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Chun J, Yoon D, Nowakowska A, Lee HD, Lee C, Kim J, Kim S, Bang H, Lee HJ, Kim YB. Delivery of SARS-CoV-2 spike and membrane genes in a single Baculoviral vector enhance the immune breadth against SARS-CoV-2 variants of concern. Vaccine 2024; 42:126355. [PMID: 39260058 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2024.126355] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2024] [Revised: 08/16/2024] [Accepted: 09/06/2024] [Indexed: 09/13/2024]
Abstract
Although the coronavirus pandemic has ended, new variants of concern (VOCs) continue to emerge. Therefore, novel vaccines targeting VOCs are highly warranted. We initially constructed three recombinant baculovirus-vectored vaccines (AcHERV-COVID19S) carrying the spike genes of the SARS-CoV-2 prototype, Delta, and Omicron BA.1 variants. However, the SARS-CoV-2 spike gene alone could not provide protection against multiple VOCs. To develop a universal vaccine, we constructed a recombinant baculovirus-vectored vaccine (AcHERV-COVID19 OmiM) by introducing the M gene, which is conserved among VOCs, as a secondary cellular immune antigen in addition to the S gene. AcHERV-COVID19 OmiM could provide higher protection against SARS-CoV-2 variants (prototype, Delta, BA.5 and XBB.1) compared with that of AcHERV-COVID19S. The membrane protein of SARS-CoV-2 synergizes with the S gene, thereby enhancing both humoral and cellular immunity against VOCs. Although AcHERV-COVID19 OmiM may not provide sterile protection against new variants, it may help reduce symptoms and curb viral transmission.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jungmin Chun
- Department of Biomedical Science and Engineering, Konkuk University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Doyoung Yoon
- Department of Biomedical Science and Engineering, Konkuk University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Aleksandra Nowakowska
- Department of Biomedical Science and Engineering, Konkuk University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyeon Dong Lee
- Department of Biomedical Science and Engineering, Konkuk University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Chanyeong Lee
- Department of Biomedical Science and Engineering, Konkuk University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Jinha Kim
- Department of Biomedical Science and Engineering, Konkuk University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Sehyun Kim
- Department of Bio-industrial Technologies, Konkuk University, Seoul, Republic of Korea; KR BioTech, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Heewon Bang
- Department of Biomedical Science and Engineering, Konkuk University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Hee-Jung Lee
- Department of Biomedical Science and Engineering, Konkuk University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Young Bong Kim
- Department of Biomedical Science and Engineering, Konkuk University, Seoul, Republic of Korea; Department of Bio-industrial Technologies, Konkuk University, Seoul, Republic of Korea; KR BioTech, Seoul, Republic of Korea.
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3
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Rizvi ZA, Sadhu S, Dandotiya J, Sharma P, Binayke A, Singh V, Das V, Khatri R, Kumar R, Samal S, Kalia M, Awasthi A. SARS-CoV-2 infection induces thymic atrophy mediated by IFN-γ in hACE2 transgenic mice. Eur J Immunol 2024; 54:e2350624. [PMID: 38655818 DOI: 10.1002/eji.202350624] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2023] [Revised: 03/27/2024] [Accepted: 03/28/2024] [Indexed: 04/26/2024]
Abstract
Pathogenic infections cause thymic atrophy, perturb thymic T-cell development, and alter immunological response. Previous studies reported dysregulated T-cell function and lymphopenia in coronavirus disease-19 (COVID-19). However, immunopathological changes in the thymus associated with severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection have not been elucidated. Here, we report that SARS-CoV-2 infects thymocytes, and induces CD4+CD8+ (double positive; DP) T-cell apoptosis leading to thymic atrophy and loss of peripheral TCR repertoire in K18-hACE2 transgenic mice. Infected thymus led to increased CD44+CD25- T-cells, indicating an early arrest in the T-cell maturation pathway. Thymic atrophy was notably higher in male hACE2-Tg mice than in females and involved an upregulated de-novo synthesis pathway of thymic glucocorticoid. Further, IFN-γ was crucial for thymic atrophy, as anti-IFN-γ -antibody neutralization blunted thymic involution. Therapeutic use of Remdesivir also rescued thymic atrophy. While the Omicron variant and its sub-lineage BA.5 variant caused marginal thymic atrophy, the delta variant of SARS-CoV-2 exhibited severe thymic atrophy characterized by severely depleted DP T-cells. Recently characterized broadly SARS-CoV-2 neutralizing monoclonal antibody P4A2 was able to rescue thymic atrophy and restore the thymic maturation pathway of T-cells. Together, we report SARS-CoV-2-associated thymic atrophy resulting from impaired T-cell maturation pathway which may contribute to dyregulated T cell response during COVID-19.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zaigham Abbas Rizvi
- Immuno-biology Lab, Infection and Immunology Centre, Translational Health Science and Technology Institute, NCR-Biotech Science Cluster, Faridabad, Haryana, India
- Immunology-Core Lab, Translational Health Science and Technology Institute, NCR-Biotech Science Cluster, Faridabad, Haryana, India
| | - Srikanth Sadhu
- Immuno-biology Lab, Infection and Immunology Centre, Translational Health Science and Technology Institute, NCR-Biotech Science Cluster, Faridabad, Haryana, India
- Immunology-Core Lab, Translational Health Science and Technology Institute, NCR-Biotech Science Cluster, Faridabad, Haryana, India
| | - Jyotsna Dandotiya
- Immuno-biology Lab, Infection and Immunology Centre, Translational Health Science and Technology Institute, NCR-Biotech Science Cluster, Faridabad, Haryana, India
- Immunology-Core Lab, Translational Health Science and Technology Institute, NCR-Biotech Science Cluster, Faridabad, Haryana, India
| | - Puja Sharma
- Regional Centre Biotechnology, NCR-Biotech Science Cluster, Faridabad, Haryana, India
| | - Akshay Binayke
- Immuno-biology Lab, Infection and Immunology Centre, Translational Health Science and Technology Institute, NCR-Biotech Science Cluster, Faridabad, Haryana, India
- Immunology-Core Lab, Translational Health Science and Technology Institute, NCR-Biotech Science Cluster, Faridabad, Haryana, India
| | - Virendra Singh
- Immuno-biology Lab, Infection and Immunology Centre, Translational Health Science and Technology Institute, NCR-Biotech Science Cluster, Faridabad, Haryana, India
- Immunology-Core Lab, Translational Health Science and Technology Institute, NCR-Biotech Science Cluster, Faridabad, Haryana, India
| | - Vinayaka Das
- Immuno-biology Lab, Infection and Immunology Centre, Translational Health Science and Technology Institute, NCR-Biotech Science Cluster, Faridabad, Haryana, India
- Immunology-Core Lab, Translational Health Science and Technology Institute, NCR-Biotech Science Cluster, Faridabad, Haryana, India
| | - Ritika Khatri
- Infection and Immunology Centre, Translational Health Science and Technology Institute, NCR-Biotech Science Cluster, Faridabad, Haryana, India
| | - Rajesh Kumar
- Infection and Immunology Centre, Translational Health Science and Technology Institute, NCR-Biotech Science Cluster, Faridabad, Haryana, India
| | - Sweety Samal
- Infection and Immunology Centre, Translational Health Science and Technology Institute, NCR-Biotech Science Cluster, Faridabad, Haryana, India
| | - Manjula Kalia
- Regional Centre Biotechnology, NCR-Biotech Science Cluster, Faridabad, Haryana, India
| | - Amit Awasthi
- Immuno-biology Lab, Infection and Immunology Centre, Translational Health Science and Technology Institute, NCR-Biotech Science Cluster, Faridabad, Haryana, India
- Immunology-Core Lab, Translational Health Science and Technology Institute, NCR-Biotech Science Cluster, Faridabad, Haryana, India
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4
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Chang YH, Hsu MF, Chen WN, Wu MH, Kong WL, Lu MYJ, Huang CH, Chang FJ, Chang LY, Tsai HY, Tung CP, Yu JH, Kuo Y, Chou YC, Bai LY, Chang YC, Chen AY, Chen CC, Chen YH, Liao CC, Chang CS, Liang JJ, Lin YL, Angata T, Hsu STD, Lin KI. Functional and structural investigation of a broadly neutralizing SARS-CoV-2 antibody. JCI Insight 2024; 9:e179726. [PMID: 38775156 PMCID: PMC11141937 DOI: 10.1172/jci.insight.179726] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2024] [Accepted: 04/12/2024] [Indexed: 06/02/2024] Open
Abstract
Since its emergence, SARS-CoV-2 has been continuously evolving, hampering the effectiveness of current vaccines against COVID-19. mAbs can be used to treat patients at risk of severe COVID-19. Thus, the development of broadly protective mAbs and an understanding of the underlying protective mechanisms are of great importance. Here, we isolated mAbs from donors with breakthrough infection with Omicron subvariants using a single-B cell screening platform. We identified a mAb, O5C2, which possesses broad-spectrum neutralization and antibody-dependent cell-mediated cytotoxic activities against SARS-CoV-2 variants, including EG.5.1. Single-particle analysis by cryo-electron microscopy revealed that O5C2 targeted an unusually large epitope within the receptor-binding domain of spike protein that overlapped with the angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 binding interface. Furthermore, O5C2 effectively protected against BA.5 Omicron infection in vivo by mediating changes in transcriptomes enriched in genes involved in apoptosis and interferon responses. Our findings provide insights into the development of pan-protective mAbs against SARS-CoV-2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi-Hsuan Chang
- Genomics Research Center, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan
- Institute of Biochemical Sciences, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | | | - Wei-Nan Chen
- Genomics Research Center, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan
| | | | - Wye-Lup Kong
- Biodiversity Research Center, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Mei-Yeh Jade Lu
- Biodiversity Research Center, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Chih-Heng Huang
- Institute of Preventive Medicine
- Graduate Institute of Medical Sciences, and
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, National Defense Medical Center, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Fang-Ju Chang
- Genomics Research Center, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan
| | | | - Ho-Yang Tsai
- Genomics Research Center, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan
- Institute of Biochemical Sciences, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Chao-Ping Tung
- Genomics Research Center, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Jou-Hui Yu
- Genomics Research Center, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Yali Kuo
- Biomedical Translation Research Center (BioTReC)
| | - Yu-Chi Chou
- Biomedical Translation Research Center (BioTReC)
| | - Li-Yang Bai
- Genomics Research Center, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Yuan-Chih Chang
- Institute of Biological Chemistry and
- Academia Sinica Cryo-EM Center, and
| | - An-Yu Chen
- Institute of Preventive Medicine
- Graduate Institute of Medical Sciences, and
| | - Cheng-Cheung Chen
- Institute of Preventive Medicine
- Graduate Institute of Medical Sciences, and
| | - Yi-Hua Chen
- Biodiversity Research Center, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan
| | | | | | - Jian-Jong Liang
- Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Yi-Ling Lin
- Biomedical Translation Research Center (BioTReC)
- Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Takashi Angata
- Institute of Biochemical Sciences, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan
- Institute of Biological Chemistry and
| | - Shang-Te Danny Hsu
- Institute of Biochemical Sciences, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan
- Institute of Biological Chemistry and
- International Institute for Sustainability with Knotted Chiral Meta Matter (WPI-SKC M2, ) Hiroshima University, Hiroshima, Japan
| | - Kuo-I Lin
- Genomics Research Center, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan
- Biomedical Translation Research Center (BioTReC)
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6
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Hu B, Chan JFW, Liu Y, Liu H, Chen YX, Shuai H, Hu YF, Hartnoll M, Chen L, Xia Y, Hu JC, Yuen TTT, Yoon C, Hou Y, Huang X, Chai Y, Zhu T, Shi J, Wang Y, He Y, Cai JP, Zhou J, Yuan S, Zhang J, Huang JD, Yuen KY, To KKW, Zhang BZ, Chu H. Divergent trajectory of replication and intrinsic pathogenicity of SARS-CoV-2 Omicron post-BA.2/5 subvariants in the upper and lower respiratory tract. EBioMedicine 2024; 99:104916. [PMID: 38101297 PMCID: PMC10733096 DOI: 10.1016/j.ebiom.2023.104916] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2023] [Revised: 11/23/2023] [Accepted: 11/30/2023] [Indexed: 12/17/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Earlier Omicron subvariants including BA.1, BA.2, and BA.5 emerged in waves, with a subvariant replacing the previous one every few months. More recently, the post-BA.2/5 subvariants have acquired convergent substitutions in spike that facilitated their escape from humoral immunity and gained ACE2 binding capacity. However, the intrinsic pathogenicity and replication fitness of the evaluated post-BA.2/5 subvariants are not fully understood. METHODS We systemically investigated the replication fitness and intrinsic pathogenicity of representative post-BA.2/5 subvariants (BL.1, BQ.1, BQ.1.1, XBB.1, CH.1.1, and XBB.1.5) in weanling (3-4 weeks), adult (8-10 weeks), and aged (10-12 months) mice. In addition, to better model Omicron replication in the human nasal epithelium, we further investigated the replication capacity of the post-BA.2/5 subvariants in human primary nasal epithelial cells. FINDINGS We found that the evaluated post-BA.2/5 subvariants are consistently attenuated in mouse lungs but not in nasal turbinates when compared with their ancestral subvariants BA.2/5. Further investigations in primary human nasal epithelial cells revealed a gained replication fitness of XBB.1 and XBB.1.5 when compared to BA.2 and BA.5.2. INTERPRETATION Our study revealed that the post-BA.2/5 subvariants are attenuated in lungs while increased in replication fitness in the nasal epithelium, indicating rapid adaptation of the circulating Omicron subvariants in the human populations. FUNDING The full list of funding can be found at the Acknowledgements section.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bingjie Hu
- State Key Laboratory of Emerging Infectious Diseases, Department of Microbiology, School of Clinical Medicine, Li Ka Shing Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, China
| | - Jasper Fuk-Woo Chan
- State Key Laboratory of Emerging Infectious Diseases, Department of Microbiology, School of Clinical Medicine, Li Ka Shing Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, China; Department of Infectious Disease and Microbiology, The University of Hong Kong-Shenzhen Hospital, Shenzhen, Guangdong Province, China; Centre for Virology, Vaccinology and Therapeutics, Hong Kong Science and Technology Park, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, China; Academician Workstation of Hainan Province, Hainan Medical University-The University of Hong Kong Joint Laboratory of Tropical Infectious Diseases, Hainan Medical University, Haikou, Hainan, China; and The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, China; Department of Microbiology, Queen Mary Hospital, Pokfulam, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, China; Guangzhou Laboratory, Guangdong Province, China
| | - Yuanchen Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Emerging Infectious Diseases, Department of Microbiology, School of Clinical Medicine, Li Ka Shing Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, China
| | - Huan Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Emerging Infectious Diseases, Department of Microbiology, School of Clinical Medicine, Li Ka Shing Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, China
| | - Yan-Xia Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Emerging Infectious Diseases, Department of Microbiology, School of Clinical Medicine, Li Ka Shing Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, China
| | - Huiping Shuai
- State Key Laboratory of Emerging Infectious Diseases, Department of Microbiology, School of Clinical Medicine, Li Ka Shing Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, China
| | - Ye-Fan Hu
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Li Ka Shing Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, China
| | - Madeline Hartnoll
- State Key Laboratory of Emerging Infectious Diseases, Department of Microbiology, School of Clinical Medicine, Li Ka Shing Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, China
| | - Li Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Emerging Infectious Diseases, Department of Microbiology, School of Clinical Medicine, Li Ka Shing Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, China
| | - Yao Xia
- State Key Laboratory of Emerging Infectious Diseases, Department of Microbiology, School of Clinical Medicine, Li Ka Shing Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, China
| | - Jing-Chu Hu
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Li Ka Shing Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, China
| | - Terrence Tsz-Tai Yuen
- State Key Laboratory of Emerging Infectious Diseases, Department of Microbiology, School of Clinical Medicine, Li Ka Shing Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, China; Centre for Virology, Vaccinology and Therapeutics, Hong Kong Science and Technology Park, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, China
| | - Chaemin Yoon
- State Key Laboratory of Emerging Infectious Diseases, Department of Microbiology, School of Clinical Medicine, Li Ka Shing Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, China
| | - Yuxin Hou
- State Key Laboratory of Emerging Infectious Diseases, Department of Microbiology, School of Clinical Medicine, Li Ka Shing Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, China; Centre for Virology, Vaccinology and Therapeutics, Hong Kong Science and Technology Park, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, China
| | - Xiner Huang
- State Key Laboratory of Emerging Infectious Diseases, Department of Microbiology, School of Clinical Medicine, Li Ka Shing Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, China
| | - Yue Chai
- State Key Laboratory of Emerging Infectious Diseases, Department of Microbiology, School of Clinical Medicine, Li Ka Shing Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, China
| | - Tianrenzheng Zhu
- State Key Laboratory of Emerging Infectious Diseases, Department of Microbiology, School of Clinical Medicine, Li Ka Shing Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, China
| | - Jialu Shi
- State Key Laboratory of Emerging Infectious Diseases, Department of Microbiology, School of Clinical Medicine, Li Ka Shing Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, China
| | - Yang Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Emerging Infectious Diseases, Department of Microbiology, School of Clinical Medicine, Li Ka Shing Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, China
| | - Yixin He
- State Key Laboratory of Emerging Infectious Diseases, Department of Microbiology, School of Clinical Medicine, Li Ka Shing Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, China
| | - Jian-Piao Cai
- State Key Laboratory of Emerging Infectious Diseases, Department of Microbiology, School of Clinical Medicine, Li Ka Shing Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, China
| | - Jie Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Emerging Infectious Diseases, Department of Microbiology, School of Clinical Medicine, Li Ka Shing Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, China
| | - Shuofeng Yuan
- State Key Laboratory of Emerging Infectious Diseases, Department of Microbiology, School of Clinical Medicine, Li Ka Shing Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, China; Department of Infectious Disease and Microbiology, The University of Hong Kong-Shenzhen Hospital, Shenzhen, Guangdong Province, China; Centre for Virology, Vaccinology and Therapeutics, Hong Kong Science and Technology Park, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, China
| | - Jinxia Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Emerging Infectious Diseases, Department of Microbiology, School of Clinical Medicine, Li Ka Shing Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, China; Centre for Virology, Vaccinology and Therapeutics, Hong Kong Science and Technology Park, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, China
| | - Jian-Dong Huang
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Li Ka Shing Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, China; CAS Key Laboratory of Quantitative Engineering Biology, Shenzhen Institute of Synthetic Biology, Shenzhen Institutes of Advanced Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenzhen, Guangdong Province, China
| | - Kwok-Yung Yuen
- State Key Laboratory of Emerging Infectious Diseases, Department of Microbiology, School of Clinical Medicine, Li Ka Shing Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, China; Department of Infectious Disease and Microbiology, The University of Hong Kong-Shenzhen Hospital, Shenzhen, Guangdong Province, China; Centre for Virology, Vaccinology and Therapeutics, Hong Kong Science and Technology Park, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, China; Academician Workstation of Hainan Province, Hainan Medical University-The University of Hong Kong Joint Laboratory of Tropical Infectious Diseases, Hainan Medical University, Haikou, Hainan, China; and The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, China; Department of Microbiology, Queen Mary Hospital, Pokfulam, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, China; Guangzhou Laboratory, Guangdong Province, China
| | - Kelvin Kai-Wang To
- State Key Laboratory of Emerging Infectious Diseases, Department of Microbiology, School of Clinical Medicine, Li Ka Shing Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, China; Department of Infectious Disease and Microbiology, The University of Hong Kong-Shenzhen Hospital, Shenzhen, Guangdong Province, China; Centre for Virology, Vaccinology and Therapeutics, Hong Kong Science and Technology Park, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, China; Department of Microbiology, Queen Mary Hospital, Pokfulam, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, China; Guangzhou Laboratory, Guangdong Province, China
| | - Bao-Zhong Zhang
- CAS Key Laboratory of Quantitative Engineering Biology, Shenzhen Institute of Synthetic Biology, Shenzhen Institutes of Advanced Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenzhen, Guangdong Province, China
| | - Hin Chu
- State Key Laboratory of Emerging Infectious Diseases, Department of Microbiology, School of Clinical Medicine, Li Ka Shing Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, China; Department of Infectious Disease and Microbiology, The University of Hong Kong-Shenzhen Hospital, Shenzhen, Guangdong Province, China; Centre for Virology, Vaccinology and Therapeutics, Hong Kong Science and Technology Park, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, China.
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