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Sung KC, Wang LY, Wang CC, Chu CH, Sun HS, Hsiao YH. Enhanced hippocampal TIAM2S expression alleviates cognitive deficits in Alzheimer's disease model mice. Pharmacol Rep 2024; 76:1032-1043. [PMID: 39012419 DOI: 10.1007/s43440-024-00623-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2023] [Revised: 06/27/2024] [Accepted: 06/27/2024] [Indexed: 07/17/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Dendritic spine dysfunction is a key feature of Alzheimer's disease (AD) pathogenesis. Human T-cell lymphoma invasion and metastasis 2 (TIAM2) is expressed in two isoforms, the full length (TIAM2L) and a short transcript (TIAM2S). Compared to TIAM2L protein, which is undetectable, TIAM2S protein is abundant in human brain tissue, especially the hippocampus, and can promote neurite outgrowth in our previous findings. However, whether enhanced hippocampal TIAM2S expression can alleviate cognitive deficits in Alzheimer's disease model mice remains unclear. METHODS We crossbred 3xTg-AD with TIAM2S mice to generate an AD mouse model that carries the human TIAM2S gene (3xTg-AD/TIAM2S mice). The Morris water maze and object location tests assessed hippocampus-dependent spatial memory. Lentiviral-driven shRNA or cDNA approaches were used to manipulate hippocampal TIAM2S expression. Golgi staining and Sholl analysis were utilized to measure neuronal dendrites and dendritic spines in the mouse hippocampi. RESULTS Compared to 3xTg-AD mice, 3xTg-AD/TIAM2S mice displayed improved cognitive functions. According to the hippocampus is one of the earliest affected brain regions by AD, we further injected TIAM2S shRNA or TIAM2S cDNA into mouse hippocampi to confirm whether manipulating hippocampal TIAM2S expression could affect AD-related cognitive functions. The results showed that the reduced hippocampal TIAM2S expression in 3xTg-AD/TIAM2S mice abolished the memory improvement effect, whereas increased hippocampal TIAM2S levels alleviated cognitive deficits in 3xTg-AD mice. Furthermore, we found that TIAM2S-mediated memory improvement was achieved by regulating dendritic plasticity. CONCLUSIONS These results will provide new insights into connecting TIAM2S with AD and support the notion that TIAM2S should be investigated as potential AD therapeutic targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kuan-Chin Sung
- Department of Neurosurgery, Chi-Mei Medical Center, 901 Chung Hwa Road, Yung Kang City, Tainan, Taiwan
| | - Li-Yun Wang
- Department of Pharmacology, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, 70101, Taiwan
| | - Che-Chuan Wang
- Department of Neurosurgery, Chi-Mei Medical Center, 901 Chung Hwa Road, Yung Kang City, Tainan, Taiwan
| | - Chun-Hsien Chu
- Institute of Molecular Medicine, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan
- Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan
| | - H Sunny Sun
- Institute of Molecular Medicine, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan
- Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan
| | - Ya-Hsin Hsiao
- Department of Pharmacology, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, 70101, Taiwan.
- Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan.
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Chen AM, Gajdošík M, Ahmed W, Ahn S, Babb JS, Blessing EM, Boutajangout A, de Leon MJ, Debure L, Gaggi N, Gajdošík M, George A, Ghuman M, Glodzik L, Harvey P, Juchem C, Marsh K, Peralta R, Rusinek H, Sheriff S, Vedvyas A, Wisniewski T, Zheng H, Osorio R, Kirov II. Retrospective analysis of Braak stage- and APOE4 allele-dependent associations between MR spectroscopy and markers of tau and neurodegeneration in cognitively unimpaired elderly. Neuroimage 2024; 297:120742. [PMID: 39029606 PMCID: PMC11404707 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2024.120742] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2024] [Revised: 06/28/2024] [Accepted: 07/16/2024] [Indexed: 07/21/2024] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE The pathological hallmarks of Alzheimer's disease (AD), amyloid, tau, and associated neurodegeneration, are present in the cortical gray matter (GM) years before symptom onset, and at significantly greater levels in carriers of the apolipoprotein E4 (APOE4) allele. Their respective biomarkers, A/T/N, have been found to correlate with aspects of brain biochemistry, measured with magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS), indicating a potential for MRS to augment the A/T/N framework for staging and prediction of AD. Unfortunately, the relationships between MRS and A/T/N biomarkers are unclear, largely due to a lack of studies examining them in the context of the spatial and temporal model of T/N progression. Advanced MRS acquisition and post-processing approaches have enabled us to address this knowledge gap and test the hypotheses, that glutamate-plus-glutamine (Glx) and N-acetyl-aspartate (NAA), metabolites reflecting synaptic and neuronal health, respectively, measured from regions on the Braak stage continuum, correlate with: (i) cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) p-tau181 level (T), and (ii) hippocampal volume or cortical thickness of parietal lobe GM (N). We hypothesized that these correlations will be moderated by Braak stage and APOE4 genotype. METHODS We conducted a retrospective imaging study of 34 cognitively unimpaired elderly individuals who received APOE4 genotyping and lumbar puncture from pre-existing prospective studies at the NYU Grossman School of Medicine between October 2014 and January 2019. Subjects returned for their imaging exam between April 2018 and February 2020. Metabolites were measured from the left hippocampus (Braak II) using a single-voxel semi-adiabatic localization by adiabatic selective refocusing sequence; and from the bilateral posterior cingulate cortex (PCC; Braak IV), bilateral precuneus (Braak V), and bilateral precentral gyrus (Braak VI) using a multi-voxel echo-planar spectroscopic imaging sequence. Pearson and Spearman correlations were used to examine the relationships between absolute levels of choline, creatine, myo-inositol, Glx, and NAA and CSF p-tau181, and between these metabolites and hippocampal volume or parietal cortical thicknesses. Covariates included age, sex, years of education, Fazekas score, and months between CSF collection and MRI exam. RESULTS There was a direct correlation between hippocampal Glx and CSF p-tau181 in APOE4 carriers (Pearson's r = 0.76, p = 0.02), but not after adjusting for covariates. In the entire cohort, there was a direct correlation between hippocampal NAA and hippocampal volume (Spearman's r = 0.55, p = 0.001), even after adjusting for age and Fazekas score (Spearman's r = 0.48, p = 0.006). This relationship was observed only in APOE4 carriers (Pearson's r = 0.66, p = 0.017), and was also retained after adjustment (Pearson's r = 0.76, p = 0.008; metabolite-by-carrier interaction p = 0.03). There were no findings in the PCC, nor in the negative control (late Braak stage) regions of the precuneus and precentral gyrus. CONCLUSIONS Our findings are in line with the spatially- and temporally-resolved Braak staging model of pathological severity in which the hippocampus is affected earlier than the PCC. The correlations, between MRS markers of synaptic and neuronal health and, respectively, T and N pathology, were found exclusively within APOE4 carriers, suggesting a connection with AD pathological change, rather than with normal aging. We therefore conclude that MRS has the potential to augment early A/T/N staging, with the hippocampus serving as a more sensitive MRS target compared to the PCC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna M Chen
- Bernard and Irene Schwartz Center for Biomedical Imaging, Department of Radiology, NYU Grossman School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA; Center for Advanced Imaging Innovation and Research (CAI(2)R), Department of Radiology, NYU Grossman School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA; Vilcek Institute of Graduate Biomedical Sciences, NYU Grossman School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | - Martin Gajdošík
- Bernard and Irene Schwartz Center for Biomedical Imaging, Department of Radiology, NYU Grossman School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA; Center for Advanced Imaging Innovation and Research (CAI(2)R), Department of Radiology, NYU Grossman School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA; Department of Biomedical Engineering, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Wajiha Ahmed
- Center for Cognitive Neurology, Department of Neurology, NYU Grossman School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | - Sinyeob Ahn
- Siemens Medical Solutions USA Inc., Malvern, PA, USA
| | - James S Babb
- Bernard and Irene Schwartz Center for Biomedical Imaging, Department of Radiology, NYU Grossman School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA; Center for Advanced Imaging Innovation and Research (CAI(2)R), Department of Radiology, NYU Grossman School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | - Esther M Blessing
- Department of Psychiatry, NYU Grossman School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA; Healthy Brain Aging and Sleep Center, NYU Langone Health, New York, NY, USA
| | - Allal Boutajangout
- Center for Cognitive Neurology, Department of Neurology, NYU Grossman School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA; Department of Neuroscience and Physiology, NYU Grossman School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | - Mony J de Leon
- Retired Director, Center for Brain Health, Department of Psychiatry, NYU Grossman School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA; Brain Health Imaging Institute, Department of Radiology, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | - Ludovic Debure
- Center for Cognitive Neurology, Department of Neurology, NYU Grossman School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | - Naomi Gaggi
- Department of Psychiatry, NYU Grossman School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA; Healthy Brain Aging and Sleep Center, NYU Langone Health, New York, NY, USA
| | - Mia Gajdošík
- Bernard and Irene Schwartz Center for Biomedical Imaging, Department of Radiology, NYU Grossman School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA; Center for Advanced Imaging Innovation and Research (CAI(2)R), Department of Radiology, NYU Grossman School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | - Ajax George
- Bernard and Irene Schwartz Center for Biomedical Imaging, Department of Radiology, NYU Grossman School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA; Center for Advanced Imaging Innovation and Research (CAI(2)R), Department of Radiology, NYU Grossman School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | - Mobeena Ghuman
- Center for Cognitive Neurology, Department of Neurology, NYU Grossman School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | - Lidia Glodzik
- Brain Health Imaging Institute, Department of Radiology, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | - Patrick Harvey
- Brain Health Imaging Institute, Department of Radiology, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | - Christoph Juchem
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA; Department of Radiology, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Karyn Marsh
- Center for Cognitive Neurology, Department of Neurology, NYU Grossman School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | - Rosemary Peralta
- Bernard and Irene Schwartz Center for Biomedical Imaging, Department of Radiology, NYU Grossman School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA; Center for Advanced Imaging Innovation and Research (CAI(2)R), Department of Radiology, NYU Grossman School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | - Henry Rusinek
- Bernard and Irene Schwartz Center for Biomedical Imaging, Department of Radiology, NYU Grossman School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA; Center for Advanced Imaging Innovation and Research (CAI(2)R), Department of Radiology, NYU Grossman School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | - Sulaiman Sheriff
- Department of Radiology, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, USA
| | - Alok Vedvyas
- Center for Cognitive Neurology, Department of Neurology, NYU Grossman School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | - Thomas Wisniewski
- Center for Cognitive Neurology, Department of Neurology, NYU Grossman School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA; Department of Psychiatry, NYU Grossman School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA; Department of Pathology, NYU Grossman School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | - Helena Zheng
- Bernard and Irene Schwartz Center for Biomedical Imaging, Department of Radiology, NYU Grossman School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA; Center for Advanced Imaging Innovation and Research (CAI(2)R), Department of Radiology, NYU Grossman School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | - Ricardo Osorio
- Department of Psychiatry, NYU Grossman School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA; Healthy Brain Aging and Sleep Center, NYU Langone Health, New York, NY, USA.
| | - Ivan I Kirov
- Bernard and Irene Schwartz Center for Biomedical Imaging, Department of Radiology, NYU Grossman School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA; Center for Advanced Imaging Innovation and Research (CAI(2)R), Department of Radiology, NYU Grossman School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA; Vilcek Institute of Graduate Biomedical Sciences, NYU Grossman School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA; Center for Cognitive Neurology, Department of Neurology, NYU Grossman School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA; Department of Neurology, NYU Grossman School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA.
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Amland R, Selbæk G, Brækhus A, Edwin TH, Engedal K, Knapskog AB, Olsrud ER, Persson K. Clinically feasible automated MRI volumetry of the brain as a prognostic marker in subjective and mild cognitive impairment. Front Neurol 2024; 15:1425502. [PMID: 39011362 PMCID: PMC11248186 DOI: 10.3389/fneur.2024.1425502] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2024] [Accepted: 06/11/2024] [Indexed: 07/17/2024] Open
Abstract
Background/aims The number of patients suffering from cognitive decline and dementia increases, and new possible treatments are being developed. Thus, the need for time efficient and cost-effective methods to facilitate an early diagnosis and prediction of future cognitive decline in patients with early cognitive symptoms is becoming increasingly important. The aim of this study was to evaluate whether an MRI based software, NeuroQuant® (NQ), producing volumetry of the hippocampus and whole brain volume (WBV) could predict: (1) conversion from subjective cognitive decline (SCD) at baseline to mild cognitive impairment (MCI) or dementia at follow-up, and from MCI at baseline to dementia at follow-up and (2) progression of cognitive and functional decline defined as an annual increase in the Clinical Dementia Rating Scale Sum of Boxes (CDR-SB) score. Methods MRI was performed in 156 patients with SCD or MCI from the memory clinic at Oslo University Hospital (OUH) that had been assessed with NQ and had a clinical follow-up examination. Logistic and linear regression analyses were performed with hippocampus volume and WBV as independent variables, and conversion or progression as dependent variables, adjusting for demographic and other relevant covariates including Mini-Mental State Examination-Norwegian Revised Version score (MMSE-NR) and Apolipoprotein E ɛ4 (APOE ɛ4) carrier status. Results Hippocampus volume, but not WBV, was associated with conversion to MCI or dementia, but neither were associated with conversion when adjusting for MMSE-NR. Both hippocampus volume and WBV were associated with progression as measured by the annual change in CDR-SB score in both unadjusted and adjusted analyses. Conclusion The results indicate that automated regional MRI volumetry of the hippocampus and WBV can be useful in predicting further cognitive decline in patients with early cognitive symptoms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachel Amland
- The Norwegian National Centre for Ageing and Health, Vestfold Hospital Trust, Tønsberg, Norway
- Department of Geriatric Medicine, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway
- Faculty of Medicine, Institute of Health and Society, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Geir Selbæk
- The Norwegian National Centre for Ageing and Health, Vestfold Hospital Trust, Tønsberg, Norway
- Department of Geriatric Medicine, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway
- Faculty of Medicine, Institute of Clinical Medicine, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Anne Brækhus
- The Norwegian National Centre for Ageing and Health, Vestfold Hospital Trust, Tønsberg, Norway
- Department of Geriatric Medicine, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway
- Department of Neurology, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway
| | - Trine H. Edwin
- Department of Geriatric Medicine, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway
| | - Knut Engedal
- The Norwegian National Centre for Ageing and Health, Vestfold Hospital Trust, Tønsberg, Norway
| | | | - Ellen Regine Olsrud
- Department of Radiography Ullevål, Division of Radiology and Nuclear Medicine, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway
| | - Karin Persson
- The Norwegian National Centre for Ageing and Health, Vestfold Hospital Trust, Tønsberg, Norway
- Department of Geriatric Medicine, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway
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Lee EY, Kim J, Prado-Rico JM, Du G, Lewis MM, Kong L, Yanosky JD, Eslinger P, Kim BG, Hong YS, Mailman RB, Huang X. Effects of mixed metal exposures on MRI diffusion features in the medial temporal lobe. MEDRXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR HEALTH SCIENCES 2024:2023.07.18.23292828. [PMID: 37503124 PMCID: PMC10371112 DOI: 10.1101/2023.07.18.23292828] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/29/2023]
Abstract
Background Environmental exposure to metal mixtures is common and may be associated with increased risk for neurodegenerative disorders including Alzheimer's disease. Objective This study examined associations of mixed metal exposures with medial temporal lobe (MTL) MRI structural metrics and neuropsychological performance. Methods Metal exposure history, whole blood metal, and neuropsychological tests were obtained from subjects with/without a history of mixed metal exposure from welding fumes (42 exposed subjects; 31 controls). MTL structures (hippocampus, entorhinal and parahippocampal cortices) were assessed by morphologic (volume, cortical thickness) and diffusion tensor imaging [mean (MD), axial (AD), radial diffusivity (RD), and fractional anisotropy (FA)] metrics. In exposed subjects, correlation, multiple linear, Bayesian kernel machine regression, and mediation analyses were employed to examine effects of single- or mixed-metal predictor(s) and their interactions on MTL structural and neuropsychological metrics; and on the path from metal exposure to neuropsychological consequences. Results Compared to controls, exposed subjects had higher blood Cu, Fe, K, Mn, Pb, Se, and Zn levels (p's<0.026) and poorer performance in processing/psychomotor speed, executive, and visuospatial domains (p's<0.046). Exposed subjects displayed higher MD, AD, and RD in all MTL ROIs (p's<0.040) and lower FA in entorhinal and parahippocampal cortices (p's<0.033), but not morphological differences. Long-term mixed-metal exposure history indirectly predicted lower processing speed performance via lower parahippocampal FA (p=0.023). Higher whole blood Mn and Cu predicted higher entorhinal diffusivity (p's<0.043) and lower Delayed Story Recall performance (p=0.007) without overall metal mixture or interaction effects. Discussion Mixed metal exposure predicted MTL structural and neuropsychological features that are similar to Alzheimer's disease at-risk populations. These data warrant follow-up as they may illuminate the path for environmental exposure to Alzheimer's disease-related health outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eun-Young Lee
- Department of Health Care and Science, Dong-A University, Busan, South-Korea
| | - Juhee Kim
- Department of Health Care and Science, Dong-A University, Busan, South-Korea
| | - Janina Manzieri Prado-Rico
- Department of Neurology, Pennsylvania State University-Milton S. Hershey Medical Center, Hershey PA 17033, USA
| | - Guangwei Du
- Department of Neurology, Pennsylvania State University-Milton S. Hershey Medical Center, Hershey PA 17033, USA
| | - Mechelle M. Lewis
- Department of Neurology, Pennsylvania State University-Milton S. Hershey Medical Center, Hershey PA 17033, USA
- Department of Pharmacology, Pennsylvania State University-Milton S. Hershey Medical Center, Hershey PA 17033, USA
| | - Lan Kong
- Department of Public Health Sciences, Pennsylvania State University-Milton S. Hershey Medical Center, Hershey PA 17033, USA
| | - Jeff D. Yanosky
- Department of Public Health Sciences, Pennsylvania State University-Milton S. Hershey Medical Center, Hershey PA 17033, USA
| | - Paul Eslinger
- Department of Neurology, Pennsylvania State University-Milton S. Hershey Medical Center, Hershey PA 17033, USA
| | - Byoung-Gwon Kim
- Department of Preventive Medicine, College of Medicine, Dong-A University, Busan, South Korea
| | - Young-Seoub Hong
- Department of Preventive Medicine, College of Medicine, Dong-A University, Busan, South Korea
| | - Richard B. Mailman
- Department of Neurology, Pennsylvania State University-Milton S. Hershey Medical Center, Hershey PA 17033, USA
- Department of Pharmacology, Pennsylvania State University-Milton S. Hershey Medical Center, Hershey PA 17033, USA
| | - Xuemei Huang
- Department of Neurology, Pennsylvania State University-Milton S. Hershey Medical Center, Hershey PA 17033, USA
- Department of Pharmacology, Pennsylvania State University-Milton S. Hershey Medical Center, Hershey PA 17033, USA
- Department of Radiology, Pennsylvania State University-Milton S. Hershey Medical Center, Hershey PA 17033, USA
- Department of Neurosurgery, Pennsylvania State University-Milton S. Hershey Medical Center, Hershey PA 17033, USA
- Department of Kinesiology, Pennsylvania State University-Milton S. Hershey Medical Center, Hershey PA 17033, USA
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Rafii MS, Aisen PS. Detection and treatment of Alzheimer's disease in its preclinical stage. NATURE AGING 2023; 3:520-531. [PMID: 37202518 PMCID: PMC11110912 DOI: 10.1038/s43587-023-00410-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2022] [Accepted: 03/29/2023] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Longitudinal multimodal biomarker studies reveal that the continuum of Alzheimer's disease (AD) includes a long latent phase, referred to as preclinical AD, which precedes the onset of symptoms by decades. Treatment during the preclinical AD phase offers an optimal opportunity for slowing the progression of disease. However, trial design in this population is complex. In this Review, we discuss the recent advances in accurate plasma measurements, new recruitment approaches, sensitive cognitive instruments and self-reported outcomes that have facilitated the successful launch of multiple phase 3 trials for preclinical AD. The recent success of anti-amyloid immunotherapy trials in symptomatic AD has increased the enthusiasm for testing this strategy at the earliest feasible stage. We provide an outlook for standard screening of amyloid accumulation at the preclinical stage in clinically normal individuals, during which effective therapy to delay or prevent cognitive decline can be initiated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael S Rafii
- Alzheimer's Therapeutic Research Institute, Keck School of Medicine University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA.
| | - Paul S Aisen
- Alzheimer's Therapeutic Research Institute, Keck School of Medicine University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
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Müller MLTM, Stephenson DT. Leveraging the regulatory framework to facilitate drug development in Parkinson's disease. HANDBOOK OF CLINICAL NEUROLOGY 2023; 193:347-360. [PMID: 36803822 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-323-85555-6.00015-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/18/2023]
Abstract
There is an exigent need for disease-modifying and symptomatic treatment approaches for Parkinson's disease. A better understanding of Parkinson's disease pathophysiology and new insights in genetics has opened exciting new venues for pharmacological treatment targets. There are, however, many challenges on the path from discovery to drug approval. These challenges revolve around appropriate endpoint selection, the lack of accurate biomarkers, challenges with diagnostic accuracy, and other challenges commonly encountered by drug developers. The regulatory health authorities, however, have provided tools to provide guidance for drug development and to assist with these challenges. The main goal of the Critical Path for Parkinson's Consortium, a nonprofit public-private partnership part of the Critical Path Institute, is to advance these so-called drug development tools for Parkinson's disease trials. The focus of this chapter will be on how the health regulators' tools were successfully leveraged to facilitate drug development in Parkinson's disease and other neurodegenerative diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martijn L T M Müller
- Critical Path for Parkinson's Consortium - Critical Path Institute, Tucson, AZ, United States.
| | - Diane T Stephenson
- Critical Path for Parkinson's Consortium - Critical Path Institute, Tucson, AZ, United States
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The Molecular Effects of Environmental Enrichment on Alzheimer's Disease. Mol Neurobiol 2022; 59:7095-7118. [PMID: 36083518 PMCID: PMC9616781 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-022-03016-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2022] [Accepted: 08/23/2022] [Indexed: 12/02/2022]
Abstract
Environmental enrichment (EE) is an environmental paradigm encompassing sensory, cognitive, and physical stimulation at a heightened level. Previous studies have reported the beneficial effects of EE in the brain, particularly in the hippocampus. EE improves cognitive function as well as ameliorates depressive and anxiety-like behaviors, making it a potentially effective neuroprotective strategy against neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's disease (AD). Here, we summarize the current evidence for EE as a neuroprotective strategy as well as the potential molecular pathways that can explain the effects of EE from a biochemical perspective using animal models. The effectiveness of EE in enhancing brain activity against neurodegeneration is explored with a view to differences present in early and late life EE exposure, with its potential application in human being discussed. We discuss EE as one of the non pharmacological approaches in preventing or delaying the onset of AD for future research.
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Esmaili Z, Naseh M, Karimi F, Moosavi M. A stereological study reveals nanoscale-alumina induces cognitive dysfunction in mice related to hippocampal structural changes. Neurotoxicology 2022; 91:245-253. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuro.2022.05.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2021] [Revised: 04/24/2022] [Accepted: 05/16/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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9
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Gómez-Ramírez J, Fernández-Blázquez MA, González-Rosa JJ. Prediction of Chronological Age in Healthy Elderly Subjects with Machine Learning from MRI Brain Segmentation and Cortical Parcellation. Brain Sci 2022; 12:brainsci12050579. [PMID: 35624966 PMCID: PMC9139275 DOI: 10.3390/brainsci12050579] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2022] [Revised: 04/19/2022] [Accepted: 04/23/2022] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Normal aging is associated with changes in volumetric indices of brain atrophy. A quantitative understanding of age-related brain changes can shed light on successful aging. To investigate the effect of age on global and regional brain volumes and cortical thickness, 3514 magnetic resonance imaging scans were analyzed using automated brain segmentation and parcellation methods in elderly healthy individuals (69–88 years of age). The machine learning algorithm extreme gradient boosting (XGBoost) achieved a mean absolute error of 2 years in predicting the age of new subjects. Feature importance analysis showed that the brain-to-intracranial-volume ratio is the most important feature in predicting age, followed by the hippocampi volumes. The cortical thickness in temporal and parietal lobes showed a superior predictive value than frontal and occipital lobes. Insights from this approach that integrate model prediction and interpretation may help to shorten the current explanatory gap between chronological age and biological brain age.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jaime Gómez-Ramírez
- Institute of Biomedical Research Cadiz (INiBICA), Universidad de Cádiz, 11003 Cádiz, Spain;
- Correspondence:
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Zamani J, Sadr A, Javadi AH. Diagnosis of early mild cognitive impairment using a multiobjective optimization algorithm based on T1-MRI data. Sci Rep 2022; 12:1020. [PMID: 35046444 PMCID: PMC8770462 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-04943-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2021] [Accepted: 01/04/2022] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most prevalent form of dementia. The accurate diagnosis of AD, especially in the early phases is very important for timely intervention. It has been suggested that brain atrophy, as measured with structural magnetic resonance imaging (sMRI), can be an efficacy marker of neurodegeneration. While classification methods have been successful in diagnosis of AD, the performance of such methods have been very poor in diagnosis of those in early stages of mild cognitive impairment (EMCI). Therefore, in this study we investigated whether optimisation based on evolutionary algorithms (EA) can be an effective tool in diagnosis of EMCI as compared to cognitively normal participants (CNs). Structural MRI data for patients with EMCI (n = 54) and CN participants (n = 56) was extracted from Alzheimer's disease Neuroimaging Initiative (ADNI). Using three automatic brain segmentation methods, we extracted volumetric parameters as input to the optimisation algorithms. Our method achieved classification accuracy of greater than 93%. This accuracy level is higher than the previously suggested methods of classification of CN and EMCI using a single- or multiple modalities of imaging data. Our results show that with an effective optimisation method, a single modality of biomarkers can be enough to achieve a high classification accuracy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jafar Zamani
- School of Electrical Engineering, Iran University of Science and Technology, Narmak, Tehran, Iran
| | - Ali Sadr
- School of Electrical Engineering, Iran University of Science and Technology, Narmak, Tehran, Iran.
| | - Amir-Homayoun Javadi
- School of Psychology, Keynes College, University of Kent, Canterbury, UK.
- School of Rehabilitation, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.
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11
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Frank CJ, McNay EC. Breakdown of the blood-brain barrier: A mediator of increased Alzheimer's risk in patients with metabolic disorders? J Neuroendocrinol 2022; 34:e13074. [PMID: 34904299 PMCID: PMC8791015 DOI: 10.1111/jne.13074] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2021] [Revised: 11/12/2021] [Accepted: 11/26/2021] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Metabolic disorders (MDs), including type 1 and 2 diabetes and chronic obesity, are among the faster growing diseases globally and are a primary risk factor for Alzheimer's disease (AD). The term "type-3 diabetes" has been proposed for AD due to the interrelated cellular, metabolic, and immune features shared by diabetes, insulin resistance (IR), and the cognitive impairment and neurodegeneration found in AD. Patients with MDs and/or AD commonly exhibit altered glucose homeostasis and IR; systemic chronic inflammation encompassing all of the periphery, blood-brain barrier (BBB), and central nervous system; pathological vascular remodeling; and increased BBB permeability that allows transfusion of neurotoxic molecules from the blood to the brain. This review summarizes the components of the BBB, mechanisms through which MDs alter BBB permeability via immune and metabolic pathways, the contribution of BBB dysfunction to the manifestation and progression of AD, and current avenues of therapeutic research that address BBB permeability. In addition, issues with the translational applicability of current animal models of AD regarding BBB dysfunction and proposals for future directions of research that address the relationship between MDs, BBB dysfunction, and AD are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Corey J Frank
- Behavioral Neuroscience, University at Albany, SUNY, Albany, NY, USA
| | - Ewan C McNay
- Behavioral Neuroscience, University at Albany, SUNY, Albany, NY, USA
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12
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Wittens MMJ, Sima DM, Houbrechts R, Ribbens A, Niemantsverdriet E, Fransen E, Bastin C, Benoit F, Bergmans B, Bier JC, De Deyn PP, Deryck O, Hanseeuw B, Ivanoiu A, Lemper JC, Mormont E, Picard G, de la Rosa E, Salmon E, Segers K, Sieben A, Smeets D, Struyfs H, Thiery E, Tournoy J, Triau E, Vanbinst AM, Versijpt J, Bjerke M, Engelborghs S. Diagnostic Performance of Automated MRI Volumetry by icobrain dm for Alzheimer's Disease in a Clinical Setting: A REMEMBER Study. J Alzheimers Dis 2021; 83:623-639. [PMID: 34334402 PMCID: PMC8543261 DOI: 10.3233/jad-210450] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Background: Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) has become important in the diagnostic work-up of neurodegenerative diseases. icobrain dm, a CE-labeled and FDA-cleared automated brain volumetry software, has shown potential in differentiating cognitively healthy controls (HC) from Alzheimer’s disease (AD) dementia (ADD) patients in selected research cohorts. Objective: This study examines the diagnostic value of icobrain dm for AD in routine clinical practice, including a comparison to the widely used FreeSurfer software, and investigates if combined brain volumes contribute to establish an AD diagnosis. Methods: The study population included HC (n = 90), subjective cognitive decline (SCD, n = 93), mild cognitive impairment (MCI, n = 357), and ADD (n = 280) patients. Through automated volumetric analyses of global, cortical, and subcortical brain structures on clinical brain MRI T1w (n = 820) images from a retrospective, multi-center study (REMEMBER), icobrain dm’s (v.4.4.0) ability to differentiate disease stages via ROC analysis was compared to FreeSurfer (v.6.0). Stepwise backward regression models were constructed to investigate if combined brain volumes can differentiate between AD stages. Results: icobrain dm outperformed FreeSurfer in processing time (15–30 min versus 9–32 h), robustness (0 versus 67 failures), and diagnostic performance for whole brain, hippocampal volumes, and lateral ventricles between HC and ADD patients. Stepwise backward regression showed improved diagnostic accuracy for pairwise group differentiations, with highest performance obtained for distinguishing HC from ADD (AUC = 0.914; Specificity 83.0%; Sensitivity 86.3%). Conclusion: Automated volumetry has a diagnostic value for ADD diagnosis in routine clinical practice. Our findings indicate that combined brain volumes improve diagnostic accuracy, using real-world imaging data from a clinical setting.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mandy Melissa Jane Wittens
- Reference Center for Biological Markers of Dementia (BIODEM), Laboratory of Neurochemistry and Behavior, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium.,Center for Neurosciences (C4N), Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB), Brussels, Belgium
| | | | | | | | - Ellis Niemantsverdriet
- Reference Center for Biological Markers of Dementia (BIODEM), Laboratory of Neurochemistry and Behavior, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Erik Fransen
- StatUa Center for Statistics, University of Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Christine Bastin
- GIGA Cyclotron Research Centre in vivo Imaging, University of Liège, Liège, Belgium
| | - Florence Benoit
- Department of Geriatrics, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire (CHU) Brugmann, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Bruno Bergmans
- Department of Neurology and Center for Cognitive Disorders, Brugge, Belgium
| | | | - Peter Paul De Deyn
- Reference Center for Biological Markers of Dementia (BIODEM), Laboratory of Neurochemistry and Behavior, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium.,Department of Neurology and Memory Clinic, Hospital Network Antwerp (ZNA), Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Olivier Deryck
- Department of Neurology and Center for Cognitive Disorders, Brugge, Belgium
| | - Bernard Hanseeuw
- Department of Neurology, Cliniques Universitaires St Luc and Institute of Neuroscience, Université catholique de Louvain, Woluwe-Saint-Lambert (Brussels), Belgium
| | - Adrian Ivanoiu
- Department of Neurology, Cliniques Universitaires St Luc and Institute of Neuroscience, Université catholique de Louvain, Woluwe-Saint-Lambert (Brussels), Belgium
| | - Jean-Claude Lemper
- Department of Geriatrics, Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB), Universitair Ziekenhuis Brussel, Brussels, Belgium.,Silva medical Scheutbos, Molenbeek-Saint-Jean (Brussels), Belgium
| | - Eric Mormont
- UCLouvain, CHU UCL Namur, service de Neurologie, Yvoir, Belgium.,UCLouvain, Institute of NeuroScience, Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium
| | - Gaëtane Picard
- Department of Neurology, Clinique Saint-Pierre, Ottignies, Belgium
| | | | - Eric Salmon
- GIGA Cyclotron Research Centre in vivo Imaging, University of Liège, Liège, Belgium.,Department of Neurology, Memory Clinic, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire (CHU) Liège, Liège, Belgium
| | - Kurt Segers
- Department of Neurology, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire (CHU) Brugmann, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Anne Sieben
- Department of Neurology, University Hospital Ghent, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | | | - Hanne Struyfs
- Reference Center for Biological Markers of Dementia (BIODEM), Laboratory of Neurochemistry and Behavior, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Evert Thiery
- Department of Neurology, University Hospital Ghent, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Jos Tournoy
- Geriatric Medicine and Memory Clinic, University Hospitals Leuven & Department of Chronic Diseases, Metabolism and Ageing, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | | | - Anne-Marie Vanbinst
- Department of Radiology, Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB), Universitair Ziekenhuis Brussel (UZ Brussel), Brussels, Belgium
| | - Jan Versijpt
- Department of Neurology, Universitair Ziekenhuis Brussel (UZ Brussel), Brussels, Belgium.,Center for Neurosciences (C4N), Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB), Brussels, Belgium
| | - Maria Bjerke
- Reference Center for Biological Markers of Dementia (BIODEM), Laboratory of Neurochemistry and Behavior, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium.,Center for Neurosciences (C4N), Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB), Brussels, Belgium.,Laboratory of Neurochemistry, Universitair Ziekenhuis Brussel (UZ Brussel), Brussels, Belgium
| | - Sebastiaan Engelborghs
- Reference Center for Biological Markers of Dementia (BIODEM), Laboratory of Neurochemistry and Behavior, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium.,Department of Neurology, Universitair Ziekenhuis Brussel (UZ Brussel), Brussels, Belgium.,Center for Neurosciences (C4N), Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB), Brussels, Belgium
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13
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Khatri DK, Kadbhane A, Patel M, Nene S, Atmakuri S, Srivastava S, Singh SB. Gauging the role and impact of drug interactions and repurposing in neurodegenerative disorders. CURRENT RESEARCH IN PHARMACOLOGY AND DRUG DISCOVERY 2021; 2:100022. [PMID: 34909657 PMCID: PMC8663985 DOI: 10.1016/j.crphar.2021.100022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2020] [Revised: 01/23/2021] [Accepted: 03/15/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Neurodegenerative diseases (ND) are of vast origin which are characterized by gradual progressive loss of neurons in the brain region. ND can be classified according to the clinical symptoms present (e.g. Cognitive decline, hyperkinetic, and hypokinetic movements disorder) or by the pathological protein deposited (e.g., Amyloid, tau, Alpha-synuclein, TDP-43). Alzheimer's disease preceded by Parkinson's is the most prevalent form of ND world-wide. Multiple factors like aging, genetic mutations, environmental factors, gut microbiota, blood-brain barrier microvascular complication, etc. may increase the predisposition towards ND. Genetic mutation is a major contributor in increasing the susceptibility towards ND, the concept of one disease-one gene is obsolete and now multiple genes are considered to be involved in causing one particular disease. Also, the involvement of multiple pathological mechanisms like oxidative stress, neuroinflammation, mitochondrial dysfunction, etc. contributes to the complexity and makes them difficult to be treated by traditional mono-targeted ligands. In this aspect, the Poly-pharmacological drug approach which targets multiple pathological pathways at the same time provides the best way to treat such complex networked CNS diseases. In this review, we have provided an overview of ND and their pathological origin, along with a brief description of various genes associated with multiple diseases like Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, Multiple sclerosis (MS), Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS), Huntington's and a comprehensive detail about the Poly-pharmacology approach (MTDLs and Fixed-dose combinations) along with their merits over the traditional single-targeted drug is provided. This review also provides insights into current repurposing strategies along with its regulatory considerations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dharmendra Kumar Khatri
- Corresponding authors. Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research (NIPER), Hyderabad, Telangana, 500037, India.
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Shashi Bala Singh
- Corresponding authors. Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research (NIPER), Hyderabad, Telangana, 500037, India.
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14
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Multiparametric imaging hippocampal neurodegeneration and functional connectivity with simultaneous PET/MRI in Alzheimer's disease. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging 2020; 47:2440-2452. [PMID: 32157432 PMCID: PMC7396401 DOI: 10.1007/s00259-020-04752-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2019] [Accepted: 03/03/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Purpose The objective of this study is to investigate the hippocampal neurodegeneration and its associated aberrant functions in mild cognitive impairment (MCI) and Alzheimer’s disease (AD) patients using simultaneous PET/MRI. Methods Forty-two cognitively normal controls (NC), 38 MCI, and 22 AD patients were enrolled in this study. All subjects underwent 18F-FDG PET/functional MRI (fMRI) and high-resolution T1-weighted MRI scans on a hybrid GE Signa PET/MRI scanner. Neurodegeneration in hippocampus and its subregions was quantified by regional gray matter volume and 18F-FDG standardized uptake value ratio (SUVR) relative to cerebellum. An iterative reblurred Van Cittert iteration method was used for voxelwise partial volume correction on 18F-FDG PET images. Regional gray matter volume was estimated from voxel-based morphometric analysis with MRI. fMRI data were analyzed after slice time correction and head motion correction using statistical parametric mapping (SPM12) with DPARSF toolbox. The regions of interest including hippocampus, cornu ammonis (CA1), CA2/3/dentate gyrus (DG), and subiculum were defined in the standard MNI space. Results Patient groups had reduced SUVR, gray matter volume, and functional connectivity compared to NC in CA1, CA2/3/DG, and subiculum (AD < MCI < NC). There was a linear correlation between the left CA2/3DG gray matter volume and 18F-FDG SUVR in AD patients (P < 0.001, r = 0.737). Significant correlation was also found between left CA2/3/DG-superior medial frontal gyrus functional connectivity and left CA2/3/DG hypometabolism in patients with AD. The functional connectivity of right CA1-precuneus in patients with MCI and right subiculum-superior frontal gyrus in patients with AD was positively correlated with mini mental status examination scores (P < 0.05). Conclusion Our findings demonstrate that the associations existed at subregional hippocampal level between the functional connectivity measured by fMRI and neurodegeneration measured by structural MRI and 18F-FDG PET. Our results may provide a basis for precision neuroimaging of hippocampus in AD.
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15
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Hiscox LV, Johnson CL, McGarry MDJ, Marshall H, Ritchie CW, van Beek EJR, Roberts N, Starr JM. Mechanical property alterations across the cerebral cortex due to Alzheimer's disease. Brain Commun 2019; 2:fcz049. [PMID: 31998866 PMCID: PMC6976617 DOI: 10.1093/braincomms/fcz049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2019] [Revised: 11/25/2019] [Accepted: 12/06/2019] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease is a personally devastating neurodegenerative disorder and a major public health concern. There is an urgent need for medical imaging techniques that better characterize the early stages and monitor the progression of the disease. Magnetic resonance elastography (MRE) is a relatively new and highly sensitive MRI technique that can non-invasively assess tissue microstructural integrity via measurement of brain viscoelastic mechanical properties. For the first time, we use high-resolution MRE methods to conduct a voxel-wise MRE investigation and state-of-the-art post hoc region of interest analysis of the viscoelastic properties of the cerebral cortex in patients with Alzheimer's disease (N = 11) compared with cognitively healthy older adults (N = 12). We replicated previous findings that have reported significant volume and stiffness reductions at the whole-brain level. Significant reductions in volume were also observed in Alzheimer's disease when white matter, cortical grey matter and subcortical grey matter compartments were considered separately; lower stiffness was also observed in white matter and cortical grey matter, but not in subcortical grey matter. Voxel-based morphometry of both cortical and subcortical grey matter revealed localized reductions in volume due to Alzheimer's disease in the hippocampus, fusiform, middle, superior temporal gyri and precuneus. Similarly, voxel-based MRE identified lower stiffness in the middle and superior temporal gyri and precuneus, although the spatial distribution of these effects was not identical to the pattern of volume reduction. Notably, MRE additionally identified stiffness deficits in the operculum and precentral gyrus located within the frontal lobe; regions that did not undergo volume loss identified through voxel-based morphometry. Voxel-based-morphometry and voxel-based MRE results were confirmed by a complementary post hoc region-of-interest approach in native space where the viscoelastic changes remained significant even after statistically controlling for regional volumes. The pattern of reduction in cortical stiffness observed in Alzheimer's disease patients raises the possibility that MRE may provide unique insights regarding the neural mechanisms which underlie the development and progression of the disease. The measured mechanical property changes that we have observed warrant further exploration to investigate the diagnostic usefulness of MRE in cases of Alzheimer's disease and other dementias.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucy V Hiscox
- Alzheimer Scotland Dementia Research Centre, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH8 9JZ, UK
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Delaware, Newark, DE 19713, USA
| | - Curtis L Johnson
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Delaware, Newark, DE 19713, USA
| | | | - Helen Marshall
- Edinburgh Imaging Facility, School of Clinical Sciences, The Queen’s Medical Research Institute (QMRI), University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4TJ, UK
| | - Craig W Ritchie
- Centre for Dementia Prevention at Centre for Clinical Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4UX, UK
| | - Edwin J R van Beek
- Edinburgh Imaging Facility, School of Clinical Sciences, The Queen’s Medical Research Institute (QMRI), University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4TJ, UK
| | - Neil Roberts
- Edinburgh Imaging Facility, School of Clinical Sciences, The Queen’s Medical Research Institute (QMRI), University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4TJ, UK
| | - John M Starr
- Alzheimer Scotland Dementia Research Centre, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH8 9JZ, UK
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