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Corcionivoschi N, Balta I, McCleery D, Pet I, Iancu T, Julean C, Marcu A, Stef L, Morariu S. Blends of Organic Acids Are Weaponizing the Host iNOS and Nitric Oxide to Reduce Infection of Piscirickettsia salmonis in vitro. Antioxidants (Basel) 2024; 13:542. [PMID: 38790647 PMCID: PMC11118739 DOI: 10.3390/antiox13050542] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2024] [Revised: 04/25/2024] [Accepted: 04/26/2024] [Indexed: 05/26/2024] Open
Abstract
For the last 30 years, Piscirickettsia salmonis has caused major economic losses to the aquaculture industry as the aetiological agent for the piscirickettsiosis disease. Replacing the current interventions, based on antibiotics, with natural alternatives (e.g., organic acids) represents a priority. With this study, we aimed to better understand their biological mechanism of action in an in vitro model of infection with salmon epithelial cells (CHSE-214). Our first observation revealed that at the sub-inhibitory concentration of 0.5%, the organic acid blend (Aq) protected epithelial cell integrity and significantly reduced P. salmonis invasion. The MIC was established at 1% Aq and the MBC at 2% against P. salmonis. The sub-inhibitory concentration significantly increased the expression of the antimicrobial peptides Cath2 and Hepcidin1, and stimulated the activity of the innate immune effector iNOS. The increase in iNOS activity also led to higher levels of nitric oxide (NO) being released in the extracellular space. The exposure of P. salmonis to the endogenous NO caused an increase in bacterial lipid peroxidation levels, a damaging effect which can ultimately reduce the pathogen's ability to attach or multiply intracellularly. We also demonstrate that the increased NO release by the host CHSE-214 cells is a consequence of direct exposure to Aq and is not dependent on P. salmonis infection. Additionally, the presence of Aq during P. salmonis infection of CHSE-214 cells significantly mitigated the expression of the pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-1β, IL-8, IL-12, and IFNγ. Taken together, these results indicate that, unlike antibiotics, natural antimicrobials can weaponize the iNOS pathway and secreted nitric oxide to reduce infection and inflammation in a Piscirickettsia salmonis in vitro model of infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicolae Corcionivoschi
- Bacteriology Branch, Veterinary Sciences Division, Agri-Food and Biosciences Institute, Belfast BT4 3SD, Northern Ireland, UK;
- Faculty of Bioengineering of Animal Resources, University of Life Sciences King Mihai I from Timisoara, 300645 Timisoara, Romania; (I.P.); (C.J.); (A.M.); (L.S.)
- Academy of Romanian Scientists, Ilfov Street, No. 3, 050044 Bucharest, Romania
| | - Igori Balta
- Faculty of Bioengineering of Animal Resources, University of Life Sciences King Mihai I from Timisoara, 300645 Timisoara, Romania; (I.P.); (C.J.); (A.M.); (L.S.)
| | - David McCleery
- Bacteriology Branch, Veterinary Sciences Division, Agri-Food and Biosciences Institute, Belfast BT4 3SD, Northern Ireland, UK;
| | - Ioan Pet
- Faculty of Bioengineering of Animal Resources, University of Life Sciences King Mihai I from Timisoara, 300645 Timisoara, Romania; (I.P.); (C.J.); (A.M.); (L.S.)
| | - Tiberiu Iancu
- Faculty of Management and Rural Development, University of Life Sciences King Mihai I from Timisoara, 300645 Timisoara, Romania
| | - Calin Julean
- Faculty of Bioengineering of Animal Resources, University of Life Sciences King Mihai I from Timisoara, 300645 Timisoara, Romania; (I.P.); (C.J.); (A.M.); (L.S.)
| | - Adela Marcu
- Faculty of Bioengineering of Animal Resources, University of Life Sciences King Mihai I from Timisoara, 300645 Timisoara, Romania; (I.P.); (C.J.); (A.M.); (L.S.)
| | - Lavinia Stef
- Faculty of Bioengineering of Animal Resources, University of Life Sciences King Mihai I from Timisoara, 300645 Timisoara, Romania; (I.P.); (C.J.); (A.M.); (L.S.)
| | - Sorin Morariu
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Life Sciences King Mihai I from Timisoara, 300645 Timisoara, Romania;
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2
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Lovett B, Cahill P, Fletcher L, Cunningham S, Davidson I. Anthropogenic Vector Ecology and Management to Combat Disease Spread in Aquaculture. ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 2024:10.1007/s00267-023-01932-8. [PMID: 38252133 DOI: 10.1007/s00267-023-01932-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2023] [Accepted: 12/21/2023] [Indexed: 01/23/2024]
Abstract
Anthropogenic vectors (transfer mechanisms) can facilitate the introduction and spread of aquatic disease in marine farming regions. Preventing or interrupting pathogen transfers associated with movements of these vectors is key to ensuring productivity and profitability of aquaculture operations. However, practical methods to identify and manage vector risks are lacking. We developed a risk analysis framework to identify disease risks and management gaps associated with anthropogenic vector movements in New Zealand's main aquaculture sectors - Chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha), green-lipped mussels (Perna canaliculus), and Pacific oysters (Crassostrea gigas). Vectors within each sector were identified and assigned categorical risk scores for (i) movement characteristics (size, frequency, likelihood of return to sea), (ii) biological association with pathogens (entrainment potential, contribution to previous aquaculture disease outbreaks) and (iii) available best practice biosecurity methods and tools, to inform unmitigated and mitigated risk rankings. Thirty-one vectors were identified to operate within the national network and association with livestock was found to be a primary driver of vector risk rankings. Movements of live growing stock and culture substrates (e.g., mussel ropes) in shellfish farming had high-risk vector profiles that are logistically challenging to address, while vessel vectors were identified as the salmon farming sector's priority. The framework and rankings can be used to inform both research and management priorities in aquaculture and other primary production systems, including risk validation, vector roles in disease epidemiology, compliance with permit conditions, policy development, and treatment options.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bailey Lovett
- Biosecurity Group, Cawthron Institute, 98 Halifax Street East, Nelson, 7010, New Zealand.
| | - Patrick Cahill
- Biosecurity Group, Cawthron Institute, 98 Halifax Street East, Nelson, 7010, New Zealand
| | - Lauren Fletcher
- Biosecurity Group, Cawthron Institute, 98 Halifax Street East, Nelson, 7010, New Zealand
| | - Shaun Cunningham
- Biosecurity Group, Cawthron Institute, 98 Halifax Street East, Nelson, 7010, New Zealand
- Department of Natural History Sciences, Graduate School of Science, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, 060-0810, Japan
| | - Ian Davidson
- Biosecurity Group, Cawthron Institute, 98 Halifax Street East, Nelson, 7010, New Zealand
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3
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Carril G, Winther-Larsen HC, Løvoll M, Sørum H. Cohabitation of Piscirickettsia salmonis genogroups (LF-89 and EM-90): synergistic effect on growth dynamics. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2023; 13:1253577. [PMID: 37953796 PMCID: PMC10634514 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2023.1253577] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2023] [Accepted: 09/25/2023] [Indexed: 11/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Piscirickettsia salmonis, the biological agent of Salmonid Rickettsial Septicemia (SRS), is a facultative intracellular bacterium that can be divided into two genogroups (LF-89 and EM-90) with different virulence levels and patterns. Studies have found co-infection of these genogroups in salmonid farms in Chile, but it is essential to assess whether this interaction within the host is related to virulence and changes in pathogen dynamics. In this study, we studied four isolates from EM-90 and one LF-89 isolate chosen based on their genomic differences. The aim was to evaluate how co-cultivation affects bacterial growth performance and virulence factor expression in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) in vitro and in vivo. In vitro results using FN2 medium, showed a similar growth curve between co-cultures of LF-89 and EM-90 compared to EM-90 monocultures. This was explained by the higher ratio of EM-90 to LF-89 in all co-cultures. When evaluating the expression of virulence factors, it was discovered that the luxR gene was expressed only in EM-90-like isolates and that there were significant differences between mono- and co-cultures for flaA and cheA, suggesting a response to cohabitation. Moreover, during in vivo co-cultures, transcriptomic analysis revealed an upregulation of transposases, flagellum-related genes (fliI and flgK), transporters, and permeases that could unveil novel virulence effectors used in the early infection process of P. salmonis. Thus, our work has shown that cohabitation of P. salmonis genogroups can modulate their behavior and virulence effector expression. These data can contribute to new strategies and approaches to improve the current health treatments against this salmonid pathogen.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabriela Carril
- Department of Paraclinical Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Ås, Norway
| | - Hanne C. Winther-Larsen
- Department of Pharmacology and Pharmaceutical Biosciences, Department of Pharmacy, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | | | - Henning Sørum
- Department of Paraclinical Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Ås, Norway
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4
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Cabello FC, Millanao AR, Lozano-Muñoz I, Godfrey HP. Misunderstandings and misinterpretations: Antimicrobial use and resistance in salmon aquaculture. ENVIRONMENTAL MICROBIOLOGY REPORTS 2023. [PMID: 36934450 DOI: 10.1111/1758-2229.13147] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2022] [Accepted: 01/25/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
The exponential growth of aquaculture over the past 30 years has been accompanied by a parallel increase in the use of antimicrobials. This widespread use has had negative effects on animal, human and environmental health and affected the biodiversity of the environments where aquaculture takes place. Results showing these harmful effects have been resisted and made light of by the aquaculture industry and their scientific supporters through introduction of misunderstandings and misinterpretations of concepts developed in the evolution, genetics, and molecular epidemiology of antimicrobial resistance. We focus on a few of the most obvious scientific shortcomings and biases of two recent attempts to minimise the negative impacts of excessive antimicrobial use in Chilean salmon aquaculture on human and piscine health and on the environment. Such open debate is critical to timely implementation of effective regulation of antimicrobial usage in salmon aquaculture in Chile, if the negative local and worldwide impacts of this usage are to be avoided.
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Affiliation(s)
- Felipe C Cabello
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, New York Medical College, Valhalla, New York, USA
| | - Ana R Millanao
- Instituto de Farmacia, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia, Chile
| | - Ivonne Lozano-Muñoz
- Departamento de Producción Animal, Facultad de Ciencias Agronómicas, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Henry P Godfrey
- Department of Pathology (retired), New York Medical College, Valhalla, New York, USA
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5
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De Silva LADS, Heo GJ. Biofilm formation of pathogenic bacteria isolated from aquatic animals. Arch Microbiol 2022; 205:36. [PMID: 36565346 DOI: 10.1007/s00203-022-03332-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2021] [Revised: 11/06/2022] [Accepted: 11/10/2022] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Bacterial biofilm formation is one of the dynamic processes, which facilitates bacteria cells to attach to a surface and accumulate as a colony. With the help of biofilm formation, pathogenic bacteria can survive by adapting to their external environment. These bacterial colonies have several resistance properties with a higher survival rate in the environment. Especially, pathogenic bacteria can grow as biofilms and can be protected from antimicrobial compounds and other substances. In aquaculture, biofilm formation by pathogenic bacteria has emerged with an increased infection rate in aquatic animals. Studies show that Vibrio anguillarum, V. parahaemolyticus, V. alginolyticus, V. harveyi, V. campbellii, V. fischeri, Aeromonas hydrophila, A. salmonicida, Yersinia ruckeri, Flavobacterium columnare, F. psychrophilum, Piscirickettsia salmonis, Edwardsiella tarda, E. ictaluri, E. piscicida, Streptococcus parauberis, and S. iniae can survive in the environment by transforming their planktonic form to biofilm form. Therefore, the present review was intended to highlight the principles behind biofilm formation, major biofilm-forming pathogenic bacteria found in aquaculture systems, gene expression of those bacterial biofilms and possible controlling methods. In addition, the possibility of these pathogenic bacteria can be a serious threat to aquaculture systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- L A D S De Silva
- Laboratory of Aquatic Animal Medicine, Veterinary Medical Center and College of Veterinary Medicine, Chungbuk National University, Chungdae-Ro 1, Seowon-Gu, Cheongju, Chungbuk, 28644, Republic of Korea
| | - Gang-Joon Heo
- Laboratory of Aquatic Animal Medicine, Veterinary Medical Center and College of Veterinary Medicine, Chungbuk National University, Chungdae-Ro 1, Seowon-Gu, Cheongju, Chungbuk, 28644, Republic of Korea.
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6
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Levipan HA, Irgang R, Opazo LF, Araya-León H, Avendaño-Herrera R. Collective behavior and virulence arsenal of the fish pathogen Piscirickettsia salmonis in the biofilm realm. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2022; 12:1067514. [PMID: 36544910 PMCID: PMC9760808 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2022.1067514] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2022] [Accepted: 11/14/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Piscirickettsiosis is a fish disease caused by the Gram-negative bacterium Piscirickettsia salmonis. This disease has a high socio-economic impact on the Chilean salmonid aquaculture industry. The bacterium has a cryptic character in the environment and their main reservoirs are yet unknown. Bacterial biofilms represent a ubiquitous mechanism of cell persistence in diverse natural environments and a risk factor for the pathogenesis of several infectious diseases, but their microbiological significance for waterborne veterinary diseases, including piscirickettsiosis, have seldom been evaluated. This study analyzed the in vitro biofilm behavior of P. salmonis LF-89T (genogroup LF-89) and CA5 (genogroup EM-90) using a multi-method approach and elucidated the potential arsenal of virulence of the P. salmonis LF-89T type strain in its biofilm state. P. salmonis exhibited a quick kinetics of biofilm formation that followed a multi-step and highly strain-dependent process. There were no major differences in enzymatic profiles or significant differences in cytotoxicity (as tested on the Chinook salmon embryo cell line) between biofilm-derived bacteria and planktonic equivalents. The potential arsenal of virulence of P. salmonis LF-89T in biofilms, as determined by whole-transcriptome sequencing and differential gene expression analysis, consisted of genes involved in cell adhesion, polysaccharide biosynthesis, transcriptional regulation, and gene mobility, among others. Importantly, the global gene expression profiles of P. salmonis LF-89T were not enriched with virulence-related genes upregulated in biofilm development stages at 24 and 48 h. An enrichment in virulence-related genes exclusively expressed in biofilms was also undetected. These results indicate that early and mature biofilm development stages of P. salmonis LF-89T were transcriptionally no more virulent than their planktonic counterparts, which was supported by cytotoxic trials, which, in turn, revealed that both modes of growth induced important and very similar levels of cytotoxicity on the salmon cell line. Our results suggest that the aforementioned biofilm development stages do not represent hot spots of virulence compared with planktonic counterparts. This study provides the first transcriptomic catalogue to select specific genes that could be useful to prevent or control the (in vitro and/or in vivo) adherence and/or biofilm formation by P. salmonis and gain further insights into piscirickettsiosis pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Héctor A. Levipan
- Laboratorio de Ecopatología y Nanobiomateriales, Departamento de Ciencias y Geografía, Facultad de Ciencias Naturales y Exactas, Universidad de Playa Ancha, Valparaíso, Chile,Centro de Espectroscopía Atómica y Molecular (ATMOS-C), Universidad de Playa Ancha, Valparaíso, Chile,*Correspondence: Héctor A. Levipan, ; ; Ruben Avendaño-Herrera, ;
| | - Rute Irgang
- Laboratorio de Patología de Organismos Acuáticos y Biotecnología Acuícola, Facultad de Ciencias de la Vida, Universidad Andrés Bello, Viña del Mar, Chile,Interdisciplinary Center for Aquaculture Research (INCAR), Universidad Andrés Bello, Viña del Mar, Chile
| | - L. Felipe Opazo
- Institute of Ecology and Biodiversity (IEB), Santiago, Chile,Departamento de Ecología, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Henry Araya-León
- Laboratorio de Patología de Organismos Acuáticos y Biotecnología Acuícola, Facultad de Ciencias de la Vida, Universidad Andrés Bello, Viña del Mar, Chile,Interdisciplinary Center for Aquaculture Research (INCAR), Universidad Andrés Bello, Viña del Mar, Chile
| | - Ruben Avendaño-Herrera
- Laboratorio de Patología de Organismos Acuáticos y Biotecnología Acuícola, Facultad de Ciencias de la Vida, Universidad Andrés Bello, Viña del Mar, Chile,Interdisciplinary Center for Aquaculture Research (INCAR), Universidad Andrés Bello, Viña del Mar, Chile,Centro de Investigación Marina Quintay (CIMARQ), Universidad Andrés Bello, Quintay, Chile,*Correspondence: Héctor A. Levipan, ; ; Ruben Avendaño-Herrera, ;
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7
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Valenzuela-Aviles P, Torrealba D, Figueroa C, Mercado L, Dixon B, Conejeros P, Gallardo-Matus J. Why vaccines fail against Piscirickettsiosis in farmed salmon and trout and how to avoid it: A review. Front Immunol 2022; 13:1019404. [PMID: 36466828 PMCID: PMC9714679 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.1019404] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2022] [Accepted: 10/24/2022] [Indexed: 09/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Piscirickettsiosis is the most severe, persistent, and damaging disease that has affected the Chilean salmon industry since its origins in the 1980s. As a preventive strategy for this disease, different vaccines have been developed and used over the last 30 years. However, vaccinated salmon and trout frequently die in the sea cages and the use of antibiotics is still high demonstrating the low efficiency of the available vaccines. The reasons why the vaccines fail so often are still debated, but it could involve different extrinsic and intrinsic factors. Among the extrinsic factors, mainly associated with chronic stress, we can distinguish: 1) biotic including coinfection with sea lice, sealions attacks or harmful algal blooms; 2) abiotic including low oxygen or high temperature; and 3) farm-management factors including overcrowding or chemical delousing treatments. Among the intrinsic factors, we can distinguish: 1) fish-related factors including host's genetic variability (species, population and individual), sex or age; 2) pathogen-related factors including their variability and ability to evade host immune responses; and 3) vaccine-related factors including low immunogenicity and poor matches with the circulating pathogen strain. Based on the available evidence, in order to improve the development and the efficacy of vaccines against P. salmonis we recommend: a) Do not perform efficacy evaluations by intraperitoneal injection of pathogens because they generate an artificial protective immune response, instead cohabitation or immersion challenges must be used; b) Evaluate the diversity of pathogen strains in the field and ensure a good antigenic match with the vaccines; c) Investigate whether host genetic diversity could be improved, e.g. through selection, in favor of better and longer responses to vaccination; d) To reduce the stressful effects at the cage level, controlling the co-infection of pathogens and avoiding fish overcrowding. To date, we do not know the immunological mechanisms by which the vaccines against P. salmonis may or may not generate protection. More studies are required to identify what type of response, cellular or molecular, is required to develop effective vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paula Valenzuela-Aviles
- Laboratorio de Genética y Genómica Aplicada, Escuela de Ciencias del Mar, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Valparaíso, Valparaíso, Chile
| | - Débora Torrealba
- Laboratorio de Genética y Genómica Aplicada, Escuela de Ciencias del Mar, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Valparaíso, Valparaíso, Chile
| | - Carolina Figueroa
- Laboratorio de Genética y Genómica Aplicada, Escuela de Ciencias del Mar, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Valparaíso, Valparaíso, Chile
| | - Luis Mercado
- Grupo de Marcadores Inmunológicos en Organismos Acuáticos, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Valparaíso, Instituto de Biología, Valparaíso, Chile
| | - Brian Dixon
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Canada
| | - Pablo Conejeros
- Centro de Investigación y Gestión de Recursos Naturales (CIGREN), Facultad de Ciencias, Instituto de Biología, Universidad de Valparaíso, Valparaíso, Chile
| | - José Gallardo-Matus
- Laboratorio de Genética y Genómica Aplicada, Escuela de Ciencias del Mar, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Valparaíso, Valparaíso, Chile
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8
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Testerman T, Beka L, Reichley SR, King S, Welch TJ, Wiens GD, Graf J. A large-scale, multi-year microbial community survey of a freshwater trout aquaculture facility. FEMS Microbiol Ecol 2022; 98:6680245. [PMID: 36047934 DOI: 10.1093/femsec/fiac101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2022] [Revised: 07/15/2022] [Accepted: 08/30/2022] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Aquaculture is an important tool for solving the growing worldwide food demand, but infectious diseases of farmed animals represent a serious roadblock to continued industry growth. Therefore, it is essential to understand the microbial communities that reside within the built environments of aquaculture facilities to identify reservoirs of bacterial pathogens and potential correlations between commensal species and specific disease agents. Here, we present the results from 3 years of sampling a commercial rainbow trout aquaculture facility. We observed that the microbial communities residing on the abiotic surfaces within the hatchery were distinct from those residing on the surfaces at the facility's water source as well as the production raceways, despite similar communities in the water column at each location. Also, a subset of the water community seeds the biofilm communities. Lastly, we detected a common fish pathogen, Flavobacterium columnare, within the hatchery, including at the source water inlet. Importantly, the relative abundance of this pathogen was correlated with clinical disease. Our results characterized the microbial communities in an aquaculture facility, established that the hatchery environment contains a unique community composition and demonstrated that a specific fish pathogen resides within abiotic surface biofilms and is seeded from the natural water source.
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Affiliation(s)
- Todd Testerman
- University of Connecticut, Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, Storrs, CT, 06269, USA
| | - Lidia Beka
- University of Connecticut, Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, Storrs, CT, 06269, USA
| | | | - Stacy King
- Riverence Provisions LLC, Buhl, ID 83316, USA
| | - Timothy J Welch
- National Center for Cool and Cold Water Aquaculture, Agricultural Research Service/U.S. Department of Agriculture, Kearneysville, WV, 25430, USA
| | - Gregory D Wiens
- National Center for Cool and Cold Water Aquaculture, Agricultural Research Service/U.S. Department of Agriculture, Kearneysville, WV, 25430, USA
| | - Joerg Graf
- University of Connecticut, Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, Storrs, CT, 06269, USA
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9
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Isla A, Sánchez P, Ruiz P, Albornoz R, Pontigo JP, Rauch MC, Hawes C, Vargas-Chacoff L, Yáñez AJ. Effect of low-dose Piscirickettsia salmonis infection on haematological-biochemical blood parameters in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar). JOURNAL OF FISH BIOLOGY 2022; 101:1021-1032. [PMID: 35838309 DOI: 10.1111/jfb.15167] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2022] [Accepted: 07/13/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Piscirickettsia salmonis is the etiological agent of Piscirickettsiosis, a severe disease that affects Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) farmed in Chile and many other areas (Norway, Scotland, Ireland, Canada and the USA). This study investigated the effects of low-dose P. salmonis infection (1 × 102 CFU/ml) on Atlantic salmon. In this study, we challenged fish with an isolated representative of the EM-90 genogroup via intraperitoneal injection for 42 days. Infected fish displayed decreased haematocrit and haemoglobin levels at day 13 post-infection, indicating erythropenia, haemolysis and haemodilution. Conversely, their white blood cell counts increased on days 13 and 21 post-infection. Additionally, their iron levels decreased from day 2 post-infection, indicating iron deficiency and an inability to retrieve stored iron before infection. Their magnesium levels also decreased at day 28 post-infection, possibly due to osmoregulatory problems. Also, we observed an increase in lactate dehydrogenase activity on days 5, 21, and 28 post-infection, suggesting early symptoms of hepatotoxicity. Later analyses determined a decrease in plasma glucose levels from day 2 post-infection. This may be attributed to the hypoxic conditions caused by P. salmonis, leading to an excess utilization of stored carbohydrates. Our results suggest that the blood parameters we studied are useful for monitoring the physiological status of Atlantic salmon infected with P. salmonis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adolfo Isla
- Instituto de Bioquímica y Microbiología, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia, Chile
- Departamento de Ciencias Básicas, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Santo Tomás, Valdivia, Chile
- Interdisciplinary Center for Aquaculture Research, Concepción, Chile
| | - Patricio Sánchez
- Instituto de Bioquímica y Microbiología, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia, Chile
| | - Pamela Ruiz
- Instituto de Bioquímica y Microbiología, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia, Chile
- Interdisciplinary Center for Aquaculture Research, Concepción, Chile
| | - Romina Albornoz
- Interdisciplinary Center for Aquaculture Research, Concepción, Chile
| | - Juan P Pontigo
- Laboratorio de Biotecnología Aplicada, Facultad de Ciencas de la Naturaleza, Escuela de Medicina Veterinaria, Universidad San Sebastián, Puerto Montt, Chile
| | - María Cecilia Rauch
- Instituto de Bioquímica y Microbiología, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia, Chile
| | | | - Luis Vargas-Chacoff
- Centro Fondap de Investigación de Altas Latitudes, Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia, Chile
| | - Alejandro J Yáñez
- Interdisciplinary Center for Aquaculture Research, Concepción, Chile
- Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia, Chile
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10
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Fuentes DE, Acuña LG, Calderón IL. Stress response and virulence factors in bacterial pathogens relevant for Chilean aquaculture: current status and outlook of our knowledge. Biol Res 2022; 55:21. [PMID: 35642071 PMCID: PMC9153119 DOI: 10.1186/s40659-022-00391-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2021] [Accepted: 05/17/2022] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
The study of the stress responses in bacteria has given us a wealth of information regarding the mechanisms employed by these bacteria in aggressive or even non-optimal living conditions. This information has been applied by several researchers to identify molecular targets related to pathogeny, virulence, and survival, among others, and to design new prophylactic or therapeutic strategies against them. In this study, our knowledge of these mechanisms has been summarized with emphasis on some aquatic pathogenic bacteria of relevance to the health and productive aspects of Chilean salmon farming (Piscirickettsia salmonis, Tenacibaculum spp., Renibacterium salmoninarum, and Yersinia ruckeri). This study will aid further investigations aimed at shedding more light on possible lines of action for these pathogens in the coming years.
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Affiliation(s)
- Derie E Fuentes
- Aquaculture and Marine Ecosystems, Center For Systems Biotechnology, Fraunhofer Chile Research, Santiago, Chile. .,Environmental Sustainability, Center for Systems Biotechnology (CSB-UNAB), Universidad Andres Bello, Facultad de Ciencias de la Vida, Santiago, Chile.
| | - Lillian G Acuña
- Laboratorio de RNAs Bacterianos, Departamento de Ciencias Biológicas, Facultad de Ciencias de la Vida, Universidad Andres Bello, Santiago, Chile.,Interdisciplinary Center for Aquaculture Research, Universidad Andres Bello, Viña del Mar, Santiago, Chile
| | - Iván L Calderón
- Laboratorio de RNAs Bacterianos, Departamento de Ciencias Biológicas, Facultad de Ciencias de la Vida, Universidad Andres Bello, Santiago, Chile
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11
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Ishaq SL, Turner SM, Tudor MS, MacRae JD, Hamlin H, Kilchenmann J, Lee G, Bouchard D. Many Questions Remain Unanswered About the Role of Microbial Transmission in Epizootic Shell Disease in American Lobsters (Homarus americanus). Front Microbiol 2022; 13:824950. [PMID: 35602067 PMCID: PMC9121004 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2022.824950] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2021] [Accepted: 04/01/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Despite decades of research on lobster species’ biology, ecology, and microbiology, there are still unresolved questions about the microbial communities which associate in or on lobsters under healthy or diseased states, microbial acquisition, as well as microbial transmission between lobsters and between lobsters and their environment. There is an untapped opportunity for metagenomics, metatranscriptomics, and metabolomics to be added to the existing wealth of knowledge to more precisely track disease transmission, etiology, and host-microbe dynamics. Moreover, we need to gain this knowledge of wild lobster microbiomes before climate change alters environmental and host-microbial communities more than it likely already has, throwing a socioeconomically critical industry into disarray. As with so many animal species, the effects of climate change often manifest as changes in movement, and in this perspective piece, we consider the movement of the American lobster (Homarus americanus), Atlantic Ocean currents, and the microorganisms associated with either.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suzanne L. Ishaq
- School of Food and Agriculture, University of Maine, Orono, ME, United States
- Aquaculture Research Institute, Orono, ME, United States
- *Correspondence: Suzanne L. Ishaq,
| | - Sarah M. Turner
- Aquaculture Research Institute, Orono, ME, United States
- Cooperative Extension, University of Maine, Orono, ME, United States
| | - M. Scarlett Tudor
- Aquaculture Research Institute, Orono, ME, United States
- Cooperative Extension, University of Maine, Orono, ME, United States
| | - Jean D. MacRae
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Maine, Orono, ME, United States
| | - Heather Hamlin
- Aquaculture Research Institute, Orono, ME, United States
- School of Marine Sciences, University of Maine, Orono, ME, United States
| | - Joelle Kilchenmann
- School of Marine Sciences, University of Maine, Orono, ME, United States
| | - Grace Lee
- Department of Neuroscience, Bowdoin College, Brunswick, ME, United States
| | - Deborah Bouchard
- Aquaculture Research Institute, Orono, ME, United States
- Cooperative Extension, University of Maine, Orono, ME, United States
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12
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Rozas-Serri M. Why Does Piscirickettsia salmonis Break the Immunological Paradigm in Farmed Salmon? Biological Context to Understand the Relative Control of Piscirickettsiosis. Front Immunol 2022; 13:856896. [PMID: 35386699 PMCID: PMC8979166 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.856896] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2022] [Accepted: 02/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Piscirickettsiosis (SRS) has been the most important infectious disease in Chilean salmon farming since the 1980s. It was one of the first to be described, and to date, it continues to be the main infectious cause of mortality. How can we better understand the epidemiological situation of SRS? The catch-all answer is that the Chilean salmon farming industry must fight year after year against a multifactorial disease, and apparently only the environment in Chile seems to favor the presence and persistence of Piscirickettsia salmonis. This is a fastidious, facultative intracellular bacterium that replicates in the host’s own immune cells and antigen-presenting cells and evades the adaptive cell-mediated immune response, which is why the existing vaccines are not effective in controlling it. Therefore, the Chilean salmon farming industry uses a lot of antibiotics—to control SRS—because otherwise, fish health and welfare would be significantly impaired, and a significantly higher volume of biomass would be lost per year. How can the ever-present risk of negative consequences of antibiotic use in salmon farming be balanced with the productive and economic viability of an animal production industry, as well as with the care of the aquatic environment and public health and with the sustainability of the industry? The answer that is easy, but no less true, is that we must know the enemy and how it interacts with its host. Much knowledge has been generated using this line of inquiry, however it remains insufficient. Considering the state-of-the-art summarized in this review, it can be stated that, from the point of view of fish immunology and vaccinology, we are quite far from reaching an effective and long-term solution for the control of SRS. For this reason, the aim of this critical review is to comprehensively discuss the current knowledge on the interaction between the bacteria and the host to promote the generation of more and better measures for the prevention and control of SRS.
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13
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Ruiz P, Sepulveda D, Vidal JM, Romero R, Contreras D, Barros J, Carrasco C, Ruiz-Tagle N, Romero A, Urrutia H, Oliver C. Piscirickettsia salmonis Produces a N-Acetyl-L-Homoserine Lactone as a Bacterial Quorum Sensing System-Related Molecule. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2021; 11:755496. [PMID: 34760722 PMCID: PMC8573184 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2021.755496] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2021] [Accepted: 10/11/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Piscirickettsia salmonis is the etiological agent of piscirickettsiosis, the most prevalent disease in salmonid species in Chilean salmonids farms. Many bacteria produce N-acyl-homoserine lactones (AHLs) as a quorum-sensing signal molecule to regulate gene expression in a cell density-dependent manner, and thus modulate physiological characteristics and several bacterial mechanisms. In this study, a fluorescent biosensor system method and gas chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (GC/MS) were combined to detect AHLs produced by P. salmonis. These analyses revealed an emitted fluorescence signal when the biosensor P. putida EL106 (RPL4cep) was co-cultured with both, P. salmonis LF-89 type strain and an EM-90-like strain Ps007, respectively. Furthermore, the production of an AHL-type molecule was confirmed by GC/MS by both P. salmonis strains, which identified the presence of a N-acetyl-L-homoserine Lactone in the supernatant extract. However, It is suggested that an alternate pathway could synthesizes AHLs, which should be address in future experiments in order to elucidate this important bacterial process. To the best of our knowledge, the present report is the first to describe the type of AHLs produced by P. salmonis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pamela Ruiz
- Laboratorio de Biopelículas y Microbiología Ambiental, Centro de Biotecnología, Universidad de Concepción, Concepción, Chile.,Departamento de Ciencias Biológicas, Facultad de Ciencias de la Vida, Universidad Andres Bello, Talcahuano, Chile
| | - Daniela Sepulveda
- Laboratorio de Biopelículas y Microbiología Ambiental, Centro de Biotecnología, Universidad de Concepción, Concepción, Chile
| | - José Miguel Vidal
- Laboratorio de Biopelículas y Microbiología Ambiental, Centro de Biotecnología, Universidad de Concepción, Concepción, Chile.,Departamento de Investigación y Desarrollo, Ecombio limitada, Concepción, Chile
| | - Romina Romero
- Laboratorio de Investigaciones Medioambientales de Zonas Áridas (LIMZA), Depto. Ingeniería Mecánica, Facultad de Ingeniería, Universidad de Tarapacá, Arica, Chile
| | - David Contreras
- Departamento de Química Analítica e Inorgánica, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Universidad de Concepción, Concepción, Chile
| | - Javier Barros
- Departamento de Investigación y Desarrollo, Micbiotech Spa, Concepción, Chile
| | - Carlos Carrasco
- Laboratorio de Biopelículas y Microbiología Ambiental, Centro de Biotecnología, Universidad de Concepción, Concepción, Chile
| | - Nathaly Ruiz-Tagle
- Laboratorio de Biopelículas y Microbiología Ambiental, Centro de Biotecnología, Universidad de Concepción, Concepción, Chile
| | - Alex Romero
- Laboratorio de Inmunología y Estrés de Organismos Acuáticos, Facultad de Ciencias Veterinarias, Instituto de Patología Animal, Valdivia, Chile.,Interdisciplinary Center for Aquaculture Research (INCAR), Concepción, Chile
| | - Homero Urrutia
- Laboratorio de Biopelículas y Microbiología Ambiental, Centro de Biotecnología, Universidad de Concepción, Concepción, Chile.,Departamento de Microbiología, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad de Concepción, Concepción, Chile
| | - Cristian Oliver
- Laboratorio de Inmunología y Estrés de Organismos Acuáticos, Facultad de Ciencias Veterinarias, Instituto de Patología Animal, Valdivia, Chile
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14
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Zúñiga A, Solis C, Cartes C, Nourdin G, Yañez A, Romero A, Haussmann D, Figueroa J. Transcriptional analysis of metabolic and virulence genes associated with biofilm formation in Piscirickettsia salmonis strains. FEMS Microbiol Lett 2021; 367:5948097. [PMID: 33128546 DOI: 10.1093/femsle/fnaa180] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2020] [Accepted: 10/29/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Piscirickettsia salmonis is a facultative intracellular bacterium that generates piscirickettsiosis affecting salmonids in Chile. The bacterium has the adaptability to survive in the marine environment under multiple stressful conditions. In this sense, this work focused on the analysis of a gene battery associated with biofilm formation under different culture conditions and on the adaptability of this biofilm to different media. The results indicated that the strains LF-89, IBM-034 and IBM-040 were strong biofilm producers, evidencing adaptability to the media by increasing the amount of biofilm through successive growths. Transcript levels of six genes described in various bacteria and P. salmonis, considered to have metabolic functions, and playing a relevant role in biofilm formation, were analyzed to evaluate bacterial functionality in the biofilm. The genes mazE-mazF, implicated in biofilm and stress, were markedly overexpressed in the biofilm condition in the three strains. For its part, gene gltA, an indicator of metabolic activity and related to virulence inhibition in Salmonella typhimurium, also seems to restrain the pathogenesis process in P. salmonis by inhibiting the expression of the virulence-associated genes liso and tcf. Finally, the expression of the glnA gene suggests the use of glutamine as an essential element for the growth of the biofilm.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Zúñiga
- Institute of Biochemistry and Microbiology, Faculty of Sciences, Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia, Chile
| | - C Solis
- Institute of Biochemistry and Microbiology, Faculty of Sciences, Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia, Chile
| | - C Cartes
- Institute of Biochemistry and Microbiology, Faculty of Sciences, Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia, Chile.,FONDAP Centre: Interdisciplinary Centre for Aquaculture Research (INCAR), O'Higgins 1695, Concepción, Chile
| | - G Nourdin
- FONDAP Centre: Interdisciplinary Centre for Aquaculture Research (INCAR), O'Higgins 1695, Concepción, Chile
| | - A Yañez
- Institute of Biochemistry and Microbiology, Faculty of Sciences, Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia, Chile.,FONDAP Centre: Interdisciplinary Centre for Aquaculture Research (INCAR), O'Higgins 1695, Concepción, Chile
| | - A Romero
- FONDAP Centre: Interdisciplinary Centre for Aquaculture Research (INCAR), O'Higgins 1695, Concepción, Chile.,Institute of Animal Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, Universidad Austral de Chile. Valdivia, Chile
| | - D Haussmann
- Department of Basic Sciences, Faculty of Sciences, Universidad Santo Tomás, Valdivia, Chile
| | - J Figueroa
- Institute of Biochemistry and Microbiology, Faculty of Sciences, Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia, Chile.,FONDAP Centre: Interdisciplinary Centre for Aquaculture Research (INCAR), O'Higgins 1695, Concepción, Chile
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15
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Levipan HA, Reyes-Garcia L, Avendaño-Herrera R. Piscirickettsia salmonis does not evidence quorum sensing based on acyl-homoserine lactones. JOURNAL OF FISH DISEASES 2021; 44:1047-1051. [PMID: 33900628 DOI: 10.1111/jfd.13383] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2021] [Accepted: 04/08/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Héctor A Levipan
- Departamento de Biología, Facultad de Ciencias Naturales y Exactas, Universidad de Playa Ancha, Valparaíso, Chile
| | - Luis Reyes-Garcia
- Departamento de Ciencias Básicas, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Santo Tomás, Viña del Mar, Chile
| | - Ruben Avendaño-Herrera
- Laboratorio de Patología de Organismos Acuáticos y Biotecnología Acuícola, Facultad de Ciencias de la Vida, Universidad Andrés Bello, Viña del Mar, Chile
- Interdisciplinary Center for Aquaculture Research (INCAR), Universidad Andrés Bello, Viña del Mar, Chile
- Centro de Investigación Marina Quintay (CIMARQ), Universidad Andrés Bello, Quintay, Chile
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16
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Levipan HA, Avendaño-Herrera R. Assessing the impacts of skin mucus from Salmo salar and Oncorhynchus mykiss on the growth and in vitro infectivity of the fish pathogen Piscirickettsia salmonis. JOURNAL OF FISH DISEASES 2021; 44:181-190. [PMID: 33006764 DOI: 10.1111/jfd.13275] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2020] [Revised: 09/03/2020] [Accepted: 09/04/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Piscirickettsiosis is a fish disease caused by the facultative intracellular bacterium, Piscirickettsia salmonis. Even though entry routes of P. salmonis in fish are not fully clear yet, the skin seems to be the main portal in some salmonid species. Despite the importance of fish mucous skin barrier in fighting waterborne pathogens, the interaction between salmonid skin mucus and the bacterium is unknown. This study seeks to determine the in vitro changes in the growth of two Chilean P. salmonis strains (LF-89-like and EM-90-like genotypes) and the type strain LF-89T under exposures to skin mucus from Salmo salar and Oncorhynchus mykiss, as well as changes in the cytotoxic effect of P. salmonis on the SHK-1 cells following exposures. The results suggest that the growth of three P. salmonis strains was not significantly negatively affected under exposures to skin mucus (adjusted at 100 μg total protein ml-1 ) of O. mykiss (69 ± 18 U lysozyme ml-1 ) and S. salar (48 ± 33 U lysozyme ml-1 ) over time. However, the cytotoxic effect of P. salmonis, pre-exposed to salmonid skin mucus, on the SHK-1 cell line was reliably identified only towards the end of the incubation period, suggesting that the mucus had a delaying effect on the cytotoxic response of the cell line to the bacterium. These results represent a baseline knowledge to open new avenues of research intended to understand how P. salmonis faces the fish mucous skin barrier.
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Affiliation(s)
- Héctor A Levipan
- Departamento de Biología, Facultad de Ciencias Naturales y Exactas, Universidad de Playa Ancha, Valparaíso, Chile
| | - Ruben Avendaño-Herrera
- Laboratorio de Patología de Organismos Acuáticos y Biotecnología Acuícola, Departamento de Ciencias Biológicas, Facultad de Ciencias de la Vida, Universidad Andrés Bello, Viña del Mar, Chile
- Interdisciplinary Center for Aquaculture Research, Universidad Andrés Bello, Viña del Mar, Chile
- Centro de Investigación Marina Quintay (CIMARQ), Universidad Andrés Bello, Quintay, Chile
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17
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Santibañez N, Vega M, Pérez T, Yáñez A, González-Stegmaier R, Figueroa J, Enríquez R, Oliver C, Romero A. Biofilm Produced In Vitro by Piscirickettsia salmonis Generates Differential Cytotoxicity Levels and Expression Patterns of Immune Genes in the Atlantic Salmon Cell Line SHK-1. Microorganisms 2020; 8:E1609. [PMID: 33092013 PMCID: PMC7594049 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms8101609] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2020] [Revised: 09/10/2020] [Accepted: 09/19/2020] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Piscirickettsia salmonis is the causative agent of Piscirickettsiosis, an infectious disease with a high economic impact on the Chilean salmonid aquaculture industry. This bacterium produces biofilm as a potential resistance and persistence strategy against stressful environmental stimuli. However, the in vitro culture conditions that modulate biofilm formation as well as the effect of sessile bacteria on virulence and immune gene expression in host cells have not been described for P. salmonis. Therefore, this study aimed to analyze the biofilm formation by P. salmonis isolates under several NaCl and iron concentrations and to evaluate the virulence of planktonic and sessile bacteria, together with the immune gene expression induced by these bacterial conditions in an Atlantic salmon macrophage cell line. Our results showed that NaCl and Fe significantly increased biofilm production in the LF-89 type strain and EM-90-like isolates. Additionally, the planktonic EM-90 isolate and sessile LF-89 generated the highest virulence levels, associated with differential expression of il-1β, il-8, nf-κb, and iκb-α genes in SHK-1 cells. These results suggest that there is no single virulence pattern or gene expression profile induced by the planktonic or sessile condition of P. salmonis, which are dependent on each strain and bacterial condition used.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natacha Santibañez
- Laboratorio de Inmunología y Estrés de Organismos Acuáticos, Instituto de Patología Animal, Facultad de Ciencias Veterinarias, Universidad Austral de Chile, Campus Isla Teja, Valdivia 5090000, Chile; (N.S.); (M.V.); (T.P.); (R.G.-S.); (R.E.)
- Interdisciplinary Center for Aquaculture Research (INCAR), Concepción 4070386, Chile; (A.Y.); (J.F.)
| | - Matías Vega
- Laboratorio de Inmunología y Estrés de Organismos Acuáticos, Instituto de Patología Animal, Facultad de Ciencias Veterinarias, Universidad Austral de Chile, Campus Isla Teja, Valdivia 5090000, Chile; (N.S.); (M.V.); (T.P.); (R.G.-S.); (R.E.)
| | - Tatiana Pérez
- Laboratorio de Inmunología y Estrés de Organismos Acuáticos, Instituto de Patología Animal, Facultad de Ciencias Veterinarias, Universidad Austral de Chile, Campus Isla Teja, Valdivia 5090000, Chile; (N.S.); (M.V.); (T.P.); (R.G.-S.); (R.E.)
- Interdisciplinary Center for Aquaculture Research (INCAR), Concepción 4070386, Chile; (A.Y.); (J.F.)
| | - Alejandro Yáñez
- Interdisciplinary Center for Aquaculture Research (INCAR), Concepción 4070386, Chile; (A.Y.); (J.F.)
- Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia 5090000, Chile
| | - Roxana González-Stegmaier
- Laboratorio de Inmunología y Estrés de Organismos Acuáticos, Instituto de Patología Animal, Facultad de Ciencias Veterinarias, Universidad Austral de Chile, Campus Isla Teja, Valdivia 5090000, Chile; (N.S.); (M.V.); (T.P.); (R.G.-S.); (R.E.)
| | - Jaime Figueroa
- Interdisciplinary Center for Aquaculture Research (INCAR), Concepción 4070386, Chile; (A.Y.); (J.F.)
- Instituto de Bioquímica y Microbiología, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia 5090000, Chile
| | - Ricardo Enríquez
- Laboratorio de Inmunología y Estrés de Organismos Acuáticos, Instituto de Patología Animal, Facultad de Ciencias Veterinarias, Universidad Austral de Chile, Campus Isla Teja, Valdivia 5090000, Chile; (N.S.); (M.V.); (T.P.); (R.G.-S.); (R.E.)
| | - Cristian Oliver
- Laboratorio de Inmunología y Estrés de Organismos Acuáticos, Instituto de Patología Animal, Facultad de Ciencias Veterinarias, Universidad Austral de Chile, Campus Isla Teja, Valdivia 5090000, Chile; (N.S.); (M.V.); (T.P.); (R.G.-S.); (R.E.)
| | - Alex Romero
- Laboratorio de Inmunología y Estrés de Organismos Acuáticos, Instituto de Patología Animal, Facultad de Ciencias Veterinarias, Universidad Austral de Chile, Campus Isla Teja, Valdivia 5090000, Chile; (N.S.); (M.V.); (T.P.); (R.G.-S.); (R.E.)
- Interdisciplinary Center for Aquaculture Research (INCAR), Concepción 4070386, Chile; (A.Y.); (J.F.)
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