Variation in the body mass index among young adult Polish males between 1965 and 1995

Age at menarche, environmental stress, and social inequality: Evidence from Poland in the 1930s-1950s

OBJECTIVE

To address the relationship between socioeconomic factors and age of menarche among Polish women born and reared in periods that varied considerably in environmental stresses: the Great Depression of the 1930s, the interval of World War II, and the interval of communist rule following World War II through the 1950s.

METHODS

The data set included information on age at menarche and socioeconomic status (SES) of 718 women born during the Great Depression (n = 182), WWII (n = 189), and post-WWII through the 1950s (n = 347). A structured semi-parametric statistical model (generalized additive model [GAM] class) was used for analysis. An ANOVA-like linear model was used to test for marginal effects of SES-related factors and their interactions together with nonparametric seasonal effect.

RESULTS

The influence of period of birth, month of birth, region of early childhood, and father's education, and the interaction between period of birth and father's education on age at menarche were statistically significant. During the economic crisis and the interval of WWII, differences in ages at menarche between the extreme categories of father's education were marked. The differences in ages at menarche between women from the lowest and highest social groups were markedly reduced among women born during the post-war interval. In addition, women born in February-March attained menarche earlier than women born in September-October.

CONCLUSIONS

Unpredictable conditions associated with the economic crisis and war conditions had a stronger impact on age at menarche among women from families of lower SES compared to women from better economic circumstances. Individuals born and reared in low SES conditions likely suffered more severe deterioration across the spectrum of the standard of living and quality of life compared to those with a higher SES.

Biological Well-Being during the "Economic Miracle" in Spain: Height, Weight and Body Mass Index of Conscripts in the City of Madrid, 1955-1974

Typifying historical populations using anthropometric indicators such as height, BMI and weight allows for an analysis of the prevalence of obesity and malnutrition. This study evaluates secular changes in height, weight and body mass for men cohorts at 21 years old, born between 1934 and 1954 who were called up between 1955 and 1974, in the city of Madrid, Spain. In this study we prove the hypothesis that anthropometric variables increase thanks to improvement in diet and significant investments in hygiene and health infrastructure during the 1960s. The results of our analysis show a positive secular change in the trends for height (an increase of 4.67 cm), weight (6.400 kg) and BMI (0.90 Kg/m2), the result of a recovery in standards of living following the war and the autarchy of the 1940s. We also observed a slight trend towards obesity and a reduction in underweight categories at the end of the period is also observed. In conclusion, the secular trends of anthropometric variables in the city of Madrid reflect the recovery of living standards after the deterioration of the nutritional status suffered during the Spanish Civil War (1936-1939) and the deprivation of the autarchic period.

Effects of Tabata Training During Physical Education Classes on Body Composition, Aerobic Capacity, and Anaerobic Performance of Under-, Normal- and Overweight Adolescents

Physical education classes often fail to include sufficient exercise intensity to induce changes in body tissue composition and physical fitness. Short-term high-intensity interval training protocols incorporated into physical education lessons are one possible solution to this problem. Existing studies have not examined how individuals differing in body mass index (e.g., normal-weight, underweight) respond to high-intensity interval training exercises. Therefore, this study aimed to evaluate the effects of a Tabata protocol on body composition measurements, aerobic capacity, and motor performance in underweight and overweight adolescents (the experimental groups) vs normal-weight adolescents (here regarded as the control group). The sample included 58 adolescents (28 boys, mean age = 16.2 years; 30 girls, mean age = 16.2 years) who completed the high-intensity interval training and the following set of measurements pre- and post- intervention: height, weight, body fat percentage and waist-to-hip ratio, physical efficiency index (based on the Harvard Step Test), agility (in 4 × 10 shuttle run test), and lower-limb muscle power in vertical jump. The results showed that high-intensity interval training was effective in reducing body weight, waist-to-hip ratio, and body fat percentage only in overweight individuals. Improvement in aerobic capacity was found only in underweight and overweight boys. Further research should focus on the development of customized exercise protocols and their adaptation to girls and assess the sustainability of the changes induced.

Age at menarche in Polish University students born before, during and after World War II: Economic effects

Although the relationships between economic conditions and biological variables over the past two centuries in Poland are reasonably well-documented, the influence of economic and political disruptions, including nutritional privation, during the years immediately before, during and shortly after World War II (WWII) has received less attention. This paper considers the association between age at menarche and body size of university students born before, during and after WWII and father's level of education, a commonly used indicator of family economic status in Poland. Subjects were 518 university students surveyed between 1955 and 1972, birth years 1931 through 1951. The sample was divided into three birth cohorts: before (n=237), during (n=247) and after (n=34) WWII. Age at menarche was compared among birth cohorts, and by weight status and father's level of education. Age at menarche increased slightly but significantly among women born during WWII (14.4 yrs) compared to those born before (14.2 yrs) and after (13.9 yrs) the war. Controlling for year of birth and age of the student, age at menarche was significantly earlier in overweight (13.42±0.35 yrs) than in normal weight (14.33±0.06 yrs) and thin (14.54±0.21 yrs) women. Adjusted mean ages at menarche in small samples of overweight women did not differ by father's level of education, and were earlier than corresponding ages of thin and normal weight women. Adjusted mean ages at menarche did not differ between thin and normal weight women with fathers having primary or no education, but were slightly later in thin than in normal weight women with fathers having a vocational, secondary or higher education. Although age at menarche was associated with father's level of education, young adult weight status was a somewhat more important correlate.

Body size of young adult Polish college-age women born before, during, and after WWII

OBJECTIVES

The aim of this study was to compare the young adult body size of Polish female university students born before, during, and after WWII.

METHODS

Age, height, and weight of 492 students measured between 1956 and 1972 were accessed from the Department of Anthropology archives (Adam Mickiewicz University, Poznań). The sample was divided into three birth year cohorts relative to WWII: before (n = 120), during (n = 196), and after (n = 176). Birth years spanned 1935 through 1952. BMI was calculated. Body size among birth cohorts was compared with age of the student and education level of the father as covariates (ANCOVA).

RESULTS

The birth cohorts differed significantly in height (P < .01), but not in weight and BMI. Women born during WWII were shorter than women born before and after the war; heights of latter cohorts did not differ. The trend for weight was similar, but differences were not significant. Birth cohorts did not differ in BMI.

CONCLUSIONS

Young adult heights of women born during WWII were shorter than the heights of women born before and immediately after the war, although differences were relatively small.

Secular trends in BMI and the prevalence of obesity in young Polish males from 1965 to 2010

BACKGROUND

Obesity is a serious public health problem, the prevalence of which is increasing dramatically all over the world. The aim of this study was to examine trends in body mass index (BMI) and the proportion of overweight and obese individuals among 19-year-old Polish males reporting for mandatory military fitness exams from 1965 to 2010.

METHODS

Height, weight and BMI [weight (kg)/height (m(2))] in five 10% nationwide random samples of 19-year-old conscripts examined in 1965, 1986, 1995, 2001 and 2010 were analysed.

RESULTS

From 1965 to 2010, mean BMI in 19-year-old Polish males increased from 21.7 to 22.9. The rate of change was not uniform, with a rapid increase in mean BMI from 1995 to 2010. Beginning in 1965, the proportion of men with a BMI over 25 has been steadily increasing from one decade to the next, and was four times higher in 2010 than it was in 1965. The rate of increase per decade was twice as high from 2001 to 2010 than it was from 1995 to 2001. In 2010, only 70.8% of young men were of ideal weight.

CONCLUSION

Increase in obesity can be attributed to the social and economic changes brought about by the transformation of the country from a communist to a free-market economy in 1989. The challenges of the obesity epidemic for public health services and its impact on morbidity and life expectancy are also discussed.

The relationship between selected socioeconomic factors and basic anthropometric parameters of school-aged children and adolescents in Poland

The aim of the present paper was to examine the associations between anthropometric parameters, overweight, obesity, and socioeconomic status (SES) of children and adolescents in Poland. Data were collected in the "Elaboration of reference blood pressure ranges for children and adolescents in Poland" OLAF-PL0080 (OLAF) study, a nationally representative survey on growth and blood pressure references for children and adolescents aged 7-18 years. Body height, weight, and waist circumference (WC) were measured, and body mass index (BMI) was calculated. Anthropometric parameters were standardized for age and gender and expressed as z-scores. Statistical analyses were conducted on 10,950 children and adolescents whose parents provided socioeconomic questionnaires. The associations between anthropometric parameters, overweight (including obesity), and SES were analyzed using multiple regression and multiple logistic regression. The height was positively associated with higher levels of maternal education and, in the case of girls, also with paternal education. Higher level of income per capita, but not the highest, was associated with higher weight, BMI, and WC and, in the case of boys, also tall stature. The height, weight, BMI, and waist were significantly inversely associated with number of children in the family. Lower number of children in the family and higher level of income, but not the highest, increased odds of overweight and obesity. In the case of girls, the odds of obesity decreased with paternal higher level of education.

CONCLUSION

The social position associated with parents' education, better environment, and SES correlate with body height and weight of a child. However, it is associated with higher risk of overweight and abdominal obesity.

Associations between childhood socioeconomic position and adulthood obesity

Childhood socioeconomic position (SEP) is inversely associated with cardiovascular disease and all-cause mortality. Obesity in adulthood may be a biologic mechanism. Objectives were to systematically review literature published between 1998 and 2008 that examined associations of childhood SEP with adulthood obesity. Five databases (Cochrane Library, MEDLINE, EMBASE, PsycINFO, Web of Science) were searched for studies from any country, in any language. Forty-eight publications based on 30 studies were identified. In age-adjusted analyses, inverse associations were found between childhood SEP and adulthood obesity in 70% (14 of 20) of studies in females and 27% (4 of 15) in males. In studies of females showing inverse associations between childhood SEP and adulthood obesity, typical effect sizes in age-adjusted analyses for the difference in body mass index between the highest and lowest SEP were 1.0-2.0 kg/m(2); for males, effect sizes were typically 0.2-0.5 kg/m(2). Analyses adjusted for age and adult SEP showed inverse associations in 47% (8 of 17) of studies in females and 14% (2 of 14) of studies in males. When other covariates were additionally adjusted for, inverse associations were found in 4 of 12 studies in females and 2 of 8 studies in males; effect sizes were typically reduced compared with analyses adjusted for age only. In summary, the findings suggest that childhood SEP is inversely related to adulthood obesity in females and not associated in males after adjustment for age. Adulthood SEP and other obesity risk factors may be the mechanisms responsible for the observed associations between childhood SEP and adulthood obesity.

Trends in overweight and obesity in Portuguese conscripts from 1986 to 2000 in relation to place of residence and educational level

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study was to analyse changes in the prevalence of overweight and obesity between 1986 and 2000 in Portuguese conscripts, and to examine the role of place of residence and educational level.

STUDY DESIGN

Cross-sectional study.

METHODS

Data sets from the cross-sectional annual surveys of all 18-year-old Portuguese males born between 1966 and 1981 and examined between 1986 and 2000 (850 081 subjects) were used in this study. Height and weight were measured and body mass index was calculated. Data on educational level (4, 6, 9, 11 and 12+ years) and residence (urban, semi-urban and rural) were collected.

RESULTS

The prevalence of overweight increased from 10.5% in 1986 to 21.3% in 2000, and the prevalence of obesity increased from 0.9% to 4.2% in the same period (P<0.001). After adjustment for year of examination, the odds ratio (OR) for being overweight increased with educational level (reference 4-6 years: 1.19; 9 years: 1.30; 11 years: 1.47; 12+ years: 2.41) and place of residence (reference urban-semi-urban: 1.04; rural: 1.06). The prevalence of obesity increased with educational level (reference 4-6 years: 1.27; 9 years: 1.79; 11 years: 1.83; 12+ years: 2.66) and decreased with place of residence, i.e. those who lived in rural areas had a lower risk of becoming obese (OR: 0.94).

CONCLUSIONS

Despite the low prevalence of obesity in young males in Portugal compared with other European countries, the sharp increase in recent years indicates that public health strategies are needed to prevent obesity.

The effect of the economic transition on the body mass index of conscripts in Poland

The political and socio-economic transition initiated in Poland in the late 1980s is still continuing and has affected all social classes as well as all spheres of daily life of the people. The impact of this change on nutrition and health is examined here, by comparing the body mass index (BMI) of a 10% nationally representative sample of male conscripts aged 19 years (18.50-19.49), in 1986 (n = 26,396), 1995 (n = 22,612), and 2001 (n = 26,178). Mean BMI of young men did not change between 1986 and 1995, but then increased slightly from 22.0 to 22.3 between 1995 and 2001. There was also a significant and continuous increase in the variation of BMI in all social strata across the entire period 1986-2001. This effect is attributed to economic modernisation that has allowed increased diversity of life styles across occupational groups and between families. Sibship size was more important than socio-economic status in explaining variation in BMI after the political changes in 1990. The BMI-enhancing effect of small sibship size is attributed to nutritional intake, and to changes in food availability across the period under study.

The secular trend in human physical growth: a biological view

Nutritionists and anthropometric historians alike are familiar with the secular trend-height and weight in adults, and the rate of physical development in children, increasing since at least the mid 19th century. The social conditions which drive this trend are of interest to anthropometric historians, but the underlying biology is also important. Here the trends for height, weight and menarcheal age are summarised and contrasted. In Northern Europe, adult height has largely stabilised, and the age of menarche has also settled at around 13 years, while weight continues to increase due to obesity. The increase in height from one generation to the next occurs mainly in the first 2 years of life, due to increases in leg length. The height trend has lasted for 150 years or more, i.e. for six generations, because the rate of catch-up from one generation to the next is biologically constrained to avoid the cost of too rapid catch-up.

Variation in body mass index among Polish adults: effects of sex, age, birth cohort, and social class

Variation in the body mass index (BMI) among occupationally active inhabitants of one Polish urban center was studied by means of a three-factor ANOVA. The material is cross-sectional and comprises 32,750 men and women aged 22-60 years, examined in five successive surveys between 1983-1999. The factors considered in each sex were: 1) age category, 2) year of examination, and 3) social class. The increase of BMI with age is markedly greater among women than among men. No sustained intergeneration trend towards increased BMI was detectable in either sex. The BMI means rise regularly with decreasing position on the social scale in both sexes, but this effect is much more dramatic in women. The latter finding suggests that the condition of being situated low on the social scale is conducive to growth of fatness with age, markedly more so in women than in men. The absence of a secular trend in BMI means during the period considered contrasts with results reported for a number of other countries. This finding is intriguing, because Poland underwent abrupt and profound socio-economic transformation in the early 1990s.

Parental education, body mass index and prevalence of obesity among 14-year-old boys between 1987 and 1997 in Wrocław, Poland

The main aim of this study was to examine changes in relative weight and prevalence of obesity across a ten-year period among 14-year-old boys according to parental education level. Data from two surveys, carried out in 1987 and 1997, of boys attending the 7th grade of primary schools in Wrocław were used in the analysis. The heights and weights of 3165 boys aged 14 years selected from cohort of 6969 7th and 8th grade boys from all primary schools of the city Wrocław were used. The data of the second sample of 14-year-old boys (n = 1014) were obtained from a health examination study carried out in the Silesian Centre for Preventive Medicine, 'DOLMED', in Wrocław in 1997. All boys attended the 7th grade of 34 randomly selected primary schools from a total of 129 schools in the city of Wrocław. Social status was assessed on the basis of parental education level scored to four categories: university, secondary school, trade school, and elementary school. The prevalence of overweight and obesity was defined as the percentage of children above the 85th and 95th percentiles of the body mass index (BMI), the means of which were 21.27 and 23.75 kg/m2 respectively. Prevalence of overweight among boys is slightly lower in the 1997 sample, whereas the prevalence of obesity shows the opposite trend and is higher by more than one percent in comparison with the 1987 sample. Similar trends of declining medians and increasing variance are observed in all educational groups. The differences in medians between the two samples within educational groups did not achieve statistical significance for the groups with parents with education at elementary level and fathers with university education. There is a trend toward increasing prevalence of obesity across the decade considered, according to father's education level. With respect to mother's education levels, the most dramatic changes in BMI and obesity occurred in the elementary education group, where the percentage of obese subjects increased more than twofold. A significant increase is also observed in the group with parents attaining university education.