SWI/SNF remodeling and p300-dependent transcription of histone variant H2ABbd nucleosomal arrays

Identification of a novel DNA oxidative damage repair pathway, requiring the ubiquitination of the histone variant macroH2A1.1

BACKGROUND

The histone variant macroH2A (mH2A), the most deviant variant, is about threefold larger than the conventional histone H2A and consists of a histone H2A-like domain fused to a large Non-Histone Region responsible for recruiting PARP-1 to chromatin. The available data suggest that the histone variant mH2A participates in the regulation of transcription, maintenance of heterochromatin, NAD+ metabolism, and double-strand DNA repair.

RESULTS

Here, we describe a novel function of mH2A, namely its implication in DNA oxidative damage repair through PARP-1. The depletion of mH2A affected both repair and cell survival after the induction of oxidative lesions in DNA. PARP-1 formed a specific complex with mH2A nucleosomes in vivo. The mH2A nucleosome-associated PARP-1 is inactive. Upon oxidative damage, mH2A is ubiquitinated, PARP-1 is released from the mH2A nucleosomal complex, and is activated. The in vivo-induced ubiquitination of mH2A, in the absence of any oxidative damage, was sufficient for the release of PARP-1. However, no release of PARP-1 was observed upon treatment of the cells with either the DNA alkylating agent MMS or doxorubicin.

CONCLUSIONS

Our data identify a novel pathway for the repair of DNA oxidative lesions, requiring the ubiquitination of mH2A for the release of PARP-1 from chromatin and its activation.

A half century of exploring DNA excision repair in chromatin

DNA in eukaryotic cells is packaged into the compact and dynamic structure of chromatin. This packaging is a double-edged sword for DNA repair and genomic stability. Chromatin restricts the access of repair proteins to DNA lesions embedded in nucleosomes and higher order chromatin structures. However, chromatin also serves as a signaling platform in which post-translational modifications of histones and other chromatin-bound proteins promote lesion recognition and repair. Similarly, chromatin modulates the formation of DNA damage, promoting or suppressing lesion formation depending on the chromatin context. Therefore, the modulation of DNA damage and its repair in chromatin is crucial to our understanding of the fate of potentially mutagenic and carcinogenic lesions in DNA. Here, we survey many of the landmark findings on DNA damage and repair in chromatin over the last 50 years (i.e., since the beginning of this field), focusing on excision repair, the first repair mechanism studied in the chromatin landscape. For example, we highlight how the impact of chromatin on these processes explains the distinct patterns of somatic mutations observed in cancer genomes.

H2A.B is a cancer/testis factor involved in the activation of ribosome biogenesis in Hodgkin lymphoma

Testis-specific regulators of chromatin function are commonly ectopically expressed in human cancers, but their roles are poorly understood. Examination of 81 primary Hodgkin lymphoma (HL) samples showed that the ectopic expression of the eutherian testis-specific histone variant H2A.B is an inherent feature of HL. In experiments using two HL cell lines derived from different subtypes of HL, H2A.B knockdown inhibited cell proliferation. H2A.B was enriched in both nucleoli of these HL cell lines and primary HL samples. We found that H2A.B enhanced ribosomal DNA (rDNA) transcription, was enriched at the rDNA promoter and transcribed regions, and interacted with RNA Pol I. Depletion of H2A.B caused the loss of RNA Pol I from rDNA chromatin. Remarkably, H2A.B was also required for high levels of ribosomal protein gene expression being located at the transcriptional start site and within the gene body. H2A.B knockdown reduced gene body chromatin accessibility of active RNA Pol II genes concurrent with a decrease in transcription. Taken together, our data show that in HL H2A.B has acquired a new function, the ability to increase ribosome biogenesis.

Biparental contributions of the H2A.B histone variant control embryonic development in mice

Histone variants expand chromatin functions in eukaryote genomes. H2A.B genes are testis-expressed short histone H2A variants that arose in placental mammals. Their biological functions remain largely unknown. To investigate their function, we generated a knockout (KO) model that disrupts all 3 H2A.B genes in mice. We show that H2A.B KO males have globally altered chromatin structure in postmeiotic germ cells. Yet, they do not show impaired spermatogenesis or testis function. Instead, we find that H2A.B plays a crucial role postfertilization. Crosses between H2A.B KO males and females yield embryos with lower viability and reduced size. Using a series of genetic crosses that separate parental and zygotic contributions, we show that the H2A.B status of both the father and mother, but not of the zygote, affects embryonic viability and growth during gestation. We conclude that H2A.B is a novel parental-effect gene, establishing a role for short H2A histone variants in mammalian development. We posit that parental antagonism over embryonic growth drove the origin and ongoing diversification of short histone H2A variants in placental mammals.

Short Histone H2A Variants: Small in Stature but not in Function

The dynamic packaging of DNA into chromatin regulates all aspects of genome function by altering the accessibility of DNA and by providing docking pads to proteins that copy, repair and express the genome. Different epigenetic-based mechanisms have been described that alter the way DNA is organised into chromatin, but one fundamental mechanism alters the biochemical composition of a nucleosome by substituting one or more of the core histones with their variant forms. Of the core histones, the largest number of histone variants belong to the H2A class. The most divergent class is the designated “short H2A variants” (H2A.B, H2A.L, H2A.P and H2A.Q), so termed because they lack a H2A C-terminal tail. These histone variants appeared late in evolution in eutherian mammals and are lineage-specific, being expressed in the testis (and, in the case of H2A.B, also in the brain). To date, most information about the function of these peculiar histone variants has come from studies on the H2A.B and H2A.L family in mice. In this review, we describe their unique protein characteristics, their impact on chromatin structure, and their known functions plus other possible, even non-chromatin, roles in an attempt to understand why these peculiar histone variants evolved in the first place.

Generation of Remosomes by the SWI/SNF Chromatin Remodeler Family

Chromatin remodelers are complexes able to both alter histone-DNA interactions and to mobilize nucleosomes. The mechanism of their action and the conformation of remodeled nucleosomes remain a matter of debates. In this work we compared the type and structure of the products of nucleosome remodeling by SWI/SNF and ACF complexes using high-resolution microscopy combined with novel biochemical approaches. We find that SWI/SNF generates a multitude of nucleosome-like metastable particles termed "remosomes". Restriction enzyme accessibility assay, DNase I footprinting and AFM experiments reveal perturbed histone-DNA interactions within these particles. Electron cryo-microscopy shows that remosomes adopt a variety of different structures with variable irregular DNA path, similar to those described upon RSC remodeling. Remosome DNA accessibility to restriction enzymes is also markedly increased. We suggest that the generation of remosomes is a common feature of the SWI/SNF family remodelers. In contrast, the ACF remodeler, belonging to ISWI family, only produces repositioned nucleosomes and no evidence for particles associated with extra DNA, or perturbed DNA paths was found. The remosome generation by the SWI/SNF type of remodelers may represent a novel mechanism involved in processes where nucleosomal DNA accessibility is required, such as DNA repair or transcription regulation.

Challenges for base excision repair enzymes: Acquiring access to damaged DNA in chromatin

Repair of damaged DNA plays a crucial role in maintaining genomic integrity and normal cell function. The base excision repair (BER) pathway is primarily responsible for removing modified nucleobases that would otherwise cause deleterious and mutagenic consequences and lead to disease. The BER process is initiated by a DNA glycosylase, which recognizes and excises the target nucleobase lesion, and is completed via downstream enzymes acting in a well-coordinated manner. A majority of our current understanding about how BER enzymes function comes from in vitro studies using free duplex DNA as a simplified model. In eukaryotes, however, BER is challenged by the packaging of genomic DNA into chromatin. The fundamental structural repeating unit of chromatin is the nucleosome, which presents a more complex substrate context than free duplex DNA for repair. In this chapter, we discuss how BER enzymes, particularly glycosylases, engage in the context of packaged DNA with insights obtained from both in vivo and in vitro studies. Furthermore, we review factors and mechanisms that can modify chromatin architecture and/or influence DNA accessibility to BER machinery, such as the geometric location of the damage site, nucleosomal DNA unwrapping, histone post-translational modifications, histone variant incorporation, and chromatin remodeling.

Nuclear receptor/Wnt beta-catenin interactions are regulated via differential CBP/p300 coactivator usage

Over 400 million years ago, the evolution of vertebrates gave rise to a life cycle in which the organism began to live longer particularly as an adult. To accommodate such a longer lifespan, the organism underwent adaptation, developing a mechanism for long-lived cellular homeostasis. This adaptation required a population of long-lived relatively quiescent somatic stem cells (SSCs) along with a more proliferative differentiated daughter cell population, and was necessary to safeguard the genetic attributes with which SSCs were endowed. Intriguingly, cAMP response element binding protein (CREB)-binding protein (CBP) and E1A-binding protein, 300 kDa (p300), the highly homologous Kat3 coactivators had diverged, through duplication of ancestral Kat3, immediately preceding the evolution of vertebrates, given that both CBP and p300 have been detected in nearly all vertebrates versus non-vertebrates. We now demonstrate that a relatively small, highly evolutionarily conserved, amino terminal 9 amino acid deletion in CBP versus p300, plays a critical role in allowing for both robust maintenance of genomic integrity in stem cells and the initiation of a feed-forward differentiation mechanism by tightly controlling the interaction of the nuclear receptor family with the Wnt signaling cascade in either an antagonistic or synergistic manner.

Evolutionary origins and diversification of testis-specific short histone H2A variants in mammals

Eukaryotic genomes must accomplish both compact packaging for genome stability and inheritance, as well as accessibility for gene expression. They do so using post-translational modifications of four ancient canonical histone proteins (H2A, H2B, H3, and H4) and by deploying histone variants with specialized chromatin functions. Some histone variants are conserved across all eukaryotes, whereas others are lineage-specific. Here, we performed detailed phylogenomic analyses of “short H2A histone” variants found in mammalian genomes. We discovered a previously undescribed typically-sized H2A variant in monotremes and marsupials, H2A.R, which may represent the common ancestor of the short H2As. We also discovered a novel class of short H2A histone variants in eutherian mammals, H2A.Q. We show that short H2A variants arose on the X Chromosome in the common ancestor of all eutherian mammals and diverged into four evolutionarily distinct clades: H2A.B, H2A.L, H2A.P, and H2A.Q. However, the repertoires of short histone H2A variants vary extensively among eutherian mammals due to lineage-specific gains and losses. Finally, we show that all four short H2As are subject to accelerated rates of protein evolution relative to both canonical and other variant H2A proteins including H2A.R. Our analyses reveal that short H2As are a unique class of testis-restricted histone variants displaying an unprecedented evolutionary dynamism. Based on their X-Chromosomal localization, genetic turnover, and testis-specific expression, we hypothesize that short H2A variants may participate in genetic conflicts involving sex chromosomes during reproduction.

Methods for Preparing Nucleosomes Containing Histone Variants

Histone variants are key epigenetic players that regulate transcription, repair, replication, and recombination of genomic DNA. Histone variant incorporation into nucleosomes induces structural diversity of nucleosomes, consequently leading to the structural versatility of chromatin. Such chromatin diversity created by histone variants may play a central role in the epigenetic regulation of genes. Each histone variant possesses specific biochemical and physical characteristics, and thus the preparation methods are complicated. Here, we introduce the methods for the purification of human histone variants as recombinant proteins, and describe the preparation methods for histone complexes and nucleosomes containing various histone variants. We also describe the detailed method for the preparation of heterotypic nucleosomes, which may function in certain biological phenomena. These methods are useful for biochemical, structural, and biophysical studies.

Epigenomic reprogramming in inorganic arsenic-mediated gene expression patterns during carcinogenesis

Arsenic is a ubiquitous metalloid that is not mutagenic but is carcinogenic. The mechanism(s) by which arsenic causes cancer remain unknown. To date, several mechanisms have been proposed, including the arsenic-induced generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS). However, it is also becoming evident that inorganic arsenic (iAs) may exert its carcinogenic effects by changing the epigenome, and thereby modifying chromatin structure and dynamics. These epigenetic changes alter the accessibility of gene regulatory factors to DNA, resulting in specific changes in gene expression both at the levels of transcription initiation and gene splicing. In this review, we discuss recent literature reports describing epigenetic changes induced by iAs exposure and the possible epigenetic mechanisms underlying these changes.

Identification of the amino acid residues responsible for stable nucleosome formation by histone H3.Y

Histone H3.Y is conserved among primates. We previously reported that exogenously produced H3.Y accumulates around transcription start sites, suggesting that it may play a role in transcription regulation. The H3.Y nucleosome forms a relaxed chromatin conformation with flexible DNA ends. The H3.Y-specific Lys42 residue is partly responsible for enhancing the flexibility of the nucleosomal DNA. To our surprise, we found that H3.Y stably associates with chromatin and nucleosomes in vivo and in vitro. However, the H3.Y residues responsible for its stable nucleosome incorporation have not been identified yet. In the present study, we performed comprehensive mutational analyses of H3.Y, and determined that the H3.Y C-terminal region including amino acid residues 124-135 is responsible for its stable association with DNA. Among the H3.Y C-terminal residues, the H3.Y Met124 residue significantly contributed to the stable DNA association with the H3.Y-H4 tetramer. The H3.Y M124I mutation substantially reduced the H3.Y-H4 association in the nucleosome. In contrast, the H3.Y K42R mutation affected the nucleosome stability less, although it contributes to the flexible DNA ends of the nucleosome. Therefore, these H3.Y-specific residues, Lys42 and Met124, play different and specific roles in nucleosomal DNA relaxation and stable nucleosome formation, respectively, in chromatin.

FACT Assists Base Excision Repair by Boosting the Remodeling Activity of RSC

FACT, in addition to its role in transcription, is likely implicated in both transcription-coupled nucleotide excision repair and DNA double strand break repair. Here, we present evidence that FACT could be directly involved in Base Excision Repair and elucidate the chromatin remodeling mechanisms of FACT during BER. We found that, upon oxidative stress, FACT is released from transcription related protein complexes to get associated with repair proteins and chromatin remodelers from the SWI/SNF family. We also showed the rapid recruitment of FACT to the site of damage, coincident with the glycosylase OGG1, upon the local generation of oxidized DNA. Interestingly, FACT facilitates uracil-DNA glycosylase in the removal of uracil from nucleosomal DNA thanks to an enhancement in the remodeling activity of RSC. This discloses a novel property of FACT wherein it has a co-remodeling activity and strongly enhances the remodeling capacity of the chromatin remodelers. Altogether, our data suggest that FACT may acts in concert with RSC to facilitate excision of DNA lesions during the initial step of BER.

In the nucleus, DNA is packaged into chromatin. The repeating unit of chromatin, the nucleosome, consists of a histone octamer around which DNA is wrapped into two superhelical turns. The nucleosome is a barrier for various nuclear processes which require access to DNA. To repair lesions on DNA, this barrier has to be overcome by either nucleosome remodeling or by histone eviction. Here we present evidence that FACT, a protein known to be involved in transcription, is also involved in BER, by boosting nucleosome remodeling. Upon in vivo oxidized DNA lesion induction, FACT exhibits a BER-like protein behavior, and it is recruited to the sites of DNA damages. In vitro experiments show that FACT boosts the remodeling activity of the chromatin remodeler RSC and is implicated in DNA repair. The presence of FACT greatly facilitates the removal of uracil from nucleosomal, but not from naked DNA, in a RSC-mediated reaction. Taken collectively, our in vitro and in vivo data reveal a role of FACT in BER by helping the remodeling of chromatin at the sites of lesions.

Mammal-specific H2A variant, H2ABbd, is involved in apoptotic induction via activation of NF-κB signaling pathway

Histone variants play specific roles in maintenance and regulation of chromatin structures. H2ABbd, an H2A variant, possesses a highly divergent structure compared with canonical H2A and is highly expressed in postmeiotic germ cells, but its functions in the regulation of gene expression are largely unknown. In the present study, we investigated the cellular phenotype associated with enforced H2ABbd expression. Among H2A variants, H2ABbd specifically caused growth defect in human cells and induced apoptosis. H2ABbd expression resulted in degradation of inhibitor of κB-α and translocation of NF-κB into nuclei, indicating the activation of NF-κB. Intriguingly, NF-κB activity was essential for H2ABbd-induced apoptosis. H2ABbd overexpression resulted in DNA damage after release from G1/S, progressed through the S phase slowly, and induced apoptosis. Furthermore, gene expression microarray analysis revealed that expression of H2ABbd activates groups of genes involved in apoptosis and postmeiotic germ cell development, suggesting that H2ABbd might influence transcription. Taken together, our data suggest that H2ABbd may contribute to specific chromatin structures and promote NF-κB activation, which could in turn induce apoptosis in mammalian cells.

H2A.B facilitates transcription elongation at methylated CpG loci

H2A.B is a unique histone H2A variant that only exists in mammals. Here we found that H2A.B is ubiquitously expressed in major organs. Genome-wide analysis of H2A.B in mouse ES cells shows that H2A.B is associated with methylated DNA in gene body regions. Moreover, H2A.B-enriched gene loci are actively transcribed. One typical example is that H2A.B is enriched in a set of differentially methylated regions at imprinted loci and facilitates transcription elongation. These results suggest that H2A.B positively regulates transcription elongation by overcoming DNA methylation in the transcribed region. It provides a novel mechanism by which transcription is regulated at DNA hypermethylated regions.

Histone variants: emerging players in cancer biology

Histone variants are key players in shaping chromatin structure, and, thus, in regulating fundamental cellular processes such as chromosome segregation and gene expression. Emerging evidence points towards a role for histone variants in contributing to tumor progression, and, recently, the first cancer-associated mutation in a histone variant-encoding gene was reported. In addition, genetic alterations of the histone chaperones that specifically regulate chromatin incorporation of histone variants are rapidly being uncovered in numerous cancers. Collectively, these findings implicate histone variants as potential drivers of cancer initiation and/or progression, and, therefore, targeting histone deposition or the chromatin remodeling machinery may be of therapeutic value. Here, we review the mammalian histone variants of the H2A and H3 families in their respective cellular functions, and their involvement in tumor biology.

Histone variants and transcription regulation

Histones are the protein components of chromatin and are important for its organization and compaction. Although core histones are exclusively expressed during S phase of the cell cycle, there exist variants of canonical histones that are expressed throughout the cell cycle. These histone variants are often deposited at defined regions of the genome and they play important roles in a variety of cellular processes, such as transcription regulation, heterochromatin formation and DNA repair. In this chapter, we will focus on several histone variants that have been linked to transcription regulation, and highlight their physical and functional features that facilitate their activities in this context.

Distinct distribution of ectopically expressed histone variants H2A.Bbd and MacroH2A in open and closed chromatin domains

Background

It becomes increasingly evident that nuclesomes are far from being identical to each other. This nucleosome diversity is due partially to the existence of histone variants encoded by separate genes. Among the known histone variants the less characterized are H2A.Bbd and different forms of macroH2A. This is especially true in the case of H2A.Bbd as there are still no commercially available antibodies specific to H2A.Bbd that can be used for chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP).

Methods

We have generated HeLa S3 cell lines stably expressing epitope-tagged versions of macroH2A1.1, H2A.Bbd or canonical H2A and analyzed genomic distribution of the tagged histones using ChIP-on-chip technique.

Results

The presence of histone H2A variants macroH2A1.1 and H2A.Bbd has been analyzed in the chromatin of several segments of human chromosomes 11, 16 and X that have been chosen for their different gene densities and chromatin status. Chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) followed by hybridization with custom NimbleGene genomic microarrays demonstrated that in open chromatin domains containing tissue-specific along with housekeeping genes, the H2A.Bbd variant was preferentially associated with the body of a subset of transcribed genes. The macroH2A1.1 variant was virtually absent from some genes and underrepresented in others. In contrast, in closed chromatin domains which contain only tissue-specific genes inactive in HeLa S3 cells, both macroH2A1.1 and H2A.Bbd histone variants were present and often colocalized.

Conclusions

Genomic distribution of macro H2A and H2A.Bbd does not follow any simple rule and is drastically different in open and closed genomic domains.

Histone H2A variants in nucleosomes and chromatin: more or less stable?

In eukaryotes, DNA is organized together with histones and non-histone proteins into a highly complex nucleoprotein structure called chromatin, with the nucleosome as its monomeric subunit. Various interconnected mechanisms regulate DNA accessibility, including replacement of canonical histones with specialized histone variants. Histone variant incorporation can lead to profound chromatin structure alterations thereby influencing a multitude of biological processes ranging from transcriptional regulation to genome stability. Among core histones, the H2A family exhibits highest sequence divergence, resulting in the largest number of variants known. Strikingly, H2A variants differ mostly in their C-terminus, including the docking domain, strategically placed at the DNA entry/exit site and implicated in interactions with the (H3–H4)₂-tetramer within the nucleosome and in the L1 loop, the interaction interface of H2A–H2B dimers. Moreover, the acidic patch, important for internucleosomal contacts and higher-order chromatin structure, is altered between different H2A variants. Consequently, H2A variant incorporation has the potential to strongly regulate DNA organization on several levels resulting in meaningful biological output. Here, we review experimental evidence pinpointing towards outstanding roles of these highly variable regions of H2A family members, docking domain, L1 loop and acidic patch, and close by discussing their influence on nucleosome and higher-order chromatin structure and stability.

H2A.Z.2.2 is an alternatively spliced histone H2A.Z variant that causes severe nucleosome destabilization

The histone variant H2A.Z has been implicated in many biological processes, such as gene regulation and genome stability. Here, we present the identification of H2A.Z.2.2 (Z.2.2), a novel alternatively spliced variant of histone H2A.Z and provide a comprehensive characterization of its expression and chromatin incorporation properties. Z.2.2 mRNA is found in all human cell lines and tissues with highest levels in brain. We show the proper splicing and in vivo existence of this variant protein in humans. Furthermore, we demonstrate the binding of Z.2.2 to H2A.Z-specific TIP60 and SRCAP chaperone complexes and its active replication-independent deposition into chromatin. Strikingly, various independent in vivo and in vitro analyses, such as biochemical fractionation, comparative FRAP studies of GFP-tagged H2A variants, size exclusion chromatography and single molecule FRET, in combination with in silico molecular dynamics simulations, consistently demonstrate that Z.2.2 causes major structural changes and significantly destabilizes nucleosomes. Analyses of deletion mutants and chimeric proteins pinpoint this property to its unique C-terminus. Our findings enrich the list of known human variants by an unusual protein belonging to the H2A.Z family that leads to the least stable nucleosome known to date.

A unique H2A histone variant occupies the transcriptional start site of active genes

Transcriptional activation is controlled by chromatin, which needs to be unfolded and remodeled to ensure access to the transcription start site (TSS). However, the mechanisms that yield such an 'open' chromatin structure, and how these processes are coordinately regulated during differentiation, are poorly understood. We identify the mouse (Mus musculus) H2A histone variant H2A.Lap1 as a previously undescribed component of the TSS of active genes expressed during specific stages of spermatogenesis. This unique chromatin landscape also includes a second histone variant, H2A.Z. In the later stages of round spermatid development, H2A.Lap1 dynamically loads onto the inactive X chromosome, enabling the transcriptional activation of previously repressed genes. Mechanistically, we show that H2A.Lap1 imparts unique unfolding properties to chromatin. We therefore propose that H2A.Lap1 coordinately regulates gene expression by directly opening the chromatin structure of the TSS at genes regulated during spermatogenesis.

Base excision repair of 8-oxoG in dinucleosomes

In this work we have studied the effect of chromatin structure on the base excision repair (BER) efficiency of 8-oxoG. As a model system we have used precisely positioned dinucleosomes assembled with linker histone H1. A single 8-oxoG was inserted either in the linker or the core particle DNA within the dinucleosomal template. We found that in the absence of histone H1 the glycosylase OGG1 removed 8-oxoG from the linker DNA and cleaved DNA with identical efficiency as in the naked DNA. In contrast, the presence of histone H1 resulted in close to 10-fold decrease in the efficiency of 8-oxoG initiation of repair in linker DNA independently of linker DNA length. The repair of 8-oxoG in nucleosomal DNA was very highly impeded in both absence and presence of histone H1. Chaperone-induced uptake of H1 restored the efficiency of the glycosylase induced removal of 8-oxoG from linker DNA, but not from the nucleosomal DNA. We show, however, that removal of histone H1 and nucleosome remodelling are both necessary and sufficient for an efficient removal of 8-oxoG in nucleosomal DNA. Finally, a model for BER of 8-oxoG in chromatin templates is suggested.

Chromatin under mechanical stress: from single 30 nm fibers to single nucleosomes

About a decade ago, the elastic properties of a single chromatin fiber and, subsequently, those of a single nucleosome started to be explored using optical and magnetic tweezers. These techniques have allowed direct measurements of several essential physical parameters of individual nucleosomes and nucleosomal arrays, including the forces responsible for the maintenance of the structure of both the chromatin fiber and the individual nucleosomes, as well as the mechanism of their unwinding under mechanical stress. Experiments on the assembly of individual chromatin fibers have illustrated the complexity of the process and the key role of certain specific components. Nevertheless a substantial disparity exists in the data reported from various experiments. Chromatin, unlike naked DNA, is a system which is extremely sensitive to environmental conditions, and studies carried out under even slightly different conditions are difficult to compare directly. In this review we summarize the available data and their impact on our knowledge of both nucleosomal structure and the dynamics of nucleosome and chromatin fiber assembly and organization.

Dynamics of the higher-order structure of chromatin

Eukaryotic DNA is hierarchically packaged into chromatin to fit inside the nucleus. Dynamics of the chromatin structure plays a critical role in transcriptional regulation and other biological processes that involve DNA, such as DNA replication and DNA repair. Many factors, including histone variants, histone modification, DNA methylation and the binding of non-histone architectural proteins regulate the structure of chromatin. Although the structure of nucleosomes, the fundamental repeating unit of chromatin, is clear, there is still much discussion on the higher-order levels of chromatin structure. Identifying the structural details and dynamics of higher-order chromatin fibers is therefore very important for understanding the organization and regulation of gene activities. Here, we review studies on the dynamics of chromatin higher order structure and its relationship with gene transcription.

Chromatin higher-order structures and gene regulation

Genomic DNA in the eukaryotic nucleus is hierarchically packaged by histones into chromatin to fit inside the nucleus. The dynamics of higher-order chromatin compaction play a crucial role in transcription and other biological processes inherent to DNA. Many factors, including histone variants, histone modifications, DNA methylation, and the binding of non-histone architectural proteins regulate the structure of chromatin. Although the structure of nucleosomes, the fundamental repeating unit of chromatin, is clear, there is still much discussion on the higher-order levels of chromatin structure. In this review, we focus on the recent progress in elucidating the structure of the 30-nm chromatin fiber. We also discuss the structural plasticity/dynamics and epigenetic inheritance of higher-order chromatin and the roles of chromatin higher-order organization in eukaryotic gene regulation.

Histone variants in metazoan development

Embryonic development is regulated by both genetic and epigenetic mechanisms, with nearly all DNA-templated processes influenced by chromatin architecture. Sequence variations in histone proteins, core components of chromatin, provide a means to generate diversity in the chromatin structure, resulting in distinct and profound biological outcomes in the developing embryo. Emerging literature suggests that epigenetic contributions from histone variants play key roles in a number of developmental processes such as the initiation and maintenance of pericentric heterochromatin, X-inactivation, and germ cell differentiation. Here, we review the role of histone variants in the embryo with particular emphasis on early mammalian development.

RSC remodeling of oligo-nucleosomes: an atomic force microscopy study

The ‘remodels structure of chromatin’ (RSC) complex is an essential chromatin remodeling factor that is required for the control of several processes including transcription, repair and replication. The ability of RSC to relocate centrally positioned mononucleosomes at the end of nucleosomal DNA is firmly established, but the data on RSC action on oligo-nucleosomal templates remains still scarce. By using atomic force microscopy (AFM) imaging, we have quantitatively studied the RSC-induced mobilization of positioned di- and trinucleosomes as well as the directionality of mobilization on mononucleosomal template labeled at one end with streptavidin. AFM imaging showed only a limited set of distinct configurational states for the remodeling products. No stepwise or preferred directionality of the nucleosome motion was observed. Analysis of the corresponding reaction pathways allows deciphering the mechanistic features of RSC-induced nucleosome relocation. The final outcome of RSC remodeling of oligosome templates is the packing of the nucleosomes at the edge of the template, providing large stretches of DNA depleted of nucleosomes. This feature of RSC may be used by the cell to overcome the barrier imposed by the presence of nucleosomes.

The docking domain of histone H2A is required for H1 binding and RSC-mediated nucleosome remodeling

Histone variants within the H2A family show high divergences in their C-terminal regions. In this work, we have studied how these divergences and in particular, how a part of the H2A COOH-terminus, the docking domain, is implicated in both structural and functional properties of the nucleosome. Using biochemical methods in combination with Atomic Force Microscopy and Electron Cryo-Microscopy, we show that the H2A-docking domain is a key structural feature within the nucleosome. Deletion of this domain or replacement with the incomplete docking domain from the variant H2A.Bbd results in significant structural alterations in the nucleosome, including an increase in overall accessibility to nucleases, un-wrapping of ∼10 bp of DNA from each end of the nucleosome and associated changes in the entry/exit angle of DNA ends. These structural alterations are associated with a reduced ability of the chromatin remodeler RSC to both remodel and mobilize the nucleosomes. Linker histone H1 binding is also abrogated in nucleosomes containing the incomplete docking domain of H2A.Bbd. Our data illustrate the unique role of the H2A-docking domain in coordinating the structural-functional aspects of the nucleosome properties. Moreover, our data suggest that incorporation of a ‘defective’ docking domain may be a primary structural role of H2A.Bbd in chromatin.

Characterisation of histone variant distribution in human embryonic stem cells by transfection of in vitro transcribed mRNA

Recent studies, primarily in mouse embryonic stem cells, have highlighted the unique chromatin state of pluripotent stem cells, including the incorporation of histone variants into specific genomic locations, and its role in facilitating faithful expression of genes during development. However, there is little information available on the expression and subcellular localisation of histone variants in human embryonic stem cells (hESCs). In this study, we confirmed the expression of a panel of histone variant genes in several hESC lines and demonstrated the utility of transfection of in vitro transcribed, epitope-tagged mRNAs to characterise the subcellular localisation of these proteins. The subcellular localisations of variant histone H3 (CENP-A, H3.3), H2A (MACROH2A, H2AX, H2AZ, H2ABBD) and H1 (H1A, HB, H1C, H1D) were examined, revealing distinct nuclear localisation profiles for each protein. These data highlight the differences between murine (m) ESCs and hESCs, including the presence of a MACROH2A-enriched inactive X chromosome in undifferentiated XX hESC lines. We also provide the first evidence for MACROH2A accumulation on the Y-chromosome in XY hESCs.

Histones: annotating chromatin

Chromatin is a highly regulated nucleoprotein complex through which genetic material is structured and maneuvered to elicit cellular processes, including transcription, cell division, differentiation, and DNA repair. In eukaryotes, the core of this structure is composed of nucleosomes, or repetitive histone octamer units typically enfolded by 147 base pairs of DNA. DNA is arranged and indexed through these nucleosomal structures to adjust local chromatin compaction and accessibility. Histones are subject to multiple covalent posttranslational modifications, some of which alter intrinsic chromatin properties, others of which present or hinder binding modules for non-histone, chromatin-modifying complexes. Although certain histone marks correlate with different biological outputs, we have yet to fully appreciate their effects on transcription and other cellular processes. Tremendous advancements over the past years have uncovered intriguing histone-related matters and raised important related questions. This review revisits past breakthroughs and discusses novel developments that pertain to histone posttranslational modifications and the affects they have on transcription and DNA packaging.

H2A.Bbd: an X-chromosome-encoded histone involved in mammalian spermiogenesis

Despite the identification of H2A.Bbd as a new vertebrate-specific replacement histone variant several years ago, and despite the many in vitro structural characterizations using reconstituted chromatin complexes consisting of this variant, the existence of H2A.Bbd in the cell and its location has remained elusive. Here, we report that the native form of this variant is present in highly advanced spermiogenic fractions of mammalian testis at the time when histones are highly acetylated and being replaced by protamines. It is also present in the nucleosomal chromatin fraction of mature human sperm. The ectopically expressed non-tagged version of the protein is associated with micrococcal nuclease-refractory insoluble fractions of chromatin and in mouse (20T1/2) cell line, H2A.Bbd is enriched at the periphery of chromocenters. The exceedingly rapid evolution of this unique X-chromosome-linked histone variant is shared with other reproductive proteins including those associated with chromatin in the mature sperm (protamines) of many vertebrates. This common rate of evolution provides further support for the functional and structural involvement of this protein in male gametogenesis in mammals.

Biochemical analyses of nuclear receptor-dependent transcription with chromatin templates

Chromatin, the physiological template for transcription, plays important roles in gene regulation by nuclear receptors (NRs). It can (1) restrict the binding of NRs or the transcriptional machinery to their genomic targets, (2) serve as a target of regulatory posttranslational modifications by NR coregulator proteins with histone-directed enzymatic activities, and (3) function as a binding scaffold for a variety of transcription-related proteins. The advent of in vitro or "cell-free" systems that accurately recapitulate ligand-dependent transcription by NRs with chromatin templates has allowed detailed analyses of these processes. Biochemical studies have advanced our understanding of the mechanisms of gene regulation, including the role of ligands, coregulators, and nucleosome remodeling. In addition, they have provided new insights about the dynamics of NR-mediated transcription. This chapter reviews the current methodologies for assembling, transcribing, and analyzing chromatin in vitro, as well as the new information that has been gained from these studies.

The dynamics of individual nucleosomes controls the chromatin condensation pathway: direct atomic force microscopy visualization of variant chromatin

Chromatin organization and dynamics is studied at scales ranging from single nucleosome to nucleosomal array by using a unique combination of biochemical assays, single molecule imaging technique, and numerical modeling. We show that a subtle modification in the nucleosome structure induced by the histone variant H2A.Bbd drastically modifies the higher order organization of the nucleosomal arrays. Importantly, as directly visualized by atomic force microscopy, conventional H2A nucleosomal arrays exhibit specific local organization, in contrast to H2A.Bbd arrays, which show "beads on a string" structure. The combination of systematic image analysis and theoretical modeling allows a quantitative description relating the observed gross structural changes of the arrays to their local organization. Our results suggest strongly that higher-order organization of H1-free nucleosomal arrays is determined mainly by the fluctuation properties of individual nucleosomes. Moreover, numerical simulations suggest the existence of attractive interactions between nucleosomes to provide the degree of compaction observed for conventional chromatin fibers.

Nucleosome binding properties and Co-remodeling activities of native and in vivo acetylated HMGB-1 and HMGB-2 proteins

The participation of HMGB-1 and -2 proteins in chromatin remodeling is investigated. Here, the ability of these proteins and their posttranslationally acetylated forms to affect SWI/SNF and RSC-dependent nucleosome mobilization was studied. Both proteins assisted nucleosome sliding induced by the two remodelers. Following acetylation, these proteins acquire the ability to bind to core particles, a property that has not yet been documented with parental proteins. We further report that compared to the nonmodified proteins, acetylated HMGB-1 and -2 exhibited both stronger binding to linker DNA-containing nucleosomes and a higher co-remodeling activity. Acetylation of HMGB-1 and -2 proteins enhanced binding of SWI/SNF to the nucleosome but did not affect its ATPase activity.

The incorporation of the novel histone variant H2AL2 confers unusual structural and functional properties of the nucleosome

In this work we have studied the properties of the novel mouse histone variant H2AL2. H2AL2 was used to reconstitute nucleosomes and the structural and functional properties of these particles were studied by a combination of biochemical approaches, atomic force microscopy (AFM) and electron cryo-microscopy. DNase I and hydroxyl radical footprinting as well as micrococcal and exonuclease III digestion demonstrated an altered structure of the H2AL2 nucleosomes all over the nucleosomal DNA length. Restriction nuclease accessibility experiments revealed that the interactions of the H2AL2 histone octamer with the ends of the nucleosomal DNA are highly perturbed. AFM imaging showed that the H2AL2 histone octamer was complexed with only ∼130 bp of DNA. H2AL2 reconstituted trinucleosomes exhibited a type of a ‘beads on a string’ structure, which was quite different from the equilateral triangle 3D organization of conventional H2A trinucleosomes. The presence of H2AL2 affected both the RSC and SWI/SNF remodeling and mobilization of the variant particles. These unusual properties of the H2AL2 nucleosomes suggest a specific role of H2AL2 during mouse spermiogenesis.

Weak but uniform enrichment of the histone variant macroH2A1 along the inactive X chromosome

We studied the enrichment and distribution of the histone variant mH2A1 in the condensed inactive X (Xi) chromosome. By using highly specific antibodies against mH2A1 and stable HEK 293 cell lines expressing either green fluorescent protein (GFP)-mH2A1 or GFP-H2A, we found that the Xi chromosome contains approximately 1.5-fold more mH2A1 than the autosomes. To determine the in vivo distribution of mH2A1 along the X chromosome, we used a native chromatin immunoprecipitation-on-chip technique. DNA isolated from mH2A1-immunoprecipitated nucleosomes from either male or female mouse liver were hybridized to tiling microarrays covering 5 kb around most promoters or the entire X chromosome. The data show that mH2A1 is uniformly distributed across the entire Xi chromosome. Interestingly, a stronger mH2A1 enrichment along the pseudoautosomal X chromosome region was observed in both sexes. Our results indicate a potential role for macroH2A in large-scale chromosome structure and genome stability.

Quickly evolving histones, nucleosome stability and chromatin folding: all about histone H2A.Bbd

Histone H2A.Bbd (Barr body-deficient) is a novel histone variant which is largely excluded from the inactive X chromosome of mammals. Discovered only 6 years ago, H2A.Bbd displays very unusual structural and functional properties, for instance, it is relatively shorter and only 48% identical compared to H2A, lacking both the typical C-terminal tail of the H2A family and the very last sequence of the docking domain, making it the most specialized among all histone variants known to date. Indeed, molecular evolutionary analyses have shown that H2A.Bbd is a highly hypervariable and quickly evolving protein exclusive to mammalian lineages, in striking contrast to all other histones. Different studies have described a deposition pattern of H2A.Bbd in the chromatin that overlaps with regions of histone H4 acetylation suggesting its association with transcriptionally active euchromatic regions of the genome. In this regard, it is believed that this histone variant plays an important role in determining such regions by destabilizing the nucleosome and locally unfolding the chromatin fiber. This review provides a concise, comprehensive and timely summary of the work published on H2A.Bbd structure and function. Special emphasis is placed on its chromatin deposition patterns in relation to gene expression profiles and its evolutionary history, as well as on the dynamics of H2A.Bbd-containing nucleosomes.

H2A.Bbd: a quickly evolving hypervariable mammalian histone that destabilizes nucleosomes in an acetylation-independent way

Molecular evolutionary analyses revealed that histone H2A.Bbd is a highly variable quickly evolving mammalian replacement histone variant, in striking contrast to all other histones. At the nucleotide level, this variability appears to be the result of a larger amount of nonsynonymous variation, which affects to a lesser extent, the structural domain of the protein comprising the histone fold. The resulting amino acid sequence diversity can be predicted to affect the internucleosomal and intranucleosomal histone interactions. Our phylogenetic analysis has allowed us to identify several of the residues involved. The biophysical characterization of nucleosomes reconstituted with recombinant mouse H2A.Bbd and their comparison to similar data obtained with human H2A.Bbd clearly support this notion. Despite the high interspecific amino acid sequence variability, all of the H2A.Bbd variants exert similar structural effects at the nucleosome level, which result in an unfolded highly unstable nucleoprotein complex. Such structure resembles that previously described for the highly dynamically acetylated nucleosomes associated with transcriptionally active regions of the genome. Nevertheless, the structure of nucleosome core particles reconstituted from H2A.Bbd is not affected by the presence of a hyperacetylated histone complement. This suggests that replacement by H2A.Bbd provides an alternative mechanism to unfold chromatin structure, possibly in euchromatic regions, in a way that is not dependent on acetylation.

Atomic force microscopy imaging of SWI/SNF action: mapping the nucleosome remodeling and sliding

We propose a combined experimental (atomic force microscopy) and theoretical study of the structural and dynamical properties of nucleosomes. In contrast to biochemical approaches, this method allows us to determine simultaneously the DNA-complexed length distribution and nucleosome position in various contexts. First, we show that differences in the nucleoproteic structure observed between conventional H2A and H2A.Bbd variant nucleosomes induce quantitative changes in the length distribution of DNA-complexed with histones. Then, the sliding action of remodeling complex SWI/SNF is characterized through the evolution of the nucleosome position and wrapped DNA length mapping. Using a linear energetic model for the distribution of DNA-complexed length, we extract the net-wrapping energy of DNA onto the histone octamer and compare it to previous studies.

ATP-dependent chromatin remodeling is required for base excision repair in conventional but not in variant H2A.Bbd nucleosomes

In eukaryotes, base excision repair (BER) is responsible for the repair of oxidatively generated lesions. The mechanism of BER on naked DNA substrates has been studied in detail, but how it operates on chromatin remains unclear. Here we have studied the mechanism of BER by introducing a single 8-oxo-7,8-dihydroguanine (8-oxoG) lesion in the DNA of reconstituted positioned conventional and histone variant H2A.Bbd nucleosomes. We found that 8-oxoguanine DNA glycosylase, apurinic/apyrimidinic endonuclease, and polymerase beta activities were strongly reduced in both types of nucleosomes. In conventional nucleosomes SWI/SNF stimulated the processing of 8-oxoG by each one of the three BER repair factors to efficiencies similar to those for naked DNA. Interestingly, SWI/SNF-induced remodeling, but not mobilization of conventional nucleosomes, was required to achieve this effect. A very weak effect of SWI/SNF on the 8-oxoG BER removal in H2A.Bbd histone variant nucleosomes was observed. The possible implications of our data for the understanding of in vivo mechanisms of BER are discussed.

Electrophoresis of positioned nucleosomes

We present in this article an original approach to compute the electrophoretic mobility of rigid nucleo-protein complexes like nucleosomes. This model allows us to address theoretically the influence of complex position along DNA, as well as wrapped length of DNA on the electrophoretic mobility of the complex. The predictions of the model are in qualitative agreement with experimental results on mononucleosomes assembled on short DNA fragments (<400 bp). Influences of additional experimental parameters like gel concentration, ionic strength, and effective charges are also discussed in the framework of the model, and are found to be qualitatively consistent with experiments when available. Based on the present model, we propose a simple semi-empirical formula describing positioning of nucleosomes as seen through electrophoresis.

Human immunodeficiency virus-restricted replication in astrocytes and the ability of gamma interferon to modulate this restriction are regulated by a downstream effector of the Wnt signaling pathway

Astrocyte dysregulation correlates with the severity and the rate of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-associated dementia (HAD) progression, highlighting a pivotal role for astrocytes in HIV neuropathogenesis. Yet, astrocytes limit HIV, indicating that they possess an intrinsic molecular mechanism to restrict HIV replication. We previously established that this restriction can be partly overcome by priming astrocytes with gamma interferon (IFN-gamma), which is elevated in the cerebral spinal fluid of HAD patients. We evaluated the mechanism of restrictive HIV replication in astrocytes and how IFN-gamma priming modulates this restriction. We demonstrate that the downstream effector of Wnt signaling, T-cell factor 4 (TCF-4), is part of a transcriptional complex that is immunoprecipitated with HIV TAR-containing region in untreated astrocytes but not in IFN-gamma-treated cells. Blocking TCF-4 activity with a dominant-negative mutant enhanced HIV replication by threefold in both the astrocytoma cell line U87MG and primary fetal astrocytes. Using a TCF-4 reporter plasmid, we directly demonstrate that Wnt signaling is active in human astrocytes and is markedly reduced by IFN-gamma treatment. Collectively, these data implicate TCF-4 in repressing HIV replication and the ability of IFN-gamma to regulate this restriction by inhibiting TCF-4. Given that TCF-4 is the downstream effector of Wnt signaling, harnessing Wnt signaling as an intrinsic molecular mechanism to limit HIV replication may emerge as a powerful tool to regulate HIV replication within and outside of the brain.

Nucleolin: a multiFACeTed protein

Nucleolin is an abundant, ubiquitously expressed protein that is found in various cell compartments, especially in the nucleolus, of which it is a major component. This multifunctional protein has been described as being a part of many pathways, from interactions with viruses at the cellular membrane to essential processing of the ribosomal RNA in the nucleolus. However, most of the molecular details of these different functions are not understood. Here, we focus on the role of nucleolin in transcription, especially some recent findings describing the protein as a histone chaperone [with functional similarity to the facilitates chromatin transcription (FACT) complex] and a chromatin co-remodeler. These new properties could help reconcile discrepancies in the literature regarding the role of nucleolin in transcription.

Dissection of the unusual structural and functional properties of the variant H2A.Bbd nucleosome

The histone variant H2A.Bbd appeared to be associated with active chromatin, but how it functions is unknown. We have dissected the properties of nucleosome containing H2A.Bbd. Atomic force microscopy (AFM) and electron cryo-microscopy (cryo-EM) showed that the H2A.Bbd histone octamer organizes only approximately 130 bp of DNA, suggesting that 10 bp of each end of nucleosomal DNA are released from the octamer. In agreement with this, the entry/exit angle of the nucleosomal DNA ends formed an angle close to 180 degrees and the physico-chemical analysis pointed to a lower stability of the variant particle. Reconstitution of nucleosomes with swapped-tail mutants demonstrated that the N-terminus of H2A.Bbd has no impact on the nucleosome properties. AFM, cryo-EM and chromatin remodeling experiments showed that the overall structure and stability of the particle, but not its property to interfere with the SWI/SNF induced remodeling, were determined to a considerable extent by the H2A.Bbd docking domain. These data show that the whole H2A.Bbd histone fold domain is responsible for the unusual properties of the H2A.Bbd nucleosome.

Nucleolin is a histone chaperone with FACT-like activity and assists remodeling of nucleosomes

Remodeling machines play an essential role in the control of gene expression, but how their activity is regulated is not known. Here we report that the nuclear protein nucleolin possesses a histone chaperone activity and that this factor greatly enhances the activity of the chromatin remodeling machineries SWI/SNF and ACF. Interestingly, nucleolin is able to induce the remodeling by SWI/SNF of macroH2A, but not of H2ABbd nucleosomes, which are otherwise resistant to remodeling. This new histone chaperone promotes the destabilization of the histone octamer, helping the dissociation of a H2A-H2B dimer, and stimulates the SWI/SNF-mediated transfer of H2A-H2B dimers. Furthermore, nucleolin facilitates transcription through the nucleosome, which is reminiscent of the activity of the FACT complex. This work defines new functions for histone chaperones in chromatin remodeling and regulation of transcription and explains how nucleolin could act on transcription.

The NH2 tail of the novel histone variant H2BFWT exhibits properties distinct from conventional H2B with respect to the assembly of mitotic chromosomes

We have studied the functional and structural properties of nucleosomes reconstituted with H2BFWT, a recently identified putative histone variant of the H2B family with totally unknown function. We show that H2BFWT can replace the conventional histone H2B in the nucleosome. The presence of H2BFWT did not affect the overall structure of the nucleosome, and the H2BFWT nucleosomes exhibited the same stability as conventional nucleosomes. SWI/SNF was able to efficiently remodel and mobilize the H2BFWT nucleosomes. Importantly, H2BFWT, in contrast to conventional H2B, was unable to recruit chromosome condensation factors and to participate in the assembly of mitotic chromosomes. This was determined by the highly divergent (compared to conventional H2B) NH2 tail of H2BFWT. These data, in combination with the observations that H2BFWT was found by others in the sperm nuclei and appeared to be associated with the telomeric chromatin, suggest that H2BFWT could act as a specific epigenetic marker.