The integrity of dopaminergic and noradrenergic brain regions is associated with different aspects of late-life memory performance

Broadscale dampening of uncertainty adjustment in the aging brain

The ability to prioritize among input features according to relevance enables adaptive behaviors across the human lifespan. However, relevance often remains ambiguous, and such uncertainty increases demands for dynamic control. While both cognitive stability and flexibility decline during healthy ageing, it is unknown whether aging alters how uncertainty impacts perception and decision-making, and if so, via which neural mechanisms. Here, we assess uncertainty adjustment across the adult lifespan (N = 100; cross-sectional) via behavioral modeling and a theoretically informed set of EEG-, fMRI-, and pupil-based signatures. On the group level, older adults show a broad dampening of uncertainty adjustment relative to younger adults. At the individual level, older individuals whose modulation more closely resembled that of younger adults also exhibit better maintenance of cognitive control. Our results highlight neural mechanisms whose maintenance plausibly enables flexible task-set, perception, and decision computations across the adult lifespan.

Locus coeruleus MRI contrast, cerebral perfusion, and plasma Alzheimer's disease biomarkers in older adults

The locus coeruleus (LC) is among the first brain structures impacted by Alzheimer's disease (AD), and noradrenergic denervation may contribute to early neurovascular dysfunction in AD. Mechanistic links between the LC and cerebral perfusion have been demonstrated in rodents, but there have been no similar studies in aging humans. Community-dwelling older adults with no history of stroke or dementia (N=66) underwent structural (T1-MPRAGE; T1-FSE) and perfusion (resting pCASL) MRI. Plasma AD biomarkers levels were evaluated for Aβ42/40 ratio (n=56) and pTau181 (n=60). Higher rostral LC structural MRI contrast was associated with lower perfusion in entorhinal and limbic regions but higher perfusion in lateral and medial orbitofrontal cortices. Relationships between LC structure and regional cerebral perfusion were attenuated in older adults with higher plasma pTau levels and lower plasma Aβ42/40 ratios. Previously unstudied links between LC structure and cerebral perfusion are detectible in older adults using MRI and are attenuated in those showing greater AD pathophysiologic change, suggesting an uncoupling of LC-cerebral perfusion relationships in older adults with aggregating AD-related pathophysiology.

Neuromelanin-sensitive MRI for mechanistic research and biomarker development in psychiatry

Neuromelanin-sensitive MRI is a burgeoning non-invasive neuroimaging method with an increasing number of applications in psychiatric research. This MRI modality is sensitive to the concentration of neuromelanin, which is synthesized from intracellular catecholamines and accumulates in catecholaminergic nuclei including the dopaminergic substantia nigra and the noradrenergic locus coeruleus. Emerging data suggest the utility of neuromelanin-sensitive MRI as a proxy measure for variability in catecholamine metabolism and function, even in the absence of catecholaminergic cell loss. Given the importance of catecholamine function to several psychiatric disorders and their treatments, neuromelanin-sensitive MRI is ideally positioned as an informative and easy-to-acquire catecholaminergic index. In this review paper, we examine basic aspects of neuromelanin and neuromelanin-sensitive MRI and focus on its psychiatric applications in the contexts of mechanistic research and biomarker development. We discuss ongoing debates and state-of-the-art research into the mechanisms of the neuromelanin-sensitive MRI contrast, standardized protocols and optimized analytic approaches, and application of cutting-edge methods such as machine learning and artificial intelligence to enhance the feasibility and predictive power of neuromelanin-sensitive-MRI-based tools. We finally lay out important future directions to allow neuromelanin-sensitive-MRI to fulfill its potential as a key component of the research, and ultimately clinical, toolbox in psychiatry.

Examining resilience to Alzheimer's disease through the lens of monoaminergic neuromodulator systems

The monoaminergic nuclei are thought to be some of the earliest sites of Alzheimer's disease (AD) pathology in the brain, with tau-containing pretangles appearing in these nuclei decades before the onset of clinical impairments. It has increasingly been recognized that monoamine systems represent a critical target of investigation towards understanding the progression of AD and designing early detection and treatment approaches. This review synthesizes evidence across animal studies, human neuropathology, and state-of-the-art neuroimaging and daily life assessment methods in humans, which demonstrate robust relationships between monoamine systems and AD pathophysiology and behavior. Further, the review highlights the promise of multimethod, multisystem approaches to studying monoaminergic mechanisms of resilience to AD pathology.

Locus coeruleus integrity and neuropsychiatric symptoms in a cohort of early- and late-onset Alzheimer's disease

INTRODUCTION

Early-onset Alzheimer's disease (EOAD) shows a higher burden of neuropsychiatric symptoms than late-onset Alzheimer's disease (LOAD). We aim to determine the differences in the severity of neuropsychiatric symptoms and locus coeruleus (LC) integrity between EOAD and LOAD accounting for disease stage.

METHODS

One hundred four subjects with AD diagnosis and 32 healthy controls were included. Participants underwent magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) to measure LC integrity, measures of noradrenaline levels in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and Neuropsychiatric Inventory (NPI). We analyzed LC-noradrenaline measurements and clinical and Alzheimer's disease (AD) biomarker associations.

RESULTS

EOAD showed higher NPI scores, lower LC integrity, and similar levels of CSF noradrenaline compared to LOAD. Notably, EOAD exhibited lower LC integrity independently of disease stage. LC integrity negatively correlated with neuropsychiatric symptoms. Noradrenaline levels were increased in AD correlating with AD biomarkers.

DISCUSSION

Decreased LC integrity negatively contributes to neuropsychiatric symptoms. The higher LC degeneration in EOAD compared to LOAD could explain the more severe neuropsychiatric symptoms in EOAD.

HIGHLIGHTS

LC degeneration is greater in early-onset AD (EOAD) compared to late-onset AD. Tau-derived LC degeneration drives a higher severity of neuropsychiatric symptoms. EOAD harbors a more profound selective vulnerability of the LC system. LC degeneration is associated with an increase of cerebrospinal fluid noradrenaline levels in AD.

Locus coeruleus contrast and diffusivity metrics differentially relate to age and memory performance

Neurocognitive aging researchers are increasingly focused on the locus coeruleus, a neuromodulatory brainstem structure that degrades with age. With this rapid growth, the field will benefit from consensus regarding which magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) metrics of locus coeruleus structure are most sensitive to age and cognition. To address this need, the current study acquired magnetization transfer- and diffusion-weighted MRI images in younger and older adults who also completed a free recall memory task. Results revealed significantly larger differences between younger and older adults for maximum than average magnetization transfer-weighted contrast (MTC), axial than mean or radial single-tensor diffusivity (DTI), and free than restricted multi-compartment diffusion (NODDI) metrics in the locus coeruleus; with maximum MTC being the best predictor of age group. Age effects for all imaging modalities interacted with sex, with larger age group differences in males than females for MTC and NODDI metrics. Age group differences also varied across locus coeruleus subdivision for DTI and NODDI metrics, and across locus coeruleus hemispheres for MTC. Within older adults, however, there were no significant effects of age on MTC or DTI metrics, only an interaction between age and sex for free diffusion. Finally, independent of age and sex, higher restricted diffusion in the locus coeruleus was significantly related to better (lower) recall variability, but not mean recall. Whereas MTC has been widely used in the literature, our comparison between the average and maximum MTC metrics, inclusion of DTI and NODDI metrics, and breakdowns by locus coeruleus subdivision and hemisphere make important and novel contributions to our understanding of the aging of locus coeruleus structure.

Neuromodulatory subcortical nucleus integrity is associated with white matter microstructure, tauopathy and APOE status

The neuromodulatory subcortical nuclei within the isodendritic core (IdC) are the earliest sites of tauopathy in Alzheimer's disease (AD). They project broadly throughout the brain's white matter. We investigated the relationship between IdC microstructure and whole-brain white matter microstructure to better understand early neuropathological changes in AD. Using multiparametric quantitative magnetic resonance imaging we observed two covariance patterns between IdC and white matter microstructure in 133 cognitively unimpaired older adults (age 67.9 ± 5.3 years) with familial risk for AD. IdC integrity related to 1) whole-brain neurite density, and 2) neurite orientation dispersion in white matter tracts known to be affected early in AD. Pattern 2 was associated with CSF concentration of phosphorylated-tau, indicating AD specificity. Apolipoprotein-E4 carriers expressed both patterns more strongly than non-carriers. IdC microstructure variation is reflected in white matter, particularly in AD-affected tracts, highlighting an early mechanism of pathological development.

The degeneration of locus coeruleus occurring during Alzheimer's disease clinical progression: a neuroimaging follow-up investigation

The noradrenergic nucleus Locus Coeruleus (LC) is precociously involved in Alzheimer's Disease (AD) pathology, and its degeneration progresses during the course of the disease. Using Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI), researchers showed also in vivo in patients the disruption of LC, which can be observed both in Mild Cognitively Impaired individuals and AD demented patients. In this study, we report the results of a follow-up neuroradiological assessment, in which we evaluated the LC degeneration overtime in a group of cognitively impaired patients, submitted to MRI both at baseline and at the end of a 2.5-year follow-up. We found that a progressive LC disruption can be observed also in vivo, involving the entire nucleus and associated with clinical diagnosis. Our findings parallel neuropathological ones, which showed a continuous increase of neuronal death and volumetric atrophy within the LC with the progression of Braak's stages for neurofibrillary pathology. This supports the reliability of MRI as a tool for exploring the integrity of the central noradrenergic system in neurodegenerative disorders.

Locus coeruleus integrity is related to an exploitation-based decision-making bias in older adulthood

Optimal decision-making balances exploration for new information against exploitation of known rewards, a process mediated by the locus coeruleus and its norepinephrine projections. We predicted that an exploitation-bias that emerges in older adulthood would be associated with lower microstructural integrity of the locus coeruleus. Leveraging in vivo histological methods from quantitative MRI-magnetic transfer saturation-we provide evidence that older age is associated with lower locus coeruleus integrity. Critically, we demonstrate that an exploitation bias in older adulthood, assessed with a foraging task, is sensitive and specific to lower locus coeruleus integrity. Because the locus coeruleus is uniquely vulnerable to Alzheimer's disease pathology, our findings suggest that aging, and a presymptomatic trajectory of Alzheimer's related decline, may fundamentally alter decision-making abilities in later life.

Eye movements reveal age differences in how arousal modulates saliency priority but not attention processing speed

The arousal-biased competition theory posits that inducing arousal increases attentional priority of salient stimuli while reducing priority of non-pertinent stimuli. However, unlike in young adults, older adults rarely exhibit shifts in priority under increased arousal, and prior studies have proposed different neural mechanisms to explain how arousal differentially modulates selective attention in older adults. Therefore, we investigated how the threat of unpredictable shock differentially modulates attentional control mechanisms in young and older adults by observing eye movements. Participants completed two oculomotor search tasks in which the salient distractor was typically captured by attention (singleton search) or proactively suppressed (feature search). We found that arousal did not modulate attentional priority for any stimulus among older adults nor affect the speed of attention processing in either age group. Furthermore, we observed that arousal modulated pupil sizes and found a correlation between evoked pupil responses and oculomotor function. Our findings suggest age differences in how the locus coeruleus-noradrenaline system interacts with neural networks of attention and oculomotor function.

Long-Term Impact of Diffuse Traumatic Brain Injury on Neuroinflammation and Catecholaminergic Signaling: Potential Relevance for Parkinson's Disease Risk

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is associated with an increased risk of developing Parkinson's disease (PD), though the exact mechanisms remain unclear. TBI triggers acute neuroinflammation and catecholamine dysfunction post-injury, both implicated in PD pathophysiology. The long-term impact on these pathways following TBI, however, remains uncertain. In this study, male Sprague-Dawley rats underwent sham surgery or Marmarou's impact acceleration model to induce varying TBI severities: single mild TBI (mTBI), repetitive mild TBI (rmTBI), or moderate-severe TBI (msTBI). At 12 months post-injury, astrocyte reactivity (GFAP) and microglial levels (IBA1) were assessed in the striatum (STR), substantia nigra (SN), and prefrontal cortex (PFC) using immunohistochemistry. Key enzymes and receptors involved in catecholaminergic transmission were measured via Western blot within the same regions. Minimal changes in these markers were observed, regardless of initial injury severity. Following mTBI, elevated protein levels of dopamine D1 receptors (DRD1) were noted in the PFC, while msTBI resulted in increased alpha-2A adrenoceptors (ADRA2A) in the STR and decreased dopamine beta-hydroxylase (DβH) in the SN. Neuroinflammatory changes were subtle, with a reduced number of GFAP+ cells in the SN following msTBI. However, considering the potential for neurodegenerative outcomes to manifest decades after injury, longer post-injury intervals may be necessary to observe PD-relevant alterations within these systems.

Exploring the Role of Locus Coeruleus in Alzheimer's Disease: a Comprehensive Update on MRI Studies and Implications

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Performing a thorough review of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) studies assessing locus coeruleus (LC) integrity in ageing and Alzheimer's disease (AD), and contextualizing them with current preclinical and neuropathological literature.

RECENT FINDINGS

MRI successfully detected LC alterations in ageing and AD, identifying degenerative phenomena involving this nucleus even in the prodromal stages of the disorder. The degree of LC disruption was also associated with the severity of AD cortical pathology, cognitive and behavioral impairment, and the risk of clinical progression. Locus coeruleus-MRI has proved to be a useful tool to assess the integrity of the central noradrenergic system in vivo in humans. It allowed to test in patients preclinical and experimental hypothesis, thus confirming the specific and marked involvement of the LC in AD and its key pathogenetic role. Locus coeruleus-MRI-related data might represent the theoretical basis on which to start developing noradrenergic drugs to target AD.

Daily biofeedback to modulate heart rate oscillations affects structural volume in hippocampal subregions targeted by the locus coeruleus in older adults but not younger adults

Using data from a clinical trial, we tested the hypothesis that daily sessions modulating heart rate oscillations affect older adults' volume of a region-of-interest (ROI) comprised of adjacent hippocampal subregions with relatively strong locus coeruleus (LC) noradrenergic input. Younger and older adults were randomly assigned to one of two daily biofeedback practices for 5 weeks: (1) engage in slow-paced breathing to increase the amplitude of oscillations in heart rate at their breathing frequency (Osc+); (2) engage in self-selected strategies to decrease heart rate oscillations (Osc-). The interventions did not significantly affect younger adults' hippocampal volume. Among older adults, the two conditions affected volume in the LC-targeted hippocampal ROI differentially as reflected in a significant condition × time-point interaction on ROI volume. These condition differences were driven by opposing changes in the two conditions (increased volume in Osc+ and decreased volume in Osc-) and were mediated by the degree of heart rate oscillation during training sessions.

Locus coeruleus neuromelanin accumulation and dissipation across the lifespan

The pigment neuromelanin, produced in the locus coeruleus (LC) as a byproduct of catecholamine synthesis, gives the "blue spot" its name, and both identifies LC neurons and is thought to play an important yet complex role in normal and pathological aging. Using neuromelanin-sensitive T1-weighted turbo spin echo MRI scans we characterized volume and neuromelanin signal intensity in the LC of 96 participants between the ages of 19 and 86. Although LC volume did not change significantly throughout the lifespan, LC neuromelanin signal intensity increased from early adulthood, peaked around age 60 and precipitously declined thereafter. Neuromelanin intensity was greater in the caudal relative to rostral extent and in women relative to men. With regard to function, rostral LC neuromelanin intensity was associated with fluid cognition in older adults (60+) only in those above the 50th percentile of cognitive ability for age. The gradual accumulation of LC neuromelanin across the lifespan, its sudden dissipation in later life, and relation to preserved cognitive function, is consistent with its complex role in normal and pathological aging.