Graphene- and metal-induced energy transfer for single-molecule imaging and live-cell nanoscopy with (sub)-nanometer axial resolution

Graphene-Based Photodynamic Therapy and Overcoming Cancer Resistance Mechanisms: A Comprehensive Review

Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is a non-invasive therapy that has made significant progress in treating different diseases, including cancer, by utilizing new nanotechnology products such as graphene and its derivatives. Graphene-based materials have large surface area and photothermal effects thereby making them suitable candidates for PDT or photo-active drug carriers. The remarkable photophysical properties of graphene derivates facilitate the efficient generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) upon light irradiation, which destroys cancer cells. Surface functionalization of graphene and its materials can also enhance their biocompatibility and anticancer activity. The paper delves into the distinct roles played by graphene-based materials in PDT such as photosensitizers (PS) and drug carriers while at the same time considers how these materials could be used to circumvent cancer resistance. This will provide readers with an extensive discussion of various pathways contributing to PDT inefficiency. Consequently, this comprehensive review underscores the vital roles that graphene and its derivatives may play in emerging PDT strategies for cancer treatment and other medical purposes. With a better comprehension of the current state of research and the existing challenges, the integration of graphene-based materials in PDT holds great promise for developing targeted, effective, and personalized cancer treatments.

Metal-Induced Energy Transfer (MIET) Imaging of Cell Surface Engineering with Multivalent DNA Nanobrushes

The spacing between cells has a significant impact on cell-cell interactions, which are critical to the fate and function of both individual cells and multicellular organisms. However, accurately measuring the distance between cell membranes and the variations between different membranes has proven to be a challenging task. In this study, we employ metal-induced energy transfer (MIET) imaging/spectroscopy to determine and track the intermembrane distance and variations with nanometer precision. We have developed a DNA-based molecular adhesive called the DNA nanobrush, which serves as a cellular adhesive for connecting the plasma membranes of different cells. By manipulating the number of base pairs within the DNA nanobrush, we can modify various aspects of membrane-membrane interactions such as adhesive directionality, distance, and forces. We demonstrate that such nanometer-level changes can be detected with MIET imaging/spectroscopy. Moreover, we successfully employed MIET to measure distance variations between a cellular plasma membrane and a model membrane. This experiment not only showcases the effectiveness of MIET as a powerful tool for accurately quantifying membrane-membrane interactions but also validates the potential of DNA nanobrushes as cellular adhesives. This innovative method holds significant implications for advancing the study of multicellular interactions.

Fluorophore position of headgroup-labeled Gb3 glycosphingolipids in lipid bilayers

Fluorescent lipid probes are an invaluable tool for investigating lipid membranes. In particular, localizing certain receptor lipids such as glycosphingolipids within phase-separated membranes is of pivotal interest to understanding the influence of protein-receptor lipid binding on membrane organization. However, fluorescent labeling can readily alter the phase behavior of a lipid membrane because of the interaction of the fluorescent moiety with the membrane interface. Here, we investigated Gb3 glycosphingolipids, serving as receptor lipids for the protein Shiga toxin, with a headgroup attached BODIPY fluorophore separated by a polyethylene glycol (PEG) spacer of different lengths. We found that the diffusion coefficients of the fluorescently labeled Gb3 species in 1,2-dioleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine/Gb3 (98:2, n/n) supported lipid bilayers are unaltered by the PEG spacer length. However, quenching as well as graphene-induced energy transfer experiments indicated that the length of the PEG spacer (n = 3 and n = 13) alters the position of the BODIPY fluorophore. In particular, the graphene-induced energy transfer technique provided accurate end-to-end distances between the fluorophores in the two leaflets of the bilayer thus enabling us to quantify the distance between the membrane interface and the fluorophore with sub-nanometer resolution. The spacer with three oligo ethylene glycol groups positioned the BODIPY fluorophore directly at the membrane interface favoring its interaction with the bilayer and thus may disturb lipid packing. However, the longer PEG spacer (n = 13) separated the BODIPY moiety from the membrane surface by 1.5 nm.

Exploring the Synergies of Single-Molecule Fluorescence and 2D Materials Coupled by DNA

The world of 2D materials is steadily growing, with numerous researchers attempting to discover, elucidate, and exploit their properties. Approaches relying on the detection of single fluorescent molecules offer a set of advantages, for instance, high sensitivity and specificity, that allow the drawing of conclusions with unprecedented precision. Herein, it is argued how the study of 2D materials benefits from fluorescence-based single-molecule modalities, and vice versa. A special focus is placed on DNA, serving as a versatile adaptor when anchoring single dye molecules to 2D materials. The existing literature on the fruitful combination of the two fields is reviewed, and an outlook on the additional synergies that can be created between them provided.

Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) based luminescent and electrochemical sensors for food contaminant detection

With the increasing population, food toxicity has become a prevalent concern due to the growing contaminants of food products. Therefore, the need for new materials for toxicant detection and food quality monitoring will always be in demand. Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) based on luminescence and electrochemical sensors with tunable porosity and active surface area are promising materials for food contaminants monitoring. This review summarizes and studies the most recent progress on MOF sensors for detecting food contaminants such as pesticides, antibiotics, toxins, biomolecules, and ionic species. First, with the introduction of MOFs, food contaminants and materials for toxicants detection are discussed. Then the insights into the MOFs as emerging materials for sensing applications with luminescent and electrochemical properties, signal changes, and sensing mechanisms are discussed. Next, recent advances in luminescent and electrochemical MOFs food sensors and their sensitivity, selectivity, and capacities for common food toxicants are summarized. Further, the challenges and outlooks are discussed for providing a new pathway for MOF food contaminant detection tools. Overall, a timely source of information on advanced MOF materials provides materials for next-generation food sensors.

Metal-Induced Energy Transfer (MIET) for Live-Cell Imaging with Fluorescent Proteins

Metal-induced energy transfer (MIET) imaging is an easy-to-implement super-resolution modality that achieves nanometer resolution along the optical axis of a microscope. Although its capability in numerous biological and biophysical studies has been demonstrated, its implementation for live-cell imaging with fluorescent proteins is still lacking. Here, we present its applicability and capabilities for live-cell imaging with fluorescent proteins in diverse cell types (adult human stem cells, human osteo-sarcoma cells, and Dictyostelium discoideum cells), and with various fluorescent proteins (GFP, mScarlet, RFP, YPet). We show that MIET imaging achieves nanometer axial mapping of living cellular and subcellular components across multiple time scales, from a few milliseconds to hours, with negligible phototoxic effects.

Cholesterol-Induced Nanoscale Variations in the Thickness of Phospholipid Membranes

Graphene-induced energy transfer (GIET) is a recently developed fluorescence-spectroscopic technique that achieves subnanometric optical localization of fluorophores along the optical axis of a microscope. GIET is based on the near-field energy transfer from an optically excited fluorescent molecule to a single sheet of graphene. It has been successfully used for estimating interleaflet distances of single lipid bilayers and for investigating the membrane organization of living mitochondria. In this study, we use GIET to measure the cholesterol-induced subtle changes of membrane thickness at the nanoscale. We quantify membrane thickness variations in supported lipid bilayers (SLBs) as a function of lipid composition and increasing cholesterol content. Our findings demonstrate that GIET is an extremely sensitive tool for investigating nanometric structural changes in biomembranes.

Role of Förster Resonance Energy Transfer in Graphene-Based Nanomaterials for Sensing

Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET)-based fluorescence sensing of various target analytes has been of growing interest in the environmental, bioimaging, and diagnosis fields. Graphene-based zero- (0D) to two-dimensional (2D) nanomaterials, such as graphene quantum dots (GQDs), graphene oxide (GO), reduced graphene oxide (rGO), and graphdiyne (GD), can potentially be employed as donors/acceptors in FRET-based sensing approaches because of their unique electronic and photoluminescent properties. In this review, we discuss the basics of FRET, as well as the role of graphene-based nanomaterials (GQDs, GO, rGO, and GD) for sensing various analytes, including cations, amino acids, explosives, pesticides, biomolecules, bacteria, and viruses. In addition, the graphene-based nanomaterial sensing strategy could be applied in environmental sample analyses, and the reason for the lower detection ranges (micro- to pico-molar concentration) could also be explained in detail. Challenges and future directions for designing nanomaterials with a new sensing approach and better sensing performance will also be highlighted.

An alternative to MINFLUX that enables nanometer resolution in a confocal microscope

Localization of single fluorescent emitters is key for physicochemical and biophysical measurements at the nanoscale and beyond ensemble averaging. Examples include single-molecule tracking and super-resolution imaging by single-molecule localization microscopy. Among the numerous localization methods available, MINFLUX outstands for achieving a ~10-fold improvement in resolution over wide-field camera-based approaches, reaching the molecular scale at moderate photon counts. Widespread application of MINFLUX and related methods has been hindered by the technical complexity of the setups. Here, we present RASTMIN, a single-molecule localization method based on raster scanning a light pattern comprising a minimum of intensity. RASTMIN delivers ~1-2 nm localization precision with usual fluorophores and is easily implementable on a standard confocal microscope with few modifications. We demonstrate the performance of RASTMIN in localization of single molecules and super-resolution imaging of DNA origami structures.

Isotropic three-dimensional dual-color super-resolution microscopy with metal-induced energy transfer

Over the past two decades, super-resolution microscopy has seen a tremendous development in speed and resolution, but for most of its methods, there exists a remarkable gap between lateral and axial resolution, which is by a factor of 2 to 3 worse. One recently developed method to close this gap is metal-induced energy transfer (MIET) imaging, which achieves an axial resolution down to nanometers. It exploits the distance-dependent quenching of fluorescence when a fluorescent molecule is brought close to a metal surface. In the present manuscript, we combine the extreme axial resolution of MIET imaging with the extraordinary lateral resolution of single-molecule localization microscopy, in particular with direct stochastic optical reconstruction microscopy (dSTORM). This combination allows us to achieve isotropic three-dimensional super-resolution imaging of subcellular structures. Moreover, we used spectral demixing for implementing dual-color MIET-dSTORM that allows us to image and colocalize, in three dimensions, two different cellular structures simultaneously.

Lifetime based axial contrast enable simple 3D-STED imaging

Stimulated Emission Depletion (STED) microscopy increase spatial image resolution by laterally sharpening the illumination profile of the confocal microscope. However, it remains compromised in axial resolution. To improve axial STED resolution, constructive interference of the STED depletion beam must be formed surrounding the focal plane to turn off the fluorophores beyond the focal plane. For isotropic 3D-STED resolution, this axial STED interference pattern must be overlayed with the doughnut STED beam at nanometer accuracy. Such optical configurations can be challenging in alignment. In this current work, we introduced a straightforward lifetime based axial contrast in STED microscope by imaging the samples on an ITO coated glass coverslip. The STED laser generates surface plasmon resonance on the ITO surface that enhanced the metal induced energy transfer MIET effect on the ITO surface. The enhanced MIET effect established a lifetime gradient with ~20% dynamic range that extend for mor than 400 nm from the ITO surface. The axial contrast based on the lifetime gradient was directly used for 3D-STED imaging of tubulin fibers inside COS-7 cells, where the vertical displacement of single tubulin fiber was revealed. Lifetime gating could be applied to further improve lateral spatial resolution. Considering that most common implementation of STED microscopes uses pulsed lasers and timing electronics, there is no optical modification of the microscope is required in the current 3D-STED approach.

Influence of ROCK Pathway Manipulation on the Actin Cytoskeleton Height

The actin cytoskeleton with its dynamic properties serves as the driving force for the movement and division of cells and gives the cell shape and structure. Disorders in the actin cytoskeleton occur in many diseases. Deeper understanding of its regulation is essential in order to better understand these biochemical processes. In our study, we use metal-induced energy transfer (MIET) as a tool to quantitatively examine the rarely considered third dimension of the actin cytoskeleton with nanometer accuracy. In particular, we investigate the influence of different drugs acting on the ROCK pathway on the three-dimensional actin organization. We find that cells treated with inhibitors have a lower actin height to the substrate while treatment with a stimulator for the ROCK pathway increases the actin height to the substrate, while the height of the membrane remains unchanged. This reveals the precise tuning of adhesion and cytoskeleton tension, which leads to a rich three-dimensional structural behaviour of the actin cytoskeleton. This finetuning is differentially affected by either inhibition or stimulation. The high axial resolution shows the importance of the precise finetuning of the actin cytoskeleton and the disturbed regulation of the ROCK pathway has a significant impact on the actin behavior in the z dimension.

Advanced Data Analysis for Fluorescence-Lifetime Single-Molecule Localization Microscopy

Fluorescence-lifetime single molecule localization microscopy (FL-SMLM) adds the lifetime dimension to the spatial super-resolution provided by SMLM. Independent of intensity and spectrum, this lifetime information can be used, for example, to quantify the energy transfer efficiency in Förster Resonance Energy Transfer (FRET) imaging, to probe the local environment with dyes that change their lifetime in an environment-sensitive manner, or to achieve image multiplexing by using dyes with different lifetimes. We present a thorough theoretical analysis of fluorescence-lifetime determination in the context of FL-SMLM and compare different lifetime-fitting approaches. In particular, we investigate the impact of background and noise, and give clear guidelines for procedures that are optimized for FL-SMLM. We do also present and discuss our public-domain software package “Fluorescence-Lifetime TrackNTrace,” which converts recorded fluorescence microscopy movies into super-resolved FL-SMLM images.

Super-resolution FRET measurements

Super-resolution fluorescence microscopy and Förster Resonance Energy Transfer (FRET) form a well-established family of techniques that has provided unique tools to study the dynamic architecture and functionality of biological systems, as well as to investigate nanomaterials. In the last years, the integration of super-resolution methods with FRET measurements has generated advances in two fronts. On the one hand, FRET-based probes have enhanced super-resolution imaging. On the other, the development of super-resolved FRET imaging methods has allowed the visualization of molecular interaction patterns with higher spatial resolution, less averaging and higher dynamic range. Here, we review these advances and discuss future perspectives, including the possible integration of FRET with next generation super-resolution techniques capable of reaching true molecular-scale spatial resolution.

Measurement methods of single cell drug response

In the last decades, a wide multitude of research activity has been focused on the development of new drugs, and devoted to overcome the challenges of high cost and low efficiency in drug evaluation. The measurement of drug response at the single cell level is a quicker, more direct and more accurate way to reflect drug efficacy, which can shorten the drug development period and reduce research costs. Therefore, the single cell drug response (SCDR) measurement technology has aroused extensive attention from researchers, and has become a hot topic in the fields of drug research and cell biology. Recent years have seen the emergence of various SCDR measurement technologies that feature different working principles and different levels of measurement performance. To better examine, compare and summarize the characteristics and functions of these technologies, we select signal-to-noise ratio, throughput, content, invasion, and device complexity as the criteria to evaluate them from the drug efficacy perspective. This review aims to highlight sixteen kinds of SCDR measurement technologies, including patch-clamp technique, live-cell interferometry, capillary electrophoresis, secondary ion mass spectrometry, and more, and report widespread representative examples of SCDR measurement the recent approaches for over the past forty years. Based on their reaction principles, these technologies are classified into four categories: electrical, optical, electrochemical, and mass spectrometry, and a detailed comparison is made between them. After in-depth understanding of these technologies, it is expected to improve or integrate these technologies to propose better SCDR measurement strategies, and explore methods in new drug development and screening, as well as disease diagnosis and treatment.

Mapping Activity-Dependent Quasi-stationary States of Mitochondrial Membranes with Graphene-Induced Energy Transfer Imaging

Graphene-induced energy transfer (GIET) was recently introduced for sub-nanometric axial localization of fluorescent molecules. GIET relies on near-field energy transfer from an optically excited fluorophore to a single sheet of graphene. Recently, we demonstrated its potential by determining the distance between two leaflets of supported lipid bilayers. Here, we use GIET imaging for mapping quasi-stationary states of the inner and outer mitochondrial membranes before and during adenosine triphosphate (ATP) synthesis. We trigger the ATP synthesis state in vitro by activating mitochondria with precursor molecules. Our results demonstrate that the inner membrane approaches the outer membrane, while the outer membrane does not show any measurable change in average axial position upon activation. The inter-membrane space is reduced by ∼2 nm. This direct experimental observation of the subtle dynamics of mitochondrial membranes and the change in intermembrane distance upon activation is relevant for our understanding of mitochondrial function.