FABP1 controls hepatic transport and biotransformation of Δ9-THC

CYP2C9, CYP3A and CYP2C19 metabolize Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol to multiple metabolites but metabolism is affected by human liver fatty acid binding protein (FABP1)

Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) is the psychoactive constituent of cannabis. It is cleared predominantly via metabolism. Metabolism to 11-OH-THC by cytochrome P450 (CYP) 2C9 has been proposed as the main clearance pathway of THC, with the estimated fraction metabolized (fm) about 70%. The remaining clearance pathways are not well established, and it is unknown how THC is eliminated in individuals with reduced CYP2C9 activity. The goal of this study was to systematically identify the CYP enzymes contributing to THC clearance and characterize the metabolites formed. Further, this study aimed to characterize the impact of liver fatty acid binding protein (FABP1) on THC metabolism by human CYPs. THC was metabolized to at least four different metabolites including 11-OH-THC in human liver microsomes (HLMs) and with recombinant CYPs. 11-OH-THC was formed by recombinant CYP2C9 (Km,u = 0.77 nM, kcat = 12 min-1) and by recombinant CYP2C19 (Km,u = 2.2 nM, kcat = 14 min-1). The other three major metabolites were likely hydroxylations in the cyclohexenyl ring and were formed mainly by recombinant CYP3A4/5 (Km,u > 10 nM). HLM experiments confirmed the contributions of CYP2C9, CYP2C19 and CYP3A to THC metabolism. The presence of FABP1 and THC binding to FABP1 altered THC metabolism by recombinant CYPs and HLMs in an enzyme and metabolite specific manner. This suggests that FABP1 may interact with CYP enzymes and alter the fm by CYPs towards THC metabolism. In conclusion, this study is the first to systematically establish the metabolic profile of THC by human CYPs and characterize how FABP1 binding alters CYP mediated THC metabolism.

Application of Monoclonal Antibodies against Naturally Occurring Bioactive Ingredients

Monoclonal antibodies (Mabs) are widely used in a variety of fields, including protein identification, life sciences, medicine, and natural product chemistry. This review focuses on Mabs against naturally occurring active compounds. The preparation of Mabs against various active compounds began in the 1980s, and now there are fewer than 50 types. Eastern blotting, which was developed as an antibody staining method for low-molecular-weight compounds, is useful for its ability to visually represent specific components. In this method, a mixture of lower-molecular-weight compounds, particularly glycosides, are separated by thin-layer chromatography (TLC). The compounds are then transferred to a membrane by heating, followed by treatment with potassium periodate (KIO4) to open the sugar moiety of the glycoside on the membrane to form an aldehyde group. Proteins are then added to form Schiff base bonds to enable adsorption on the membrane. A Mab is bound to the glycoside moiety on the membrane and reacts with a secondary antibody to produce color. Double Eastern blotting, which enables the simultaneous coloration of two glycosides, can be used to evaluate quality and estimate pharmacological effects. An example of staining by Eastern blotting and a component search based on the results will also be presented. A Mab-associated affinity column is a method for isolating antigen molecules in a single step. However, the usefulness of the wash fractions that are not bound to the affinity column is unknown. Therefore, we designated the wash fraction the "knockout extract". Comparing the nitric oxide (NO) production of a glycyrrhizin (GL)-knockout extract of licorice with a licorice extract revealed that the licorice extract is stronger. Therefore, the addition of GL to the GL-knockout extract of licorice increased NO production. This indicates that GL has synergic activity with the knockout extract. The GL-knockout extract of licorice inhibited high-glucose-induced epithelial-mesenchymal transition in NRK-52E cells, primarily by suppressing the Notch2 pathway. The real active constituent in licorice may be constituents other than GL, which is the causative agent of pseudohyperaldosteronism. This suggests that a GL-knockout extract of licorice may be useful for the treatment of diabetic nephritis.

Drugs Form Ternary Complexes with Human Liver Fatty Acid Binding Protein 1 (FABP1) and FABP1 Binding Alters Drug Metabolism

Liver fatty acid binding protein 1 (FABP1) binds diverse endogenous lipids and is highly expressed in the human liver. Binding to FABP1 alters the metabolism and homeostasis of endogenous lipids in the liver. Drugs have also been shown to bind to rat FABP1, but limited data are available for human FABP1 (hFABP1). FABP1 has a large binding pocket, and up to two fatty acids can bind to FABP1 simultaneously. We hypothesized that drug binding to hFABP1 results in formation of ternary complexes and that FABP1 binding alters drug metabolism. To test these hypotheses, native protein mass spectrometry (MS) and fluorescent 11-(dansylamino)undecanoic acid (DAUDA) displacement assays were used to characterize drug binding to hFABP1, and diclofenac oxidation by cytochrome P450 2C9 (CYP2C9) was studied in the presence and absence of hFABP1. DAUDA binding to hFABP1 involved high (Kd,1 = 0.2 μM) and low (Kd,2 > 10 μM) affinity binding sites. Nine drugs bound to hFABP1 with equilibrium dissociation constant (Kd) values ranging from 1 to 20 μM. None of the tested drugs completely displaced DAUDA from hFABP1, and fluorescence spectra showed evidence of ternary complex formation. Formation of DAUDA-hFABP1-diclofenac ternary complex was verified with native MS. Docking predicted diclofenac binding in the portal region of FABP1 with DAUDA in the binding cavity. The catalytic rate constant of diclofenac hydroxylation by CYP2C9 was decreased by ∼50% (P < 0.01) in the presence of FABP1. Together, these results suggest that drugs form ternary complexes with hFABP1 and that hFABP1 binding in the liver will alter drug metabolism and clearance. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Many commonly prescribed drugs bind fatty acid binding protein 1 (FABP1), forming ternary complexes with FABP1 and the fluorescent fatty acid 11-(dansylamino)undecanoic acid. These findings suggest that drugs will bind to apo-FABP1 and fatty acid-bound FABP1 in the human liver. The high expression of FABP1 in the liver, together with drug binding to FABP1, may alter drug disposition processes in vivo.

Fatty acid binding protein 5 regulates docetaxel sensitivity in taxane-resistant prostate cancer cells

Prostate cancer is a leading cause of cancer-related deaths in men in the United States. Although treatable when detected early, prostate cancer commonly transitions to an aggressive castration-resistant metastatic state. While taxane chemotherapeutics such as docetaxel are mainstay treatment options for prostate cancer, taxane resistance often develops. Fatty acid binding protein 5 (FABP5) is an intracellular lipid chaperone that is upregulated in advanced prostate cancer and is implicated as a key driver of its progression. The recent demonstration that FABP5 inhibitors produce synergistic inhibition of tumor growth when combined with taxane chemotherapeutics highlights the possibility that FABP5 may regulate other features of taxane function, including resistance. Employing taxane-resistant DU145-TXR cells and a combination of cytotoxicity, apoptosis, and cell cycle assays, our findings demonstrate that FABP5 knockdown sensitizes the cells to docetaxel. In contrast, docetaxel potency was unaffected by FABP5 knockdown in taxane-sensitive DU145 cells. Taxane-resistance in DU145-TXR cells stems from upregulation of the P-glycoprotein ATP binding cassette subfamily B member 1 (ABCB1). Expression analyses and functional assays confirmed that FABP5 knockdown in DU145-TXR cells markedly reduced ABCB1 expression and activity, respectively. Our study demonstrates a potential new function for FABP5 in regulating taxane sensitivity and the expression of a major P-glycoprotein efflux pump in prostate cancer cells.

FABP5 is important for cognitive function and is an important regulator of the physiological effects and pharmacokinetics of acute Δ9 tetrahydrocannabinol inhalation in mice

Fatty acid binding protein 5 (FABP5) interacts with the endocannabinoid system in the brain via intracellular transport of anandamide, as well as Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), the main psychoactive component of cannabis. Previous work has established the behavioral effects of genetic deletion of FABP5, but not in the presence of THC. The present study sought to further elucidate the role of FABP5 on the pharmacokinetic and behavioral response to THC through global deletion. Adult FABP5+/+ and FABP5-/- mice were tested for behavioral response to THC using Open Field (OF), Novel Object Recognition (NOR), T-Maze, Morris Water Maze (MWM), and Elevated Plus Maze (EPM). An additional cohort of mice was used to harvest blood, brains, and liver samples to measure THC and metabolites after acute administration of THC. Behavioral tests showed that some cognitive deficits from FABP5 deletion, particularly in MWM, were blocked by THC administration, while this was not observed in other measures of memory and anxiety (such as T-Maze and EPM). Measurement of THC and metabolites in blood serum and brain tissue through UPLC-MS/MS analysis showed that the pharmacokinetics of THC was altered by FABP5. The present study shows further evidence of the importance of FABP5 in cognitive function. Additionally, results showed that FABP5 is an important regulator of the physiological effects and pharmacokinetics of THC.

Goods and Bads of the Endocannabinoid System as a Therapeutic Target: Lessons Learned after 30 Years

The cannabis derivative marijuana is the most widely used recreational drug in the Western world and is consumed by an estimated 83 million individuals (∼3% of the world population). In recent years, there has been a marked transformation in society regarding the risk perception of cannabis, driven by its legalization and medical use in many states in the United States and worldwide. Compelling research evidence and the Food and Drug Administration cannabis-derived cannabidiol approval for severe childhood epilepsy have confirmed the large therapeutic potential of cannabidiol itself, Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol and other plant-derived cannabinoids (phytocannabinoids). Of note, our body has a complex endocannabinoid system (ECS)-made of receptors, metabolic enzymes, and transporters-that is also regulated by phytocannabinoids. The first endocannabinoid to be discovered 30 years ago was anandamide (N-arachidonoyl-ethanolamine); since then, distinct elements of the ECS have been the target of drug design programs aimed at curing (or at least slowing down) a number of human diseases, both in the central nervous system and at the periphery. Here a critical review of our knowledge of the goods and bads of the ECS as a therapeutic target is presented to define the benefits of ECS-active phytocannabinoids and ECS-oriented synthetic drugs for human health. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: The endocannabinoid system plays important roles virtually everywhere in our body and is either involved in mediating key processes of central and peripheral diseases or represents a therapeutic target for treatment. Therefore, understanding the structure, function, and pharmacology of the components of this complex system, and in particular of key receptors (like cannabinoid receptors 1 and 2) and metabolic enzymes (like fatty acid amide hydrolase and monoacylglycerol lipase), will advance our understanding of endocannabinoid signaling and activity at molecular, cellular, and system levels, providing new opportunities to treat patients.

The Multifunctional Family of Mammalian Fatty Acid-Binding Proteins

Fatty acid-binding proteins (FABPs) are small lipid-binding proteins abundantly expressed in tissues that are highly active in fatty acid (FA) metabolism. Ten mammalian FABPs have been identified, with tissue-specific expression patterns and highly conserved tertiary structures. FABPs were initially studied as intracellular FA transport proteins. Further investigation has demonstrated their participation in lipid metabolism, both directly and via regulation of gene expression, and in signaling within their cells of expression. There is also evidence that they may be secreted and have functional impact via the circulation. It has also been shown that the FABP ligand binding repertoire extends beyond long-chain FAs and that their functional properties also involve participation in systemic metabolism. This article reviews the present understanding of FABP functions and their apparent roles in disease, particularly metabolic and inflammation-related disorders and cancers.

Impact of Intracellular Lipid Binding Proteins on Endogenous and Xenobiotic Ligand Metabolism and Disposition

The family of intracellular lipid binding proteins (iLBPs) is comprised of 16 members of structurally related binding proteins that have ubiquitous tissue expression in humans. iLBPs collectively bind diverse essential endogenous lipids and xenobiotics. iLBPs solubilize and traffic lipophilic ligands through the aqueous milieu of the cell. Their expression is correlated with increased rates of ligand uptake into tissues and altered ligand metabolism. The importance of iLBPs in maintaining lipid homeostasis is well established. Fatty acid binding proteins (FABPs) make up the majority of iLBPs and are expressed in major organs relevant to xenobiotic absorption, distribution, and metabolism. FABPs bind a variety of xenobiotics including nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, psychoactive cannabinoids, benzodiazepines, antinociceptives, and peroxisome proliferators. FABP function is also associated with metabolic disease, making FABPs currently a target for drug development. Yet the potential contribution of FABP binding to distribution of xenobiotics into tissues and the mechanistic impact iLBPs may have on xenobiotic metabolism are largely undefined. This review examines the tissue-specific expression and functions of iLBPs, the ligand binding characteristics of iLBPs, their known endogenous and xenobiotic ligands, methods for measuring ligand binding, and mechanisms of ligand delivery from iLBPs to membranes and enzymes. Current knowledge of the importance of iLBPs in affecting disposition of xenobiotics is collectively described. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: The data reviewed here show that FABPs bind many drugs and suggest that binding of drugs to FABPs in various tissues will affect drug distribution into tissues. The extensive work and findings with endogenous ligands suggest that FABPs may also alter the metabolism and transport of drugs. This review illustrates the potential significance of this understudied area.

Deciphering Complex Interactions in Bioactive Lipid Signaling

Lipids are usually viewed as metabolic fuel and structural membrane components. Yet, in recent years, different families of lipids able to act as authentic messengers between cells and/or intracellularly have been discovered. Such lipid signals have been shown to exert their biological activity via specific receptors that, by triggering distinct signal transduction pathways, regulate manifold pathophysiological processes in our body. Here, endogenous bioactive lipids produced from arachidonic acid (AA) and other poly-unsaturated fatty acids will be presented, in order to put into better perspective the relevance of their mutual interactions for health and disease conditions. To this end, metabolism and signal transduction pathways of classical eicosanoids, endocannabinoids and specialized pro-resolving mediators will be described, and the intersections and commonalities of their metabolic enzymes and binding receptors will be discussed. Moreover, the interactions of AA-derived signals with other bioactive lipids such as shingosine-1-phosphate and steroid hormones will be addressed.

Pharmacokinetics of Cannabis and Its Derivatives in Animals and Humans During Pregnancy and Breastfeeding

Cannabis is one of the most widely used illicit drugs during pregnancy and lactation. With the recent legalization of cannabis in many countries, health professionals are increasingly exposed to pregnant and breastfeeding women who are consuming cannabis on a regular basis as a solution for depression, anxiety, nausea, and pain. Cannabis consumption during pregnancy can induce negative birth outcomes such as reduced birth weight and increased risk of prematurity and admission to the neonatal intensive care unit. Yet, limited information is available regarding the pharmacokinetics of cannabis in the fetus and newborn exposed during pregnancy and lactation. Indeed, the official recommendations regarding the use of cannabis during these two critical development periods lack robust pharmacokinetics data and make it difficult for health professionals to guide their patients. Many clinical studies are currently evaluating the effects of cannabis on the brain development and base their groups mostly on questionnaires. These studies should be associated with pharmacokinetics studies to assess correlations between the infant brain development and the exposure to cannabis during pregnancy and breastfeeding. Our project aims to review the available data on the pharmacokinetics of cannabinoids in adults, neonates, and animals. If the available literature is abundant in adult humans and animals, there is still a lack of published data on the exposure of pregnant and lactating women and neonates. However, some of the published information causes concerns on the exposure and the potential effects of cannabis on fetuses and neonates. The safety of cannabis use for non-medical purpose during pregnancy and breastfeeding needs to be further characterized with proper pharmacokinetic studies in humans feasible in regions where cannabis has been legalized. Given the available data, significant transfer occurs to the fetus and the breastfed newborn with a theoretical risk of accumulation of products known to be biologically active.

Overview of Cannabis including Kampo Medicine and Therapy for Treatment of Dementia: A Review

Cannabis sativa L. is an annual herb oldest cultivated plants as a source of fiber since about 5000 B.C. On the other hand, the cannabis flower and seed are listed in Shennong's classic Materia Medica approximately 2000 years ago. The formulas prescribed with cannabis in Kampo medicine have been summarized. Cannabidiol (CBD) and tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) are the major neurological and psychiatric cannabinoids, and develop to drugs. It becomes evident that the therapeutic CBD and/or THC are the important candidate of anti-dementia drugs having different mechanism for Alzheimer's patients. Two receptors and endocannabinoids are also discussed for underlying mechanism of action. In order to promote the breeding of cannabis plant containing higher concentration of target cannabinoid the biosynthetic enzymes were isolated, cloning and the tertiary structure of THCA synthase determined by x-ray analysis resulting in the possibility of molecular breeding for cannabinoids.

In Utero Exposure to Δ9-Tetrahydrocannabinol Leads to Postnatal Catch-Up Growth and Dysmetabolism in the Adult Rat Liver

The rates of gestational cannabis use have increased despite limited evidence for its safety in fetal life. Recent animal studies demonstrate that prenatal exposure to Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC, the psychoactive component of cannabis) promotes intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR), culminating in postnatal metabolic deficits. Given IUGR is associated with impaired hepatic function, we hypothesized that Δ9-THC offspring would exhibit hepatic dyslipidemia. Pregnant Wistar rat dams received daily injections of vehicular control or 3 mg/kg Δ9-THC i.p. from embryonic day (E) 6.5 through E22. Exposure to Δ9-THC decreased the liver to body weight ratio at birth, followed by catch-up growth by three weeks of age. At six months, Δ9-THC-exposed male offspring exhibited increased visceral adiposity and higher hepatic triglycerides. This was instigated by augmented expression of enzymes involved in triglyceride synthesis (ACCα, SCD, FABP1, and DGAT2) at three weeks. Furthermore, the expression of hepatic DGAT1/DGAT2 was sustained at six months, concomitant with mitochondrial dysfunction (i.e., elevated p66shc) and oxidative stress. Interestingly, decreases in miR-203a-3p and miR-29a/b/c, both implicated in dyslipidemia, were also observed in these Δ9-THC-exposed offspring. Collectively, these findings indicate that prenatal Δ9-THC exposure results in long-term dyslipidemia associated with enhanced hepatic lipogenesis. This is attributed by mitochondrial dysfunction and epigenetic mechanisms.

Cannabidiol (CBD) in Dietary Supplements: Perspectives on Science, Safety, and Potential Regulatory Approaches

The proliferation in the last few years of cannabidiol (CBD)-containing products in the U.S. markets has been greatly accelerated by changes in the regulatory environment, and by perceptions of their health benefits and presumed safety. The result has been aggressive marketing of many types of products, some of dubious quality, making or implying drug-type claims. The recent approval by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) of CBD in the form of Epidiolex®, further complicates the regulatory picture. In addition, a number of studies suggest that, at least at high doses, there may be serious adverse effects or drug interactions associated with CBD. At present, CBD-containing products do not meet the strict definition of dietary supplements, but the FDA is continuing to consider some framework under which they might be allowed. Meanwhile, FDA has adopted a "risk-based" enforcement policy. Possible approaches to a new framework for regulation of CBD products as dietary supplements are discussed here, including expanded research emphasis, a robust corporate stewardship program, and a rigorous adverse event reporting program.

Missing Pieces to the Endocannabinoid Puzzle

The most bioactive ingredient of cannabis (Cannabis sativa or indica) extracts, Δ⁹-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), was identified in the 1960s as one of more than 110 phytocannabinoids. It activates receptors of chemically different endogenous ligands (endocannabinoids) that, unlike THC, are metabolized by several enzymes of the endocannabinoid system. Here, the complexity of the plant-derived and endogenous cannabinoids (eCBs) is discussed, to better appreciate the challenge of: (i) dissecting their mutual interactions; (ii) understanding their impact on human pathophysiology; and (iii) exploiting them for human disease. To this aim, missing pieces to the eCB puzzle must be urgently found, by solving the 3D structures of key components, and interrogating noncanonical modes of regulation and trafficking of these lipid signals.