encountered in the TEI field: the general challenges faced in epigenetic research; deciphering the key epigenetic mechanisms in inheritance processes; identifying the relevant drivers for TEI and implement a collaborative and multi-disciplinary approach to study TEI. Finally, we provide suggestions on how to overcome these challenges and ultimately be able to identify the specific contribution of epigenetics in transgenerational inheritance and use the correct tools for environmental science investigation and biomarkers identification.