Transient heat release during induced mitochondrial proton uncoupling

Warm Cells, Hot Mitochondria: Achievements and Problems of Ultralocal Thermometry

Temperature is a crucial regulator of the rate and direction of biochemical reactions and cell processes. The recent data indicating the presence of local thermal gradients associated with the sites of high-rate thermogenesis, on the one hand, demonstrate the possibility for the existence of "thermal signaling" in a cell and, on the other, are criticized on the basis of thermodynamic calculations and models. Here, we review the main thermometric techniques and sensors developed for the determination of temperature inside living cells and diverse intracellular compartments. A comparative analysis is conducted of the results obtained using these methods for the cytosol, nucleus, endo-/sarcoplasmic reticulum, and mitochondria, as well as their biological consistency. Special attention is given to the limitations, possible sources of errors and ambiguities of the sensor's responses. The issue of biological temperature limits in cells and organelles is considered. It is concluded that the elaboration of experimental protocols for ultralocal temperature measurements that take into account both the characteristics of biological systems, as well as the properties and limitations of each type of sensor is of critical importance for the generation of reliable results and further progress in this field.

Mitochondrial complex I ROS production and redox signaling in hypoxia

Mitochondria are a main source of cellular energy. Oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) is the major process of aerobic respiration. Enzyme complexes of the electron transport chain (ETC) pump protons to generate a protonmotive force (Δp) that drives OXPHOS. Complex I is an electron entry point into the ETC. Complex I oxidizes nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH) and transfers electrons to ubiquinone in a reaction coupled with proton pumping. Complex I also produces reactive oxygen species (ROS) under various conditions. The enzymatic activities of complex I can be regulated by metabolic conditions and serves as a regulatory node of the ETC. Complex I ROS plays diverse roles in cell metabolism ranging from physiologic to pathologic conditions. Progress in our understanding indicates that ROS release from complex I serves important signaling functions. Increasing evidence suggests that complex I ROS is important in signaling a mismatch in energy production and demand. In this article, we review the role of ROS from complex I in sensing acute hypoxia.

Thermoelectric Nanofluidics Probing Thermal Heterogeneity inside Single Cells

Accurate temperature measurement in one living cell is of great significance for understanding biological functions and regulation. Here, a nanopipet electric thermometer (NET) is established for real-time intracellular temperature measurement. Based on the temperature-controlled ion migration, the temperature change in solution results in altered ion mobilities and ion distributions, which can be converted to the thermoelectric responses of NET in a galvanostatic configuration. The exponential relationship between the voltage and the temperature promises highly sensitive thermoelectric responses up to 11.1 mV K-1, which is over an order of magnitude higher than previous thermoelectric thermometry. Moreover, the NET exhibits superior thermal resolution of 25 mK and spatiotemporal resolution of 100 nm and 0.9 ms as well as excellent stability and reproducibility. Benefiting from these unique features, both thermal fluctuations in steady-state cells and heat generation and dissipation upon drug administration can be successfully monitored, which are hardly achieved by current methods. By using NET, thermal heterogeneities of single cancer cells during immunotherapy were reported first in this work, in which the increased intracellular temperature was demonstrated to be associated with the survival benefit and resistance of cancer cells in immunotherapy. This work not only provides a reliable method for microscopic temperature monitoring but also gains new insights to elucidate the mechanism of immune evasion and therapeutic resistance.

Metabolic switch in cancer - Survival of the fittest

Cell metabolism is characterised by the highly coordinated conversion of nutrients into energy and biomass. In solid cancers, hypoxia, nutrient deficiencies, and tumour vasculature are incompatible with accelerated anabolic growth and require a rewiring of cancer cell metabolism. Driver gene mutations direct malignant cells away from oxidation to maximise energy production and biosynthesis while tumour-secreted factors degrade peripheral tissues to fuel disease progression and initiate metastasis. As it is vital to understand cancer cell metabolism and survival mechanisms, this review discusses the metabolic switch and current drug targets and clinical trials. In the future, metabolic markers may be included when phenotyping individual tumours to improve the therapeutic opportunities for personalised therapy.

Single-cell thermometry with a nanothermocouple probe

Herein, a nanopipette-based thermocouple probe that possesses high temperature resolution, rapid response, good reversibility and stability was constructed and successfully applied for single-cell temperature sensing. Different intracellular temperatures were observed in diverse types of cells, which reveals differences in their metabolism levels. Temperature responses of cancer and normal cells against various exogenous drugs were also demonstrated. The spatially resolved temperature sensing of three-dimensional cell culture models unveils the existence of their inner temperature gradients. This work would facilitate drug screening and disease diagnosis.

Construing the metaxin-2 mediated simultaneous localization between mitochondria and nucleolus using molecular viscometry

Fluorescent probes for specific inter-organelle communication are of massive significance as such communication is essential for a diverse range of cellular events. Here, we present the microviscosity-sensitive fluorescence marker, Quinaldine Red (QR), and its dual organelle targeting light-up response in live cells. This biocompatible probe was able to localize in mitochondria and nucleolus simultaneously. While QR was able to sense the viscosity change inside these compartments under the induced effect of an ionophore and ROS-rich microenvironment, the probe's ability to stain mitochondria remained unperturbed even after protonophore-induced depolarization. Consequently, a systematic quantification was performed to understand the alteration of microviscosity. Similar behavior in two distinct organelles implied that QR binds to metaxin-2 protein, common to mitochondrial and nucleolar proteomes. We believe this is the first of its kind investigation that identifies the inter-organelle communications marker and opens up a new dimension in this field.

TRPV4 acts as a mitochondrial Ca2+-importer and regulates mitochondrial temperature and metabolism

TRPV4 is associated with the development of neuropathic pain, sensory defects, muscular dystrophies, neurodegenerative disorders, Charcot Marie Tooth and skeletal dysplasia. In all these cases, mitochondrial abnormalities are prominent. Here, we demonstrate that TRPV4, localizes to a subpopulation of mitochondria in various cell lines. Improper expression and/or function of TRPV4 induces several mitochondrial abnormalities. TRPV4 is also involved in the regulation of mitochondrial numbers, Ca²⁺-levels and mitochondrial temperature. Accordingly, several naturally occurring TRPV4 mutations affect mitochondrial morphology and distribution. These findings may help in understanding the significance of mitochondria in TRPV4-mediated channelopathies possibly classifying them as mitochondrial diseases.

The multiple facets of mitochondrial regulations controlling cellular thermogenesis

Understanding temperature production and regulation in endotherm organisms becomes a crucial challenge facing the increased frequency and intensity of heat strokes related to global warming. Mitochondria, located at the crossroad of metabolism, respiration, Ca²⁺ homeostasis, and apoptosis, were recently proposed to further act as cellular radiators, with an estimated inner temperature reaching 50 °C in common cell lines. This inner thermogenesis might be further exacerbated in organs devoted to produce consistent efforts as muscles, or heat as brown adipose tissue, in response to acute solicitations. Consequently, pathways promoting respiratory chain uncoupling and mitochondrial activity, such as Ca²⁺ fluxes, uncoupling proteins, futile cycling, and substrate supplies, provide the main processes controlling heat production and cell temperature. The mitochondrial thermogenesis might be further amplified by cytoplasmic mechanisms promoting the over-consumption of ATP pools. Considering these new thermic paradigms, we discuss here all conventional wisdoms linking mitochondrial functions to cellular thermogenesis in different physiological conditions.

Luminescent upconversion nanoparticles evaluating temperature-induced stress experienced by aquatic organisms owing to environmental variations

Growing anthropogenic activities are significantly influencing the environment and especially aquatic ecosystems. Therefore, there is an increasing demand to develop techniques for monitoring and assessing freshwater habitat changes so that interventions can prevent irrevocable damage. We explore an approach for screening the temperature-induced stress experienced by aquatic organisms owing to environmental variations. Luminescent spectra of upconversion [Y2O3: Yb, Er] particles embedded within Caridina multidentata shrimps are measured, while ambient temperature gradient is inducing stress conditions. The inverse linear dependence of the logarithmic ratio of the luminescence intensity provides an effective means for temperature evaluation inside aquatic species in vivo. The measured luminescence shows high photostability on the background of the complete absence of biotissues’ autofluorescence, as well as no obscuration of the luminescence signal from upconversion particles. Current approach of hybrid sensing has a great potential for monitoring variations in aquatic ecosystems driven by climate changes and pollution.

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Luminescence spectra induced by upconversion particles are embedded into aquatic animals

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Real-time quantitative assessment of temperature inside aquatic species in vivo

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Evaluation of stress handled by water organisms owing to environmental variations

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Hybrid sensing approach for monitoring environmental variations driven by climate change

Thermal Probing Techniques for a Single Live Cell

Temperature is a significant factor in determining and characterizing cellular metabolism and other biochemical activities. In this study, we provide a brief overview of two important technologies used to monitor the local temperatures of individual living cells: fluorescence nano-thermometry and an array of micro-/nano-sized thin-film thermocouples. We explain some key technical issues that must be addressed and optimised for further practical applications, such as in cell biology, drug selection, and novel antitumor therapy. We also offer a method for combining them into a hybrid measuring system.

Regulation of mitochondrial temperature in health and disease

Mitochondrial temperature is produced by various metabolic processes inside the mitochondria, particularly oxidative phosphorylation. It was recently reported that mitochondria could normally operate at high temperatures that can reach 50℃. The aim of this review is to identify mitochondrial temperature differences between normal cells and cancer cells. Herein, we discussed the different types of mitochondrial thermosensors and their advantages and disadvantages. We reviewed the studies assessing the mitochondrial temperature in cancer cells and normal cells. We shed the light on the factors involved in maintaining the mitochondrial temperature of normal cells compared to cancer cells.

Characterizing region-specific glucose metabolic profile of the rodent brain using Seahorse XFe96 analyzer

The brain is highly complex with diverse structural characteristics in accordance with specific functions. Accordingly, differences in regional function, cellular compositions, and active metabolic pathways may link to differences in glucose metabolism at different brain regions. In the current study, we optimized an acute biopsy punching method and characterized region-specific glucose metabolism of rat and mouse brain by a Seahorse XFe96 analyzer. We demonstrated that 0.5 mm diameter tissue punches from 180-µm thick brain sections allow metabolic measurements of anatomically defined brain structures using Seahorse XFe96 analyzer. Our result indicated that the cerebellum displays a more quiescent phenotype of glucose metabolism than cerebral cortex, basal ganglia, and hippocampus. In addition, the cerebellum has higher AMPK activation than other brain regions evidenced by the expression of pAMPK, upstream pLKB1, and downstream pACC. Furthermore, rodent brain has relatively low mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation efficiency with up to 30% of respiration linked to proton leak. In summary, our study discovered region-specific glucose metabolic profile and relative high proton leak coupled respiration in the brain. Our study warrants future research on spatial mapping of the brain glucose metabolism in physiological and pathological conditions and exploring the mechanisms and significance of mitochondrial uncoupling in the brain.

Do compromised mitochondria aggravate severity and fatality by SARS-CoV-2?

At global level, the pandemic coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is known to be caused by an etiologic agent severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). Numerous evidence and propositions have emerged on the molecular and cellular attributes that cause COVID-19. Notwithstanding, still several key questions with reference to molecular aspects of severity of infection by SARS-CoV-2 need to be answered. In the same line, the role of healthy mitochondria to maintain intracellular temperature and their association with the severity of SARS-CoV-2 is completely missing. In this direction, preclinical and clinical data on the comorbidities in the case of mitochondrial defective disease and COVID-19 are not available. The authors propose that patients harboring primary mitochondrial disease and secondary mitochondrial dysfunction will display a higher severity and death rate compared to healthy mitochondria harboring patients.

Notch ankyrin domain: evolutionary rise of a thermodynamic sensor

Notch signalling pathway plays a key role in metazoan biology by contributing to resolution of binary decisions in the life cycle of cells during development. Outcomes such as proliferation/differentiation dichotomy are resolved by transcriptional remodelling that follows a switch from Notch^on to Notch^off state, characterised by dissociation of Notch intracellular domain (NICD) from DNA-bound RBPJ. Here we provide evidence that transitioning to the Notch^off state is regulated by heat flux, a phenomenon that aligns resolution of fate dichotomies to mitochondrial activity. A combination of phylogenetic analysis and computational biochemistry was utilised to disclose structural adaptations of Notch1 ankyrin domain that enabled function as a sensor of heat flux. We then employed DNA-based micro-thermography to measure heat flux during brain development, followed by analysis in vitro of the temperature-dependent behaviour of Notch1 in mouse neural progenitor cells. The structural capacity of NICD to operate as a thermodynamic sensor in metazoans stems from characteristic enrichment of charged acidic amino acids in β-hairpins of the ankyrin domain that amplify destabilising inter-residue electrostatic interactions and render the domain thermolabile. The instability emerges upon mitochondrial activity which raises the perinuclear and nuclear temperatures to 50 °C and 39 °C, respectively, leading to destabilization of Notch1 transcriptional complex and transitioning to the Notch^off state. Notch1 functions a metazoan thermodynamic sensor that is switched on by intercellular contacts, inputs heat flux as a proxy for mitochondrial activity in the Notch^on state via the ankyrin domain and is eventually switched off in a temperature-dependent manner.

Non-Interventional and High-Precision Temperature Measurement Biochips for Long-Term Monitoring the Temperature Fluctuations of Individual Cells

Monitoring the thermal responses of individual cells to external stimuli is essential for studies of cell metabolism, organelle function, and drug screening. Fluorescent temperature probes are usually employed to measure the temperatures of individual cells; however, they have some unavoidable problems, such as, poor stability caused by their sensitivity to the chemical composition of the solution and the limitation in their measurement time due to the short fluorescence lifetime. Here, we demonstrate a stable, non-interventional, and high-precision temperature-measurement chip that can monitor the temperature fluctuations of individual cells subject to external stimuli and over a normal cell life cycle as long as several days. To improve the temperature resolution, we designed temperature sensors made of Pd-Cr thin-film thermocouples, a freestanding Si3N4 platform, and a dual-temperature control system. Our experimental results confirm the feasibility of using this cellular temperature-measurement chip to detect local temperature fluctuations of individual cells that are 0.3-1.5 K higher than the ambient temperature for HeLa cells in different proliferation cycles. In the future, we plan to integrate this chip with other single-cell technologies and apply it to research related to cellular heat-stress response.

Toward Quantitative Bio-sensing with Nitrogen-Vacancy Center in Diamond

The long-dreamed-of capability of monitoring the molecular machinery in living systems has not been realized yet, mainly due to the technical limitations of current sensing technologies. However, recently emerging quantum sensors are showing great promise for molecular detection and imaging. One of such sensing qubits is the nitrogen-vacancy (NV) center, a photoluminescent impurity in a diamond lattice with unique room-temperature optical and spin properties. This atomic-sized quantum emitter has the ability to quantitatively measure nanoscale electromagnetic fields via optical means at ambient conditions. Moreover, the unlimited photostability of NV centers, combined with the excellent diamond biocompatibility and the possibility of diamond nanoparticles internalization into the living cells, makes NV-based sensors one of the most promising and versatile platforms for various life-science applications. In this review, we will summarize the latest developments of NV-based quantum sensing with a focus on biomedical applications, including measurements of magnetic biomaterials, intracellular temperature, localized physiological species, action potentials, and electronic and nuclear spins. We will also outline the main unresolved challenges and provide future perspectives of many promising aspects of NV-based bio-sensing.

On the power per mitochondrion and the number of associated active ATP synthases

Recent experiments and thermodynamic arguments suggest that mitochondrial temperatures are higher than those of the cytoplasm. A "hot mitochondrion" calls for a closer examination of the energy balance that endows it with these claimed elevated temperatures. As a first step in this effort, we present here a semi-quantitative bookkeeping whereby, in one stroke, a formula is proposed that yields the rate of heat production in a typical mitochondrion and a formula for estimating the number of "active" ATP synthase molecules per mitochondrion. The number of active ATP synthase molecules is the equivalent number of ATP synthases operating at 100% capacity to maintain the rate of mitochondrial heat generation. Scaling laws are shown to determine the number of active ATP synthase molecules in a mitochondrion and mitochondrial rate of heat production, whereby both appear to scale with cell volume. Four heterotrophic protozoan cell types are considered in this study. The studied cells, selected to cover a wide range of sizes (volumes) fromca.100μm³to 1 millionμm³, are estimated to exhibit a power per mitochondrion ranging fromca.1 pW to 0.03 pW. In these cells, the corresponding number of active ATP synthases per mitochondrion ranges from 5000 to just about a hundred. The absolute total number of ATP synthase molecules per mitochondrion, regardless of their activity status, can be up to two orders of magnitudes higher.

Cellular Thermometry Considerations for Probing Biochemical Pathways

Temperature is a fundamental thermodynamic property that can serve as a probe of biochemical reactions. Extracellular thermometry has previously been used to probe cancer metabolism and thermoregulation, with measured temperature changes of ~1-2 K in tissues, consistent with theoretical predictions. In contrast, previous intracellular thermometry studies remain disputed due to reports of >1 K intracellular temperature rises over 5 min or more that are inconsistent with theory. Thus, the origins of such anomalous temperature rises remain unclear. An improved quantitative understanding of intracellular thermometry is necessary to provide a clearer perspective for future measurements. Here, we develop a generalizable framework for modeling cellular heat diffusion over a range of subcellular-to-tissue length scales. Our model shows that local intracellular temperature changes reach measurable limits (>0.1 K) only when exogenously stimulated. On the other hand, extracellular temperatures can be measurable (>0.1 K) in tissues even from endogenous biochemical pathways. Using these insights, we provide a comprehensive approach to choosing an appropriate cellular thermometry technique by analyzing thermogenic reactions of different heat rates and time constants across length scales ranging from subcellular to tissues. Our work provides clarity on cellular heat diffusion modeling and on the required thermometry approach for probing thermogenic biochemical pathways.

Cell Temperature Measurement for Biometabolism Monitoring

Temperature is an important factor in the process of life, as thermal energy transfer participates in all biological events in organisms. Due to technical limitations, there is still a lot more information to be explored regarding the correlation between life activities and temperature changes. In recent years, the emergence of a variety of new temperature measurement methods has facilitated further research in this field. Here, we introduce the latest advances in temperature sensors for biological detection and their related applications in metabolic research. Various technologies are discussed in terms of their advantages and shortcomings, and future prospects are presented.

Design and analysis of magnetostrictive sensors for wireless temperature sensing

Magnetostrictive transducers are commonly used as actuators and sonar transducers, and in remote non-destructive evaluation. Their use in wireless thermometry is relatively unexplored. Since magnetostriction-based sensors are passive, they could potentially enable long-term near-field thermometry. While the temperature sensitivity of resonance frequency in magnetostrictive transducers has been reported in previous studies, the origin of the temperature sensitivity has, however, not been elucidated. Here, we identify material properties that determine temperature sensitivity and identify ways to improve sensitivity as well as the detection technique. Using a combination of analytical and computational methods, we systematically identify the material properties that directly influence the temperature coefficient of resonance frequency (TCF). We first experimentally measure the shift in resonance frequency due to temperature changes in a Metglas strip to be 0.03% K^-1. Using insights from theory, we then experimentally demonstrate a fivefold improvement to the TCF by using Terfenol in place of Metglas as the magnetostrictive sensor material. We further demonstrate an alternate temperature sensing technique that does not require measuring the resonance frequency, consequently reducing instrument complexity. This work provides a general framework to analyze magnetostrictive materials and the sensing scheme for near-field wireless thermometry.

Thermal properties of lipid bilayers derived from the transient heating regime of upconverting nanoparticles

Heat transfer and thermal properties at the nanoscale can be challenging to obtain experimentally. These are potentially relevant for understanding thermoregulation in cells. Experimental data from the transient heating regime in conjunction with a model based on the energy conservation enable the determination of the specific heat capacities for all components of a nanoconstruct, namely an upconverting nanoparticle and its conformal lipid bilayer coating. This approach benefits from a very simple, cost-effective and non-invasive optical setup to measure the thermal parameters at the nanoscale. The time-dependent model developed herein lays the foundation to describe the dynamics of heat transfer at the nanoscale and were used to understand the heat dissipation by lipid bilayers.

Pitfalls in Monitoring Mitochondrial Temperature Using Charged Thermosensitive Fluorophores

Mitochondria are the source of internal heat which influences all cellular processes. Hence, monitoring mitochondrial temperature provides a unique insight into cell physiology. Using a thermosensitive fluorescent probe MitoThermo Yellow (MTY), we have shown recently that mitochondria within human cells are maintained at close to 50 °C when active, increasing their temperature locally by about 10 °C. Initially reported in the HEK293 cell line, we confirmed this finding in the HeLa cell line. Delving deeper, using MTY and MTX (MitoThermo X), a modified version of MTY, we unraveled some caveats related to the nature of these charged fluorophores. While enabling the assessment of mitochondrial temperature in HEK and HeLa cell lines, the reactivity of MTY to membrane potential variations in human primary skin fibroblasts precluded local temperature monitoring in these cells. Chemical modification of MTY into MTX did not result in a temperature probe unresponsive to membrane potential variations that could be universally used in any cell type to determine mitochondrial temperature. Thus, the cell-type dependence of MTY in measuring mitochondrial temperature, which is likely due to the variable binding of this dye to specific internal mitochondrial components, should imply cautiousness while using these nanothermometers for mitochondrial temperature analysis.

The conundrum of hot mitochondria

The mitochondrion is often referred as the cellular powerhouse because the organelle oxidizes organic acids and NADH derived from nutriments, converting around 40% of the Gibbs free energy change of these reactions into ATP, the major energy currency of cell metabolism. Mitochondria are thus microscopic furnaces that inevitably release heat as a by-product of these reactions, and this contributes to body warming, especially in endotherms like birds and mammals. Over the last decade, the idea has emerged that mitochondria could be warmer than the cytosol, because of their intense energy metabolism. It has even been suggested that our own mitochondria could operate under normal conditions at a temperature close to 50 °C, something difficult to reconcile with the laws of thermal physics. Here, using our combined expertise in biology and physics, we exhaustively review the reports that led to the concept of a hot mitochondrion, which is essentially based on the development and use of a variety of molecular thermosensors whose intrinsic fluorescence is modified by temperature. Then, we discuss the physical concepts of heat diffusion, including mechanisms like phonons scattering, which occur in the nanoscale range. Although most of approaches with thermosensors studies present relatively sparse data and lack absolute temperature calibration, overall, they do support the hypothesis of hot mitochondria. However, there is no convincing physical explanation that would allow the organelle to maintain a higher temperature than its surroundings. We nevertheless proposed some research directions, mainly biological, that might help throw light on this intriguing conundrum.

Advances and challenges for fluorescence nanothermometry

Fluorescent nanothermometers can probe changes in local temperature in living cells and in vivo and reveal fundamental insights into biological properties. This field has attracted global efforts in developing both temperature-responsive materials and detection procedures to achieve sub-degree temperature resolution in biosystems. Recent generations of nanothermometers show superior performance to earlier ones and also offer multifunctionality, enabling state-of-the-art functional imaging with improved spatial, temporal and temperature resolutions for monitoring the metabolism of intracellular organelles and internal organs. Although progress in this field has been rapid, it has not been without controversy, as recent studies have shown possible biased sensing during fluorescence-based detection. Here, we introduce the design principles and advances in fluorescence nanothermometry, highlight application achievements, discuss scenarios that may lead to biased sensing, analyze the challenges ahead in terms of both fundamental issues and practical implementations, and point to new directions for improving this interdisciplinary field.

Real-Time Intracellular Temperature Imaging Using Lanthanide-Bearing Polymeric Micelles

Measurement of thermogenesis in individual cells is a remarkable challenge due to the complexity of the biochemical environment (such as pH and ionic strength) and to the rapid and yet not well-understood heat transfer mechanisms throughout the cell. Here, we present a unique system for intracellular temperature mapping in a fluorescence microscope (uncertainty of 0.2 K) using rationally designed luminescent Ln³⁺-bearing polymeric micellar probes (Ln = Sm, Eu) incubated in breast cancer MDA-MB468 cells. Two-dimensional (2D) thermal images recorded increasing the temperature of the cells culture medium between 296 and 304 K shows inhomogeneous intracellular temperature progressions up to ∼20 degrees and subcellular gradients of ∼5 degrees between the nucleolus and the rest of the cell, illustrating the thermogenic activity of the different organelles and highlighting the potential of this tool to study intracellular processes.

The challenge of intracellular temperature

This short review begins with a brief introductory summary of luminescence nanothermometry. Current applications of luminescence nanothermometry are introduced in biological contexts. Then, theoretical bases of the “temperature” that luminescence nanothermometry determines are discussed. This argument is followed by the 10⁵ gap issue between simple calculation and the measurements reported in literatures. The gap issue is challenged by recent literatures reporting single-cell thermometry using non-luminescent probes, as well as a report that determines the thermal conductivity of a single lipid bilayer using luminescence nanothermometry. In the end, we argue if we can be optimistic about the solution of the 10⁵ gap issue.

Molecular Regulations and Functions of the Transient Receptor Potential Channels of the Islets of Langerhans and Insulinoma Cells

Insulin secretion from the β-cells of the islets of Langerhans is triggered mainly by nutrients such as glucose, and incretin hormones such as glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1). The mechanisms of the stimulus-secretion coupling involve the participation of the key enzymes that metabolize the nutrients, and numerous ion channels that mediate the electrical activity. Several members of the transient receptor potential (TRP) channels participate in the processes that mediate the electrical activities and Ca²⁺ oscillations in these cells. Human β-cells express TRPC1, TRPM2, TRPM3, TRPM4, TRPM7, TRPP1, TRPML1, and TRPML3 channels. Some of these channels have been reported to mediate background depolarizing currents, store-operated Ca²⁺ entry (SOCE), electrical activity, Ca²⁺ oscillations, gene transcription, cell-death, and insulin secretion in response to stimulation by glucose and GLP1. Different channels of the TRP family are regulated by one or more of the following mechanisms: activation of G protein-coupled receptors, the filling state of the endoplasmic reticulum Ca²⁺ store, heat, oxidative stress, or some second messengers. This review briefly compiles our current knowledge about the molecular mechanisms of regulations, and functions of the TRP channels in the β-cells, the α-cells, and some insulinoma cell lines.

Mitochondrial functions and rare diseases

Mitochondria are dynamic cellular organelles responsible for a large variety of biochemical processes as energy transduction, REDOX signaling, the biosynthesis of hormones and vitamins, inflammation or cell death execution. Cell biology studies established that 1158 human genes encode proteins localized to mitochondria, as registered in MITOCARTA. Clinical studies showed that a large number of these mitochondrial proteins can be altered in expression and function through genetic, epigenetic or biochemical mechanisms including the interaction with environmental toxics or iatrogenic medicine. As a result, pathogenic mitochondrial genetic and functional defects participate to the onset and the progression of a growing number of rare diseases. In this review we provide an exhaustive survey of the biochemical, genetic and clinical studies that demonstrated the implication of mitochondrial dysfunction in human rare diseases. We discuss the striking diversity of the symptoms caused by mitochondrial dysfunction and the strategies proposed for mitochondrial therapy, including a survey of ongoing clinical trials.