Improving outcome through two decades in childhood ALL in the Nordic countries: the impact of high-dose methotrexate in the reduction of CNS irradiation. Nordic Society of Pediatric Haematology and Oncology (NOPHO)

Leaving the parental home, cohabitation, and marriage after a hematologic malignancy in childhood-A register-based cohort study from the SALiCCS research program

INTRODUCTION

Transitioning to adulthood often involves achieving independence from the parental home. We assessed whether the likelihood of leaving the parental home, cohabitation, and marriage was similar between patients who experienced a hematologic malignancy at a young age and their peers.

METHODS

We identified 11,575 patients diagnosed with a hematologic malignancy under the age of 20 years between 1971 and 2011 in Denmark, Finland, and Sweden, 57,727 country-, age-, and sex-matched population comparisons and 11,803 sibling comparisons and obtained annual information on family and marital status by linking to the statistical institute databases. Hazard ratios (HR) for leaving the parental home, cohabitation and marriage were estimated using Cox proportional hazards modeling.

RESULTS

Young adults with a history of a hematologic malignancy were slightly less likely to leave the parental home (HR 0.89; 95% confidence interval [CI] 0.86-0.92; HR 0.87 [95% CI 0.82-0.92]), cohabit with a nonmarital partner (HR 0.83 [95%CI 0.78-0.87]; HR 0.84 [95% CI 0.77-0.92]) and be married (HR 0.87 [95% CI 0.82-0.91]; HR 0.86 [95% CI 0.79-0.93]), compared with population comparisons and siblings, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings provide reassurance that young adults with a history of a hematologic malignancy show only a slight decrease in their likelihood of gaining independence from their childhood family and forming close interpersonal relationships compared to peers. While most patients are coping well in the long term, integrating structured psychosocial support into long-term follow-up is recommended to facilitate a timely and adequate transition into adulthood.

Educational attainment in survivors of childhood cancer in Denmark, Finland, and Sweden

BACKGROUND

Survivors of childhood cancer may face difficulties at school. We investigated whether childhood cancer affects attainment of upper secondary education, in a register-based cohort study from Denmark, Finland, and Sweden, where we limit bias from selection and participation.

METHODS

From the national cancer registers, we identified all long-term survivors of childhood cancer diagnosed aged 0-14 years in 1971-2005 (n = 7629), compared them to matched population comparisons (n = 35,411) and siblings (n = 6114), using odds ratios (OR) and 95% confidence intervals (CI).

RESULTS

Overall, 6127 survivors (80%) had attained upper secondary education by age 25, compared to 84% among comparison groups. Elevated OR for not attaining this level were mainly confined to survivors of central nervous system (CNS) tumours (ORSurv_PopComp2.05, 95%CI: 1.83-2.29). Other risk groups were survivors who had spent more time in hospital around cancer diagnosis and those who had hospital contacts in early adulthood, particularly psychiatric. Survivors of all cancer types were less likely to have attained upper secondary education without delay.

CONCLUSIONS

Although survivors of childhood cancer experienced delays in their education, many had caught up by age 25. Except for survivors of CNS tumours, survivors attained upper secondary education to almost the same extent as their peers.

Pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamic modeling of maintenance therapy for childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia

In the treatment of childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL), current protocols combine initial high-dose multiagent chemotherapy with prolonged oral therapy with 6-mercaptopurine (6MP) and low-dose methotrexate (MTX) maintenance therapy. Decades of research on ALL treatment have resulted in survival rates of approximately 90%. However, dose-response relationships vary widely between patients and insight into the influencing factors, that would allow for improved personalized treatment management, is insufficient. We use a detailed data set with measurements of thioguanine nucleotides and MTX in red blood cells and absolute neutrophil count (ANC) to develop pharmacokinetic models for 6MP and MTX, as well as a pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamic (PKPD) model capable of predicting individual ANC levels and thus contributing to the development of personalized treatment strategies. Here, we show that integrating metabolite measurements in red blood cells into the full PKPD model improves results when less data is available, but that model predictions are comparable to those of a fixed pharmacokinetic model when data availability is not limited, providing further evidence of the quality of existing models. With this comprehensive model development leading to dynamics similar to simpler models, we validate the suitability of this model structure and provide a foundation for further exploration of maintenance therapy strategies through simulation and optimization.

Inflammatory biomarkers after an exercise intervention in childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia survivors

Cancer survivors show increased risk for non-communicable diseases and chronic low-grade inflammation characterizes the development of such diseases. We investigated inflammatory plasma protein profiles of survivors of childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) in comparison to healthy controls and after an intervention with a home-based exercise program. Survivors of childhood ALL aged 16-30 years (n = 21) with a median age at diagnosis 4.9 (1.6-12.9) years and a median time of 15.9 years from diagnosis, and sex- and age-matched healthy controls (n = 21) were studied. Stored plasma samples were analyzed with Olink's 92-protein-wide Inflammation panel in 21 ALL long-term survivors at baseline, after a previous 16-week home-based exercise intervention (n = 17) and in 21 age- and sex-matched controls at baseline. Protein expression levels were compared between the groups. Inflammatory protein levels did not differ between the survivors and controls at baseline. Significantly reduced levels after the intervention were found in 11 proteins related to either vascular inflammation, insulin resistance, or both: tumor necrosis factor superfamily member 14 (TNFSF14), oncostatin M (OSM), monocyte chemoattractant protein 1 (MCP-1), MCP-2, fibroblast growth factor 21 (FGF-21), chemokine (C-C motif) ligand 4 (CCL4), transforming growth factor alpha (TGF-α), tumor necrosis factor-related apoptosis-inducing ligand 10 (TRAIL), adenosine deaminase (ADA), chemokine (C-X-C motif) ligand 6 (CXCL6), and latency-associated peptide transforming growth factor beta 1 (LAP TGF-β1). The ALL survivors were not significantly more affected by inflammation than controls at baseline. The survivors' 16-week exercise intervention led to significant reduction in inflammatory protein levels. Physical exercise should be promoted for survivors of childhood cancer.

The Impact of Exercise on Cardiotoxicity in Pediatric and Adolescent Cancer Survivors: A Scoping Review

Childhood and adolescent cancer survivors are disproportionately more likely to develop cardiovascular diseases from the late effects of cardiotoxic therapies (e.g., anthracycline-based chemotherapy and chest-directed radiotherapy). Currently, dexrazoxane is the only approved drug for preventing cancer treatment-related cardiac damage. While animal models highlight the beneficial effects of exercise cancer treatment-related cardiac dysfunction, few clinical studies have been conducted. Thus, the objective of this scoping review was to explore the designs and impact of exercise-based interventions for managing cancer treatment-related cardiac dysfunction in childhood and adolescent cancer survivors. Reviewers used Joanna Briggs Institute’s methodology to identify relevant literature. Then, 4616 studies were screened, and three reviewers extracted relevant data from six reports. Reviewers found that exercise interventions to prevent cancer treatment-related cardiac dysfunction in childhood and adolescent cancer survivors vary regarding frequency, intensity, time, and type of exercise intervention. Further, the review suggests that exercise promotes positive effects on managing cancer treatment-related cardiac dysfunction across numerous indices of heart health. However, the few clinical studies employing exercise interventions for childhood and adolescent cancer survivors highlight the necessity for more research in this area.

Long-Term Risk of Hospitalization for Somatic Diseases Among Survivors of Childhood Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia

Background

Survivors of childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) may be at increased long-term risk of hospitalization for somatic diseases. However, large population-based cohort studies with risk estimates for survivors successfully cured without experiencing a relapse or requiring hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT) are lacking.

Methods

Danish and Swedish patients diagnosed with ALL before age 20 years in 1982-2008 were identified in the national cancer registries. Five-year survivors and matched population comparisons without childhood cancer were followed for hospitalization for 120 somatic disease categories in the national hospital registries from 5 years postdiagnosis until 2017, and disease-specific hospitalization rate ratios (RR) were calculated. The mean cumulative count method was used to estimate the mean number of multiple and recurrent disease-specific hospitalizations per individual.

Results

A total of 2024 5-year survivors and 9797 population comparisons were included. The overall hospitalization rate was more than twice as high compared with comparisons (RR = 2.30, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 2.09 to 2.52). At 30 years postdiagnosis, the mean cumulative hospitalization count was 1.69 (95% CI = 1.47 to 1.90) per survivor and 0.80 (95% CI = 0.73 to 0.86) per comparison. In the subcohort without relapse or HSCT (n = 1709), the RR was 1.41 (95% CI = 1.27 to 1.58).

Conclusions

Survivors of childhood ALL were at increased long-term risk for disease-specific hospitalizations; however, in survivors without relapse or HSCT, the rate was only modestly higher than in population comparisons without a childhood cancer. The absolute mean numbers of multiple and recurrent hospitalizations were generally low.

Late mortality among survivors of childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia diagnosed during 1971-2008 in Denmark, Finland, and Sweden: A population-based cohort study

OBJECTIVE

Investigate all-cause and cause-specific late mortality after childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) in a population-based Nordic cohort.

METHODS

From the cancer registries of Denmark, Finland, and Sweden, we identified 3765 five-year survivors of ALL, diagnosed before age 20 during 1971-2008. For each survivor, up to five matched comparison subjects were randomly selected from the general population (n = 18,323). Causes of death were classified as relapse related, health related, and external. Late mortality was evaluated by cumulative incidences of death from 5-year survival date. Mortality hazard ratios (HR) were evaluated with Cox proportional models.

RESULTS

Among the survivors, 315 deaths occurred during a median follow-up of 16 years from 5-year survival date (range 0-42). The majority were attributable to relapse (n = 224), followed by second neoplasm (n = 45). Cumulative incidence of all-cause late mortality at 15 years from diagnosis decreased gradually over treatment decades, from 14.4% (95% confidence interval [CI]: 11.6-17.2) for survivors diagnosed during 1971-1981, to 2.5% (95% CI: 1.3-3.7) for those diagnosed during 2002-2008. This was mainly attributable to a reduction in relapse-related deaths decreasing from 13.4% (95% CI: 10.7-16.1) for survivors diagnosed during 1971-1981 to 1.9% (95% CI: 0.9-2.8) for those diagnosed during 2002-2008. Health-related late mortality was low and did not change substantially across treatment decades. Compared to comparison subjects, all-cause mortality HR was 40 (95% CI: 26-61) 5-9 years from diagnosis, and 4.4 (95% CI: 3.4-5.6) ≥10 years from diagnosis.

CONCLUSIONS

Survivors of ALL have higher late mortality than population comparison subjects. Among the survivors, there was a temporal reduction in risk of death from relapse, without increments in health-related death.

Health care utilisation following childhood acute lymphoblastic leukaemia: a population-based matched cohort study

OBJECTIVES

Survival among children diagnosed with acute lymphoblastic leukaemia (ALL) has increased considerably. However, morbidity in survivors constitutes a potential increasing burden not limited to secondary health care. Our objectives were to compare health care utilisation, including both primary and secondary health care, between childhood ALL survivors and matched references up to 15 years after curative treatment. Moreover, to increase knowledge on survivors' health service seeking behaviour as time from treatment elapsed.

DESIGN AND SETTING

A Danish population-based matched cohort study linking multiple nationwide registries.

PARTICIPANTS

675 cases, diagnosed with childhood (1.0-17.9 years) ALL between 1994 and 2015, and 6750 matched references sampled randomly from the source population (matched on age, gender and geographical region).

PRIMARY OUTCOME MEASURES

Repeated consultations in general practice and hospital (outpatient and inpatient) estimated as yearly rates from 2.5 years after diagnosis and onwards. We compared cases and references with yearly incidence rate ratios (IRRs) from negative binomial regression models.

RESULTS

Survivors of childhood ALL had a mean number of yearly daytime contacts in general practice of 4.75 (95% CI 4.41 to 5.11) the first year, corresponding to an IRR of 1.85 (95% CI 1.71 to 2.00); decreasing to 1.16 (1.01 to 1.34) after 15 years, and without significant impact of gender (p=0.894) or age (p=0.399). For hospital contacts, ALL survivors had a mean number of yearly contacts of 14.21 (13.38-15.08) the first year, corresponding to an IRR of 31.50 (28.29-35.07); decreasing to 2.42 (1.59-3.68) after 15 years. No differences were found across calendar time.

CONCLUSIONS

ALL survivors used significantly more health care services across sectors than the reference population. Decreasing use over 15 years illustrated the dynamics of health care needs; this knowledge may inform the future organisation of integrated follow-up programmes.

TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER

NCT03985826.

Impact of body mass index on relapse in children with acute lymphoblastic leukemia treated according to Nordic treatment protocols

Objectives

High body mass index (BMI) is associated with poorer survival in childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL), but the actual impact on the risk of relapse still needs to be clarified. We evaluated the impact of BMI at diagnosis on the risk of relapse in children with ALL treated according to Nordic Society of Paediatric Haematology and Oncology (NOPHO) protocols.

Method

In a multicenter study, we collected data on BMI at diagnosis and outcome of 2558 children aged 2.0‐17.9 years diagnosed between 1992 and 2016. Patients were divided into four groups according to International Obesity Task Force (IOTF) childhood BMI cut‐offs: underweight, <17; healthy weight, 17‐25; overweight, 25‐30; and obese, ≥30 kg/m².

Results

In Cox multivariate regression analyses, an increased risk of relapse was observed in children aged 10‐17.9 years with unhealthy BMI at diagnosis (underweight hazard ratio HR: 2.90 [95% confidence interval: 1.24‐6.78], P = .01; overweight, HR: 1.95 [1.11‐3.43], P = .02, and obese HR: 4.32 [95% 2.08‐8.97], P < .001), compared to children with healthy weight. BMI had no impact on relapse in children under 10 years of age.

Conclusion

High BMI, and especially obesity at diagnosis, is an independent adverse prognostic factor for relapse in older children with ALL.

Randomized assessment of delayed intensification and two methods for parenteral methotrexate delivery in childhood B-ALL: Children's Oncology Group Studies P9904 and P9905

The delayed intensification (DI) enhanced outcome for patients with acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) treated on BFM 76/79 and CCG 105 after a prednisone-based induction. Childrens Oncology Group protocols P9904/9905 evaluated DI via a post-induction randomization for eligible National Cancer Institute (NCI) standard (SR) and high-risk (HR) patients. A second randomization compared intravenous methotrexate (IV MTX) as a 24- (1 g/m²) vs. 4-h (2 g/m²) infusion. NCI SR patients received a dexamethasone-based three-drug and NCI HR/CNS 3 SR patients a prednisone-based four-drug induction. End induction MRD (minimal residual disease) was obtained but did not impact treatment. DI improved the 10-year continuous complete remission (CCR) rate; 75.5 ± 2.5% vs. 81.8 ± 2.2% p = 0.002, whereas MTX administration did not; 4-h 80.8 ± 1.9%; 24-h 81.4 ± 1.9% (p = 0.7780). Overall survival (OS) at 10 years did not differ with DI: 91.4 ± 1.6% vs. 90.9 ± 1.7% (p = 0.25) without but was higher with the 24-h MTX infusion; 4-h 91.1 ± 1.4%; 24-h 93.9 ± 1.2% (p = 0.0209). MRD predicted outcome; 10-year CCR 87.7 ± 2.2 and 82.1 ± 2.5% when MRD was <0.01% with/without DI (p = 0.007) and 54.3 ± 8% and 44 ± 8% for patients with MRD ≥ 0.01% with/without DI (p = 0.11). DI improved CCR for patients with B-ALL with and without end induction MRD.

Plasma creatinine as predictor of delayed elimination of high-dose methotrexate in childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia: A Danish population-based study

BACKGROUND

Severely delayed elimination of methotrexate (MTX) is difficult to predict in patients treated with high-dose MTX (HD-MTX), but it may cause life-threatening toxicity. It has not been defined how an increase in plasma creatinine can be best used as a predictor for severely delayed MTX elimination, thus providing a guide for therapeutic interventions to minimize renal toxicity.

METHODS

Pharmacokinetic data were retrospectively collected on 218 Danish children with acute lymphoblastic leukemia treated with HD-MTX 5 or 8 g/m² on the NOPHO2000 protocol. Moderately delayed MTX elimination was defined as 42-hour plasma MTX ≥ 4.0-9.9 μM, and severely delayed elimination was defined as 42-hour plasma MTX ≥ 10 μM.

RESULTS

Median 42-hour plasma MTX was 0.61 μM (interquartile range, 0.4-1.06 μM). Of 1295 MTX infusions with 5 g/m² (n = 140 patients) or 8 g/m² (n = 78 patients), 5.1% were severely (1.5%) or moderately (3.6%) delayed. The risk of having delayed elimination was highest in the first of eight infusions with MTX 5 g/m² (7.4% vs 0.0 to 4.1% for subsequent MTX infusions) (P < 0.02). A 25 μM increase or a 1.5-fold increase in plasma creatinine within 36 hours from start of the MTX infusion had a sensitivity of 92% (95% CI, 82%-97%) and a specificity of 85% (95% CI, 83%-87%) for predicting 42-hour MTX ≥4.0 μM.

CONCLUSIONS

A 25 μM increase or a 1.5-fold in plasma creatinine within 36 hours after start of an HD-MTX infusion can predict delayed MTX elimination, thus allowing intensification of hydration and alkalization to avoid further renal toxicity and promote the elimination of MTX.

Children with low-risk acute lymphoblastic leukemia are at highest risk of second cancers

BACKGROUND

The improved survival rates for childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) may be jeopardized by the development of a second cancer, which has been associated with thiopurine therapy.

PROCEDURE

We retrospectively analyzed three sequential Nordic Society of Paediatric Haematology and Oncology's protocols characterized by increasing intensity of thiopurine-based maintenance therapy. We explored the risk of second cancer in relation to protocols, risk group, thiopurine methyltransferase (TPMT) activity, ALL high hyperdiploidy (HeH), and t(12;21)[ETV6/RUNX1].

RESULTS

After median 9.5 years (interquartile range, 5.4-15.3 yrs) of follow-up, 40 of 3,591 patients had developed a second cancer, of whom 38 had non-high-risk B-cell precursor ALL. Patients with standard-risk ALL, who received the longest maintenance therapy, had the highest adjusted hazard of second cancer (hazard ratio [HR], intermediate vs. standard risk: 0.16, 95% CI: 0.06-0.43, P < 0.001; HR, high vs. standard risk: 0.09, 95% CI: 0.02-0.49, P = 0.006); no significant effects of protocol, age, or white blood cell count at diagnosis, ALL HeH, or t(12;21)[ETV6/RUNX1] were observed. A subset analysis on the patients with standard-risk ALL did not show an increased hazard of second cancer from either HeH or t(12;21) (adjusted HR 2.02, 95% CI: 0.69-5.96, P = 0.20). The effect of low TPMT low activity was explored in patients reaching maintenance therapy in clinical remission (n = 3,368); no association with second cancer was observed (adjusted HR 1.43, 95% CI: 0.54-3.76, P = 0.47).

CONCLUSIONS

The rate of second cancer was generally highest in patients with low-risk ALL, but we could not identify a subset at higher risk than others.

Osteonecrosis in children and adolescents with acute lymphoblastic leukemia: a therapeutic challenge

Osteonecrosis (ON) represents one of the most common and debilitating sequelae of antileukemic treatment in children and adolescents with acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL). Systematic screening strategies can focus on early detection and intervention to prevent ON from progressing to stages associated with pain and functional impairment. These strategies hold promise for reducing ON-associated morbidity without the risk of impairing leukemia control. Herein, we critically reviewed clinical data on pharmacological, nonpharmacological/nonsurgical, and surgical (including cellular) treatment options for ON, which are covered in the literature and/or are conceivable based on the supposed underlying ON pathophysiology. Prevention of ON progression is of paramount importance, and attempts seem to be more effective in early (precollapse) disease status than in late-stage (collapse) ON. Based on the results of ongoing prospective magnetic resonance imaging screening studies, which will hopefully identify those patients with a high risk of ON progression and debilitating sequelae, prospective interventional studies are urgently needed. Although there is still a lack of high-quality studies, based on currently available data, core decompression surgery combined with cellular therapies (eg, employing mesenchymal stem cells) appears most promising for preventing joint infraction in children at high risk of developing late-stage ON.

Clinical pharmacokinetics of methotrexate in oncology

Methotrexate is an antifolate agent used in the treatment of autoimmune diseases and various types of cancers. It is a unique antiproliferative agent because it can be administered by multiple routes with a wide variation of dosing. Methotrexate pharmacokinetics have generated numerous papers focusing on descriptive data and pharmacodynamics. Methotrexate is one of the rare anticancer agents which pharmacokinetics are routinely monitoring to control excessive toxicity when administrated at high dose (>1 g/m2). The identification of transporters involved in its disposition has permitted the understanding and the prevention of most drug interactions. Pharmacogenetic factors affecting the expression of MRP2 and OATP1B1 partly explain the interindividual variability of methotrexate clearance. The remaining challenge in methotrexate pharmacokinetics is to further understand unexplained delayed renal elimination despite the implementation of preventive measures.

Hepatotoxicity During Maintenance Therapy and Prognosis in Children With Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia

Hepatotoxicity is a known toxicity to treatment of childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia. Hepatotoxicity occurs during maintenance therapy and is caused by metabolites of 6-Mercaptopurine (6 MP) and Methotrexate (MTX). Our objective was to investigate the association between alanine aminotransferases (ALAT) levels and relapse rate. We included 385 patients enrolled in the NOPHO ALL-92 protocol. Data on ALAT levels, 6 MP and MTX doses, cytotoxic MTX/6 MP metabolites, and thiopurine methyltransferase (TPMT) activity were prospectively registered. In total, 91% of the patients had a mean ALAT (mALAT) level above upper normal limit (40 IU/L) and ALAT levels were positively correlated to 6 MP doses (rs=0.31; P<0.001). In total, 47 patients suffered a relapse, no difference in mALAT levels were found in these compared with nonrelapse patients (median, 107 vs. 98 IU/L; P=0.39). mALAT levels in patients classified as TPMT high activity (TPMT) were higher than in TPMT low-activity patients (median, 103 vs. 82 IU/L; P=0.03). In a Cox regression model risk of relapse was not associated with ALAT levels (P=0.56). ALAT levels increased 2.7%/month during the last year of maintenance therapy (P<0.001). In conclusion, elevated ALAT levels are associated with TPMT and may indicate treatment adherence in these patients. If liver function is normal, elevated ALAT levels should not indicate treatment adaptation.

The effect of central nervous system involvement and irradiation in childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia: Lessons from the NOPHO ALL-92 and ALL-2000 protocols

BACKGROUND

Central nervous system irradiation (CNS-RT) has played a central role in the cure of acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL), but due to the risk of long-term toxicity, it is now considered a less-favorable method of CNS-directed therapy.

PROCEDURES

Retrospectively, we estimated the effect of CNS involvement and CNS-RT on events and overall survival (OS) in 835 children treated for high-risk ALL in the Nordic Society of Paediatric Haematology and Oncology (NOPHO) ALL-92 and ALL-2000 trials.

RESULTS

We did not observe a statistically significant difference in the OS or event-free survival (EFS) in patients with CNS involvement at diagnosis, but the risk of isolated CNS relapse was higher (hazard ratio [HR] 7.09, P < 0.001). CNS-RT was given to 169 of the 783 patients in first complete remission, of which 16 had CNS involvement at diagnosis. In general, CNS-RT improved EFS (HR 0.58, P < 0.05) but not OS (HR 0.69, P = n.s.). The adjusted HRs for all relapses, isolated bone marrow relapse, CNS-involving relapse, and isolated CNS relapse, were 0.47 (P < 0.01), 0.50 (P < 0.05), 0.34 (P < 0.01), and 0.12 (P < 0.01), respectively, in irradiated patients.

CONCLUSIONS

CNS-RT was associated with an advantage in EFS by decreasing the risk of relapse but without improving OS.

Role of neuroimaging in children with acute lymphoblastic leukemia and central nervous system involvement at diagnosis

BACKGROUND

Each year approximately 200 children and adolescents are diagnosed with acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) in the five Nordic countries, and 3% of these have central nervous system (CNS) involvement confirmed by leukemic cells in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) or neurological symptoms. We sought to determine the significance of neuraxis imaging in such patients.

PROCEDURE

Magnetic resonance images of children aged 1-17.9 with CNS leukemia at diagnosis of ALL were centrally reviewed and clinical data were retrieved from the medical records and the Nordic leukemia registry. Patients were diagnosed in the period 2000-2012 in Sweden, Finland, or Denmark.

RESULTS

The cohort comprised 1,877 patients, and 66 (3.5%) had CNS involvement. Forty-five percent (30/66) had CNS related symptoms. Symptoms included vomiting, facial palsy, headache, visual symptoms, and impaired hearing. CNS imaging was performed in 32 of 66 children (48%), and confirmed CNS involvement in 6 of 21 patients with symptoms (29%) and 5 of 11 (45%) without (P = 0.44). There was no difference in the overall survival between CNS-positive patients with and without signs of leukemic involvement by imaging (P = 0.53).

CONCLUSIONS

Radiological imaging of asymptomatic children with CNS leukemia at diagnosis lacks clinical importance, but may be useful in patients with cranial nerve symptoms and negative CSF, as well as for follow-up. Imaging of symptomatic patients is warranted in order to exclude other causes underlying the symptoms.

Home-Based Exercise Training Improves Left Ventricle Diastolic Function in Survivors of Childhood ALL: A Tissue Doppler and Velocity Vector Imaging Study

BACKGROUND

Advanced echocardiographic methods may reveal signs of late anthracycline cardiac toxicity (ACT) even in asymptomatic patients. We studied echocardiographic tissue Doppler imaging (TDI) and velocity vector imaging (VVI) in long-term survivors of childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) before and after an exercise intervention.

METHODS

Twenty-one asymptomatic, anthracycline-treated, long-term childhood ALL survivors with matched controls were studied at baseline. Seventeen of the survivors participated in a 3-month home-based exercise program. Echocardiography with TDI and VVI was performed.

RESULTS

At baseline, ejection fraction (60.7 ± 4.7% vs. 62.3 ± 3.7%, P = 0.22) and fractional shortening (32.6 ± 3.1% vs. 34.0 ± 2.8%, P = 0.13) were similar in survivors and controls. Lateral early diastolic mitral annulus velocity E' (32.81 ± 5.71 cm/sec vs. 38.03 ± 6.21 cm/sec, P = 0.01), E'/A' (1.60 ± 0.48 vs. 2.07 ± 0.63, P = 0.01), and E/E' (2.78 ± 0.35 vs. 2.42 ± 0.62, P = 0.04) were impaired compared to controls. Peak circumferential strain and strain rate were attenuated at apex (-24.50 ± 3.46% vs. -28.06 ± 4.39%, P = 0.01 and -1.47 ± 0.22 sec(-1) vs. -1.68 ± 0.33 sec(-1) , P = 0.02) compared to controls. After the intervention, early diastolic mitral inflow velocity E (87.76 ± 12.54 cm/s vs. 95.28 ± 10.48 cm/s, P = 0.04) and E' increased (31.78 ± 5.50 cm/s vs. 34.96 ± 5.41 cm/s, P < 0.01). Peak circumferential systolic and diastolic strain rates at mid-level (-1.22 ± 0.21 sec(-1) vs. -1.35 ± 0.24 sec(-1) , P = 0.04 and 1.25 ± 0.25 sec(-1) vs. 1.48 ± 0.35 sec(-1) , P < 0.01) improved after the exercise program.

CONCLUSIONS

A simple home-based exercise program improved cardiac function in asymptomatic childhood ALL survivors. Adding TDI in routine echocardiographic examination may improve the recognition of early signs of ACT, and VVI may bring additional information. The improvements in cardiac function after the exercise program emphasize the importance of physical activity in this population.

Reproduction and marriage among male survivors of cancer in childhood, adolescence and young adulthood: a national cohort study

BACKGROUND

Increased survival after cancer in young age has made long-term follow-up studies of high external validity important. In this national cohort study, we explored the impact of cancer in young age on reproduction and marital status in male survivors.

METHODS

Hazard ratios (HRs) and relative risks (RRs) of reproductive and marital outcomes were studied for male survivors of cancer in young age (<25 years) and cancer-free male comparisons, born during 1965-1985, by linking compulsory national registries in Norway.

RESULTS

Male cancer survivors (n=2687) had reduced paternity (HR: 0.72, 95% confidence interval (CI): 0.68-0.76). This was most apparent in survivors of testicular cancer, brain tumours, lymphoma, leukemia and bone tumours, and when diagnosed with cancer before 15 years of age. Male cancer survivors were more likely to avail of assisted reproduction (RR: 3.32, 95% CI: 2.68-4.11). There was no increased risk of perinatal death, congenital malformations, being small for gestational age, of low birth weight or preterm birth in their first offspring. Male cancer survivors were less likely to marry (HR: 0.93, 95% CI: 0.86-1.00), in particular brain tumour survivors.

CONCLUSIONS

In this national cohort study, we demonstrated reduced paternity and increased use of assisted reproduction among male cancer survivors, but no adverse outcome for their first offspring at birth.

Mortality in Children Aged 0-9 Years: A Nationwide Cohort Study from Three Nordic Countries

BACKGROUND

Mortality in children under five years has been widely studied, whereas mortality at 5-9 years has received little attention. Using unique data from national registers in three Nordic countries, we aimed to characterize mortality directionality in children aged 0 to 9 years.

METHODS AND FINDINGS

The cohort study included all children born in Denmark from 1973 to 2008 (n = 2,433,758), Sweden from 1973 to 2006 (n = 3,400,212), and a random sample of 89.3% of children born in Finland from 1987 to 2007 (n = 1,272,083). Children were followed from 0 to 9 years, and cumulative mortality and mortality rates were compared by age, gender, cause of death, and calendar periods. Among the 7,105,962 children, there were 48,299 deaths during study period. From 1981-1985 to 2001-2005, all-cause mortality rates were reduced by between 34% and 62% at different ages. Overall mortality rate ratio between boys and girls decreased from 1.25 to 1.21 with the most prominent reduction in children aged 5-9 years (from 1.59 to 1.19). Neoplasms, diseases of the nervous system and transport accidents were the most frequent cause of death after the first year of life. These three leading causes of death declined by 42% (from 6.2 to 3.6 per 100,000 person years), 43% (from 3.7 to 2.1) and 62% (from 3.9 to 1.5) in boys, and 25% (from 4.1 to 3.1 per 100000 person years), 42% (from 3.4 to 1.9) and 63% (from 3.0 to 1.1) in girls, respectively. Mortality from neoplasms was the highest in each age except infants when comparing cause-specific mortality, and half of deaths from diseases of the nervous system occurred in infancy. Mortality rate due to transport accidents increased with age and was highest in boys aged 5-9 years.

CONCLUSIONS

Mortality rate in children aged 0-9 years has been decreasing with diminished difference between genders over the past decades. Our results suggest the importance of further research on mortality by causes of neoplasms, and causes of transport accidents-especially in children aged 5-9 years.

Shorter Maintenance Therapy in Childhood Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia: The Experience of the Prospective, Randomized Brazilian GBTLI ALL-93 Protocol

AIM

Maintenance therapy is an important phase of the childhood ALL treatment, requiring 2-year long therapy adherence of the patients and families. Weekly methotrexate with daily 6-mercaptopurine (6MP) constitutes the backbone of maintenance therapy. Reduction in the maintenance therapy could overweight problems related with poverty of children with ALL living in limited-income countries (LIC).

OBJECTIVE

To compare, prospectively, the EFS rates of children with ALL treated according to two maintenance regimens: 18 vs. 24 months duration.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

From October 1993 to September 1999, 867 consecutive untreated ALL patients <18 years of age were treated according to the Brazilian Cooperative Group for Childhood ALL Treatment (GBTLI) ALL-93 protocol. Risk classification was based exclusively on patient's age and leukocyte count (NCI risk group) and clinical extra medullary involvement of the disease. Data were analyzed by the intention-to-treat approach.

RESULTS

Fourteen patients (1.6%) were excluded: wrong diagnosis (n = 7) and previous corticosteroid (n = 7). Of the 853 eligible patients, 421 were randomly allocated, at study enrollment, to receive 18-month (group 1) and 432 to receive 24-month (group 2) maintenance therapy. Complete remission rate was achieved in 96% of the patients (817/853). Twenty-eight patients (3.4%) died during the induction phase. Thirty-four patients (4.0%) were lost to follow-up. The overall EFS was 66.1 ± 1.7% at 15 years. No difference was seen according to maintenance: EFS_15y was 65.8 ± 2.3% (group 1) and 66.3 ± 2.3% (group 2; p = 0.79). No difference between regimens was detected after stratifying the analyses according to factors associated with adverse prognosis in this study (age group <1 year or >10 years and high WBC at diagnosis). Overall death in remission rate was 6.85% (56 patients). Deaths during maintenance were 13 in group 1 and 12 in group 2, all due to infection. Over 15 years of follow-up, two patients both from group 2 presented a second malignancy (Hodgkin's disease and thyroid carcinoma) after 8.3 and 11 years off therapy, respectively.

CONCLUSION

Six-month reduction of maintenance therapy in ALL children treated according to the GBTLI ALL-93 protocol provided the same overall outcome as 2-year duration regimen.

SNP Array in Hematopoietic Neoplasms: A Review

Cytogenetic analysis is essential for the diagnosis and prognosis of hematopoietic neoplasms in current clinical practice. Many hematopoietic malignancies are characterized by structural chromosomal abnormalities such as specific translocations, inversions, deletions and/or numerical abnormalities that can be identified by karyotype analysis or fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) studies. Single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) arrays offer high-resolution identification of copy number variants (CNVs) and acquired copy-neutral loss of heterozygosity (LOH)/uniparental disomy (UPD) that are usually not identifiable by conventional cytogenetic analysis and FISH studies. As a result, SNP arrays have been increasingly applied to hematopoietic neoplasms to search for clinically-significant genetic abnormalities. A large numbers of CNVs and UPDs have been identified in a variety of hematopoietic neoplasms. CNVs detected by SNP array in some hematopoietic neoplasms are of prognostic significance. A few specific genes in the affected regions have been implicated in the pathogenesis and may be the targets for specific therapeutic agents in the future. In this review, we summarize the current findings of application of SNP arrays in a variety of hematopoietic malignancies with an emphasis on the clinically significant genetic variants.

Treatment of young children with CNS-positive acute lymphoblastic leukemia without cranial radiotherapy

BACKGROUND

Due to the long-term sequelae of cranial radiotherapy (CRT), contemporary treatment protocols for children with acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) aim to limit the use of prophylactic CRT. For patients with central nervous system (CNS) involvement with ALL at diagnosis, the use of CRT remains common. Children <5 years of age are a particularly challenging subgroup in whom the consequences of CRT can be devastating.

PROCEDURE

This study retrospectively describes the overall (OS) and event-free survival (EFS) of young children (1-5 years) who were treated for CNS-positive ALL at the Hospital for Sick Children between 2000 and 2013.

RESULTS

Of a total of 19 patients, two were treated with upfront CRT, both as part of the conditioning regimen prior to HSCT. All patients received intensification of CNS-directed chemotherapy by triple intra-thecal chemotherapy (84.2%), use of dexamethasone in induction (57.9%) and maintenance (66.7%), and high-dose methotrexate (77.8%). The OS was 84.2 ± 8.4% and EFS was 79.0 ± 9.4% with a median follow-up time of 4.3 years (range, 2.6-8.2). The cumulative incidence of CNS relapse was 5.2 ± 5.1%.

CONCLUSIONS

We conclude that omission of CRT from the treatment of young children with ALL involving the CNS is associated with acceptable survival and avoids potentially devastating late effects in this group.

Detection of central nervous system involvement in childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia by cytomorphology and flow cytometry of the cerebrospinal fluid

BACKGROUND

Therapy directed at the central nervous system (CNS) is an essential part of the treatment for childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL). The current evaluation of CNS involvement based on cytomorphological examination of the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) alone is not as sensitive with low cell counts as flow cytometric immunophenotyping (FCI) of the CSF. However, the importance of low CSF blasts counts at diagnosis is uncertain. We sought to determine the significance of FCI in relation to conventional morphological examination.

PROCEDURE

We retrospectively compared FCI of the CSF with cytomorphology at diagnosis or relapse of childhood ALL. All patients were diagnosed 2000-2012 in Stockholm or Umeå, Sweden. Clinical data were collected from medical records and the Nordic leukemia registry. Treatment assignment was based on morphological examination only.

RESULTS

The cohort was comprised of 214 patients with ALL. CSF involvement was detected by both methods in 20 patients, in 17 by FCI alone, and in one patient by cytomorphology alone. The relapse rate was higher for patients with negative cytology but positive FCI compared to those without CNS involvement using both methods. The difference was especially marked in the current protocol. However, none of the patients with negative CSF cytology but positive FCI had a CNS relapse.

CONCLUSIONS

FCI of the CSF increased the detection rate of CNS involvement of ALL approximately two times compared to cytomorphology. Patients with low-level CNS involvement may benefit from additional intensified systemic or CNS-directed therapy, but larger studies are needed.

Educational attainment among long-term survivors of cancer in childhood and adolescence: a Norwegian population-based cohort study

PURPOSE

The number of young cancer survivors has increased over the past few decades due to improvement in treatment regimens, and understanding of long-term effects among the survivors has become even more important. Educational achievements and choice of educational fields were explored here.

METHODS

Five-year cancer survivors born in Norway during 1965-1985 (diagnosed <19 years) were included in our analysis by linking Norwegian population-based registries. Cox regression was applied to study the educational attainment among survivors of central nervous system (CNS) tumours, those assumed to have received CNS-directed therapy, and other cancer survivors relative to the cancer-free population. Logistic regression was used to compare the choice of educational fields between the cancer survivors at undergraduate and graduate level and the cancer-free population.

RESULTS

Overall, a lower proportion of the cancer survivors completed intermediate (67 vs. 70 %), undergraduate (31 vs. 35 %) and graduate education (7 vs. 9 %) compared with the cancer-free population. Deficits in completion of an educational level were mainly observed among survivors of CNS-tumours and those assumed to have received CNS-directed therapy. Choices of educational fields among cancer survivors were in general similar with the cancer-free population at both undergraduate and graduate levels.

CONCLUSION

Survivors of CNS-tumours and those assumed to have received CNS-directed therapy were at increased risk for educational impairments compared with the cancer-free population. Choices of educational fields were in general similar.

IMPLICATIONS FOR CANCER SURVIVORS

Careful follow-up of the survivors of CNS-tumours and those assumed to have received CNS-directed therapy is important at each level of education.

Deep sequencing and SNP array analyses of pediatric T-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia reveal NOTCH1 mutations in minor subclones and a high incidence of uniparental isodisomies affecting CDKN2A

Background

Pediatric T-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia (T-ALL) is a genetically heterogeneous disease that arises in a multistep fashion through acquisition of several genetic aberrations, subsequently giving rise to a malignant, clonal expansion of T-lymphoblasts. The aim of the present study was to identify additional as well as cooperative genetic events in T-ALL.

Methods

A population-based pediatric T-ALL series comprising 47 cases was investigated by SNP array and deep sequencing analyses of 75 genes, in order to ascertain pathogenetically pertinent aberrations and to identify cooperative events.

Results

The majority (92%) of cases harbored copy number aberrations/uniparental isodisomies (UPIDs), with a median of three changes (range 0–11) per case. The genes recurrently deleted comprised CDKN2A, CDKN2B, LEF1, PTEN, RBI, and STIL. No case had a whole chromosome UPID; in fact, literature data show that this is a rare phenomenon in T-ALL. However, segmental UPIDs (sUPIDs) were seen in 42% of our cases, with most being sUPID9p that always were associated with homozygous CDKN2A deletions, with a heterozygous deletion occurring prior to the sUPID9p in all instances. Among the 75 genes sequenced, 14 (19%) were mutated in 28 (72%) of 39 analyzed cases. The genes targeted are involved in signaling transduction, epigenetic regulation, and transcription. In some cases, NOTCH1 mutations were seen in minor subclones and lost at relapse; thus, such mutations can be secondary events.

Conclusions

Deep sequencing and SNP array analyses of T-ALL revealed lack of wUPIDs, a high proportion of sUPID9p targeting CDKN2A, NOTCH1 mutations in subclones, and recurrent mutations of genes involved in signaling transduction, epigenetic regulation, and transcription.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13045-015-0138-0) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Adverse health events and late mortality after pediatric allogeneic hematopoietic SCT-two decades of longitudinal follow-up

Treatment-related late toxicities after pediatric allogeneic hematopoietic SCT (allo-HSCT) are increasingly important as long-term survival has become an expected outcome for many transplanted children and adolescents. In a retrospective cohort study, we assessed long-term health outcomes in 204 allo-HSCT survivors transplanted in childhood or adolescence (<20 years) between 1978 through 2000 after a median follow-up time of 12 (range 4-28) years. Data on conditioning regimen, adverse health events (AE) and growth and hormonal substitutions (hormone replacement therapies (HRTs)) were obtained from medical records. AEs were graded retrospectively according to Common Terminology Criteria for Adverse Events v3.0. Late deaths (⩾48 months after allo-HSCT) were evaluated separately. Multivariate analysis demonstrated that chronic GVHD (P<0.000) and longer follow-up time (P<0.05) correlated with AEs, whereas CY-based conditioning was inversely correlated (P<0.002). TBI and longer follow-up duration predicted more severe AEs (P<0.001 and P<0.001, respectively). HRTs were more frequent after TBI. Diabetes type II, dyslipidemia and hypertension were detected in 9, 7 and 7% of the survivors, respectively. Late deaths (n=22) were most frequently due to pulmonary failure (n=7), followed by secondary malignancy (n=5). The occurrence of AEs after pediatric allo-HSCT is high and likely to increase during extended follow-up, particularly in patients who have received TBI.

Health status and quality of life of long-term survivors of childhood acute leukemia: the impact of central nervous system irradiation

We evaluated the impact of central nervous system irradiation (CNSI) on long-term health status and quality of life (QoL) of childhood lymphoblastic leukemia survivors included in the French L.E.A. (Childhood and Adolescent Leukemia) multicentric cohort. QoL was self-reported in adults and assessed by parents in children and adolescents, using adapted questionnaires. From 2004 to 2009, 630 nongrafted patients were assessed after 11.8±6.3 years from diagnosis. Patients receiving CNSI (18.6%) or chemotherapy alone (81.4%) were compared. The risk of having long-term physical effects was increased with CNSI (odds ratio=3.3; 95% confidence interval, 1.8-5.9), especially regarding growth failure, second tumor, cataract, and overweight. QoL did not differ significantly according to the treatment received, despite a tendency toward lower scores with CNSI in children and adolescents (summary score 63.6±13.3 vs. 71.7±12.4, P=0.14). Compared with French norms, adult survivors had an impaired QoL, especially in mental domains (mental composite score 45.2±9.8 vs. 47.9±2.1, P<0.001). In pediatric survivors, QoL was not impaired and even tended to be higher than population norms (summary score 71.7±12.4 vs. 70.0±4.2, P=0.054), mainly in social and relational domains. In conclusion, QoL seems to be impaired by the trauma of a life-threatening illness in childhood, as well as by the treatment received.

Comprehensive craniospinal radiation for controlling central nervous system leukemia

PURPOSE

To determine the benefit of radiation therapy (RT) in resolution of neurologic symptoms and deficits and whether the type of RT fields influences central nervous system (CNS) control in adults with CNS leukemia.

METHODS AND MATERIALS

A total of 163 adults from 1996 to 2012 were retrospectively analyzed. Potential associations between use of radiation and outcome were investigated by univariate and multivariate analysis.

RESULTS

The median survival time was 3.8 months after RT. Common presenting symptoms were headache in 79 patients (49%), cranial nerve VII deficit in 46 (28%), and cranial nerve II deficit in 44 (27%). RT was delivered to the base of skull in 48 patients (29%), to the whole brain (WB) in 67 (41%), and to the craniospinal axis (CS) in 48 (29%). Among 149 patients with a total of 233 deficits, resolution was observed in 34 deficits (15%), improvement in 126 deficits (54%), stability in 34 deficits (15%), and progression in 39 deficits (17%). The 12-month CNS progression-free survival was 77% among those receiving CS/WB and 51% among those receiving base of skull RT (P=.02). On multivariate analysis, patients who did not undergo stem cell transplantation after RT and base of skull RT were associated with worse CNS progression-free survival.

CONCLUSIONS

Improvement or resolution of symptoms occurred in two thirds of deficits after RT. Comprehensive radiation to the WB or CS seems to offer a better outcome, especially in isolated CNS involvement.

Polymorphisms in the ABCB1 gene and effect on outcome and toxicity in childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia

The membrane transporter P-glycoprotein, encoded by the ABCB1 gene, influences the pharmacokinetics of anti-cancer drugs. We hypothesized that variants of ABCB1 affect outcome and toxicity in childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL). We studied 522 Danish children with ALL, 93% of all those eligible. Risk of relapse was increased 2.9-fold for patients with the 1199GA variant versus 1199GG (P=0.001), and reduced 61% and 40%, respectively, for patients with the 3435CT or 3435TT variants versus 3435CC (overall P=0.02). The degree of bone marrow toxicity during doxorubicin, vincristine and prednisolone induction therapy was more prominent in patients with 3435TT variant versus 3435CT/3435CC (P=0.01/P<0.0001). We observed more liver toxicity after high-dose methotrexate in patients with 3435CC variant versus 3435CT/TT (P=0.03). In conclusion, there is a statistically significant association between ABCB1 polymorphisms, efficacy and toxicity in the treatment of ALL, and ABCB1 1199G>A may be a new possible predictive marker for outcome in childhood ALL.

Myelotoxicity after high-dose methotrexate in childhood acute leukemia is influenced by 6-mercaptopurine dosing but not by intermediate thiopurine methyltransferase activity

PURPOSE

Through enhancement of 6-mercaptopurine (6MP) bioavailability and inhibition of purine de novo synthesis, high-dose methotrexate (HD-MTX) may increase incorporation into DNA of 6-thioguanine nucleotides, the cytotoxic metabolites of 6MP. Patients with intermediate activity of thiopurine methyltransferase (TPMT(IA)) have higher cytosol 6-thioguanine nucleotide levels. We investigated toxicity following HD-MTX during MTX/6MP maintenance therapy in relation to 6MP and TPMT.

METHODS

Using linear mixed models, we explored myelo- and hepatotoxicity in relation to 6MP dosage and TPMT phenotype following 1,749 HD-MTX courses to 411 children with acute lymphoblastic leukemia on maintenance therapy.

RESULTS

The degree of myelosuppression following HD-MTX was similar for patients with TPMT(IA) and patients with high TPMT activity (TPMT(HA)), when HD-MTX started with same blood counts and 6MP doses. However, since TPMT(IA) had lower blood counts at initiation of HD-MTX compared with TPMT(HA) patients (median WBC 2.8 vs. 3.3 × 10⁹/L, P = 0.01; median ANC 1.4 vs. 1.7 × 10⁹/L, P = 0.02), TPMT(IA) continued to have lower WBC and ANC levels compared with TPMT(HA) during all 28 days after HD-MTX [relative difference 9 % (95 % CI 2-17), P = 0.02 and 21 % (95 % CI 6-39), P = 0.005]. Still, the fractional decrease in WBC and ANC levels after HD-MTX did not differ between TPMT(IA) and TPMT(HA) patients (P = 0.47; P = 0.38). The degree of leukopenia, neutropenia, thrombocytopenia and rise in aminotransferases were all significantly related to 6MP dose (P < 0.001 for all analyses).

CONCLUSION

For both TPMT(IA) and TPMT(HA) patients, dose of 6MP prior to HD-MTX should be guided by pre-HD-MTX blood counts, but not by TPMT activity.

Clinical features and early treatment response of central nervous system involvement in childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia

BACKGROUND

Central nervous system (CNS) involvement in childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) remains a therapeutic challenge.

PROCEDURE

To explore leukemia characteristics of patients with CNS involvement at ALL diagnosis, we analyzed clinical features and early treatment response of 744 patients on Nordic-Baltic trials. CNS status was classified as CNS1 (no CSF blasts), CNS2 (<5 leukocytes/µl CSF with blasts), CNS3 (≥5 leukocytes/µl with blasts or signs of CNS involvement), TLP+ (traumatic lumbar puncture with blasts), and TLP- (TLP with no blasts).

RESULTS

Patients with CNS involvement had higher leukocyte count compared with patients with CNS1 (P < 0.002). Patients with CNS3 more often had T-ALL (P < 0.001) and t(9;22)(q34;q11)[BCR-ABL1] (P < 0.004) compared with patients with CNS1. Among patients with CNS involvement headache (17%) and vomiting (14%) were most common symptoms. Symptoms or clinical findings were present among 27 of 54 patients with CNS3 versus only 7 of 39 patients with CNS2 and 15 of 75 patients with TLP+ (P < 0.001). The majority of patients with CNS involvement received additional induction therapy. The post induction bone marrow residual disease level did not differ between patients with CNS involvement and patients with CNS1 (P > 0.15). The 12-year event-free survival for patients with leukemic mass on neuroimaging did not differ from patients with negative or no scan (0.50 vs. 0.60; P = 0.7) or between patients with symptoms or signs suggestive of CNS leukemia and patients without such characteristics (0.50 vs. 0.61; P = 0.2).

CONCLUSION

CNS involvement at diagnosis is associated with adverse prognostic features but does not indicate a less chemosensitive leukemia.

Adult testicular volume predicts spermatogenetic recovery after allogeneic HSCT in childhood and adolescence

BACKGROUND

Testicular dysfunction and infertility are of major concern in long-term survivors after allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT). This study assesses predictive factors for very long-term testicular recovery after allogeneic HSCT in childhood and adolescence.

PROCEDURE

Testicular volume, sperm production and long-term need of testosterone substitution were evaluated among 106 male survivors transplanted at Huddinge and Helsinki University Hospitals from 1978 through 2000, at a mean age of 8 ± 4.6 years (range 1-17). A mean ± SD of 13 ± 4.8 years (range 4-28) had elapsed since their HSCT and the mean age of the participants was 22 ± 6.0 years (range 12-42). An adult testicular volume was recorded in 74 patients at a mean age of 19 ± 3.3 years (range 14-36).

RESULTS

Recipients conditioned with busulfan-based regimens or regimens containing only cyclophosphamide had significantly larger adult testicular volumes (mean volume 18 ml and 16 ml vs. 9 ml, P < 0.00001, respectively) and lower serum levels of FSH (mean 9 IU and 5 IU vs. 19 IU, P < 0.01 and 0.001, respectively) compared to those conditioned with total body irradiation (TBI). Multivariate analysis demonstrated that a non-leukemia diagnosis (P < 0.01) and adult testicular volume ≥ 15 ml (P < 0.03) positively impacted spermatogenetic recovery.

CONCLUSIONS

A larger adult testicular volume, normal serum levels of FSH and spermatozoa detected in a majority of seminal fluids after busulfan-based or cyclophosphamide conditionings suggest very long-term recovery of spermatogenesis after chemotherapy-based regimens. A simple measurement of adult testicular volume may help predict spermatogenetic potential among pediatric HSCT survivors.

Pharmacogenetically based dosing of thiopurines in childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia: influence on cure rates and risk of second cancer

BACKGROUND

Previous studies have indicated that patients with thiopurine methyltransferase (TPMT) low activity (TPMT(LA)) have reduced risk of relapse but increased risk of second malignant neoplasm (SMN) compared to patients with TPMT wild-type (TPMT(WT)) when treated with 6 MP maintenance therapy starting doses of 75 mg/m(2)/day. To reduce SMN risk, 6MP starting doses were reduced to 50 mg/m(2)/day for patients with TPMT heterozygosity in the Nordic Society of Paediatric Haematology and Oncology (NOPHO) ALL2000 protocol.

PROCEDURE

We explored the pattern of SMN and relapse in the NOPHO ALL2000 protocol (n = 674) and NOPHO ALL92 protocol (n = 601) in relation to TPMT pheno- and/or genotype.

RESULTS

The overall risk of any event did not differ significantly between the two protocols. However, in event pattern analyses considering only the patients with TPMT(LA) who experienced relapse or SMN, the risk of SMN versus leukemia relapse was significantly lower in the ALL2000 cohort for patients with a 6MP starting dose <75 mg/m(2)/day when compared to the patients in ALL92 (relapse (n = 11) and SMN (n = 0) in ALL2000 versus relapse (n = 5) and SMN (n = 4) in ALL92, P = 0.03). Furthermore, the 8-year cumulative incidence of relapse for patients with TPMT(LA) was significantly higher in the ALL2000 compared to the ALL92 cohort (19.7% (11.6-33.3%) vs. 6.7% (2.9-15.5%), P = 0.03).

CONCLUSION

This study indicates that reducing 6MP starting dose for patients with TPMT(LA) may reduce SMN risk but lead to a relapse risk similar to that of patients with TPMT(WT).

Clinical and genetic features of pediatric acute lymphoblastic leukemia in Down syndrome in the Nordic countries

Background

Children with Down syndrome (DS) have an increased risk for acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL). Although previous studies have shown that DS-ALL differs clinically and genetically from non-DS-ALL, much remains to be elucidated as regards genetic and prognostic factors in DS-ALL.

Methods

To address clinical and genetic differences between DS-ALL and non-DS-ALL and to identify prognostic factors in DS-ALL, we ascertained and reviewed all 128 pediatric DS-ALL diagnosed in the Nordic countries between 1981 and 2010. Their clinical and genetic features were compared with those of the 4,647 B-cell precursor (BCP) ALL cases diagnosed during the same time period.

Results

All 128 DS-ALL were BCP ALL, comprising 2.7% of all such cases. The 5-year event-free survival (EFS) and overall survival (OS) were significantly (P = 0.026 and P = 0.003, respectively) worse for DS-ALL patients with white blood cell counts ≥50 × 10⁹/l. The age distributions varied between the DS and non-DS cases, with age peaks at 2 and 3 years, respectively; none of the DS patients had infant ALL (P = 0.029). The platelet counts were lower in the DS-ALL group (P = 0.005). Abnormal karyotypes were more common in non-DS-ALL (P < 0.0001), and there was a significant difference in the modal number distribution, with only 2% high hyperdiploid DS-ALL cases (P < 0.0001). The 5-year EFS and 5-year OS were significantly worse for DS-ALL (0.574 and 0.691, respectively) compared with non-DS-ALL (0.783 and 0.894, respectively) in the NOPHO ALL-1992/2000 protocols (P < 0.001).

Conclusions

The present study adds further support for genetic and clinical differences between DS-ALL and non-DS-ALL.

The evolution of clinical trials for infant acute lymphoblastic leukemia

Acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) in infants has a significantly inferior outcome in comparison with older children. Despite initial improvements in survival of infants with ALL since establishment of the first pediatric cooperative group ALL trials, the poor outcome has plateaued in recent years. Historically, infants were treated on risk-adapted childhood ALL protocols. These studies were pivotal in identifying the need for infant-specific protocols, delineating prognostic categories and the requirement for a more unified approach between study groups to overcome limitations in accrual because of low incidence. This subsequently led to the development of collaborative infant-specific studies. Landmark outcomes have included the elimination of cranial radiotherapy following the discovery of intrathecal and high-dose systemic therapy as a superior and effective treatment strategy for central nervous system disease prophylaxis, with improved neurodevelopmental outcome. Universal prospective identification of independent adverse prognostic factors, including presence of a mixed lineage leukemia rearrangement and young age, has established the basis for risk stratification within current trials. The infant-specific trials have defined limits to which conventional chemotherapeutic agents can be intensified to optimize the balance between treatment efficacy and toxicity. Despite variations in therapeutic intensity, there has been no recent improvement in survival due to the equilibrium between relapse and toxicity. Ultimately, to improve the outcome for infants with ALL, key areas still to be addressed include identification and adaptation of novel prognostic markers and innovative therapies, establishing the role of hematopoietic stem cell transplantation in first complete remission, treatment strategies for relapsed/refractory disease and monitoring and timely intervention of late effects in survivors. This would be best achieved through a single unified international trial.

The circadian schedule for childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia maintenance therapy does not influence event-free survival in the NOPHO ALL92 protocol

BACKGROUND

The event-free survival of childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) has been reported to be superior when oral methotrexate (MTX) and 6-mercaptopurine (6MP) maintenance therapy (MT) is administered in the evening compared to the morning.

PROCEDURE

In the ALL92 MT study we prospectively registered the intake of MTX/6MP. The registration was done when blood samples for erythrocyte MTX/6MP metabolite measurements were collected, and referred to the time of intake in the period since last registration. Nine thousand one hundred ninety-five registrations in total. The administration of MTX/6MP was scored as morning, midday, or evening.

RESULTS

Of 532 patients, 296 took their medication consistently in the evening, 129 in the evening 50.0-99.9% of the time, and 101 in the evening <50% of the time, six did not have any registrations. The circadian schedule did not differ significantly by age, sex, MTX/6MP doses, and average absolute neutrophil counts. The circadian schedule groups did differ on risk groups (P = 0.003) with fewer HR patients in the 50-99.9% group, and there was a negative correlation between percentage of time on evening schedule and average WBC (Spearman's rho -0.15; P = 0.0004). Average WBC was not associated with relapse on ALL92. In a Cox multivariate model the circadian schedule of MTX/6MP was not of prognostic significance for the risk of relapse, and the 10-year cumulative relapse risk was below 20% in all groups.

CONCLUSION

An evening schedule may still be recommended based on the previous publications, but in this study morning administration of MTX and 6MP does not seem to impact EFS.

Ovarian function after allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation in childhood and adolescence

OBJECTIVE

The aim of the study was to evaluate long-term ovarian function after allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT) in childhood and adolescence.

SUBJECTS AND METHODS

Predictive factors for ovarian function were evaluated among 92 adult or pubertal female survivors transplanted at Huddinge and Helsinki University Hospital during 1978-2000, at a mean age of 9±4.3 years (range 1-19). At the time of the study a mean±s.d. of 13±5.5 years (range 6-27) had elapsed since the HSCT and the mean age of the participants was 22±6.3 years (range 9-41).

RESULTS

Spontaneous puberty based on breast development occurred in 40 and menarche in 30 of the 70 girls who were prepubertal at transplantation. Six out of 20 girls who received HSCT after initiation of pubertal development recovered their ovarian function. Younger age at HSCT, conditioning without total body irradiation (TBI), and a non-leukemia diagnosis predicted the spontaneous menarche. The incidence of menarche was higher after fractioned vs single fraction TBI (P<0.05), cyclophosphamide (Cy) vs busulfan (Bu)-based conditioning (P<0.05), and among leukemia patients transplanted at first remission vs later remissions (P<0.01) and with no cranial irradiation (cranial radiotherapy, CRT) vs given CRT (14-24 Gy) (P<0.01). The majority of recipients conditioned with only Cy vs TBI (P<0.001) or vs Bu-based regimens (P<0.01) showed preserved ovarian function and required no estrogen replacement at their latest follow-up visit at a mean age of 23±6.3 years (range 15-41). Ten women became pregnant.

CONCLUSIONS

Patients conditioned with TBI or Bu-based regimes are at high risk of ovarian failure. Intensive anti-leukemia therapy before HSCT including CRT especially among relapsed patients may further decrease the possibility of spontaneous menarche.

Incidence of Severe Osteonecrosis Requiring Total Joint Arthroplasty in Children and Young Adults Treated for Leukemia or Lymphoma: A Nationwide, Register-Based Study in Finland and Denmark

Purpose: The population-based incidence of severe osteonecrosis (ON) necessitating total joint arthroplasty (TJA) in patients with hematological cancer is unknown. This study assessed the incidence of ON requiring primary TJA in children and young adults treated for leukemia or lymphoma. Methods: Patients diagnosed with leukemia or lymphoma before 31 years of age were identified from the Finnish and Danish Cancer Registries. These data were combined with those from the National Hospital Discharge and the Finnish Arthroplasty Registers. Data on the orthopedic procedures performed and the appropriate diagnosis codes given before the age of 40 were also retrieved. Results: The estimated cumulative incidence of TJA was 4.5% at 20 years for patients treated for chronic myeloid leukemia, followed by 2.1% for patients treated for acute myeloid leukemia. It was considerably lower in patients with acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL; 0.4%). Multivariate analysis revealed that allogeneic stem cell transplantation (allo-SCT) increased the risk of TJA (hazard ratio [HR]=9.4; 95% CI: 5.3-16.9). The risk of TJA was higher in patients diagnosed with cancer at 10-19 and 20-30 years of age than in those diagnosed before the age of 10 (HR=24; 95% CI: 3.1-176 and HR=26; 95% CI: 3.6-192 respectively). Conclusion: The incidence of ON requiring TJA was highest among patients with myeloid leukemias and lowest in patients treated for ALL. Allo-SCT and age ≥10 years at diagnosis were the most important risk factors for ON requiring TJA in hematological malignancies.

Endothelial function in long-term survivors of childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia: effects of a home-based exercise program

BACKGROUND

The risk for cardiovascular disease (CVD) is increased in long-term survivors of childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL). Chemotherapy may have direct toxic effects on vascular endothelium, potentially increasing the significance of endothelial dysfunction in the development of CVD in ALL survivors. Endothelial structure and function can be measured with carotid intima media thickness (IMT) and brachial flow mediated dilation (FMD). IMT and FMD are intermediate markers of CVD. We studied endothelial function and the effects of an exercise program on vascular endothelium in long-term survivors of childhood ALL.

PROCEDURE

Twenty-one 16-30 year old long-term survivors of ALL (age at diagnosis ≤16 years) and 21 healthy controls were studied at baseline, and 17 of the ALL survivors participated in a 16 week home-based exercise program. IMT and FMD were studied before and after the exercise program.

RESULTS

At baseline, the ALL survivors had impaired overall FMD response (FMDauc, P = 0.02). FMDmax(%) was 22% lower (P = 0.06) and FMD at 40 seconds 44% lower (P = 0.01) compared to healthy controls. After the exercise program, FMD at 40 seconds (P < 0.01) and IMT (P = 0.02) improved. The mean overall FMD response increased by 25% after the exercise program, but this change was not statistically significant (P = 0.27).

CONCLUSIONS

Our results show that the excess burden of CVD morbidity in this population may possibly be alleviated by simple means. The importance of physical activity on the health of childhood ALL survivors should be emphasized. Longer, controlled studies are needed to confirm our findings.

Promoter DNA methylation pattern identifies prognostic subgroups in childhood T-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia

Background

Treatment of pediatric T-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia (T-ALL) has improved, but there is a considerable fraction of patients experiencing a poor outcome. There is a need for better prognostic markers and aberrant DNA methylation is a candidate in other malignancies, but its potential prognostic significance in T-ALL is hitherto undecided.

Design and Methods

Genome wide promoter DNA methylation analysis was performed in pediatric T-ALL samples (n = 43) using arrays covering >27000 CpG sites. Clinical outcome was evaluated in relation to methylation status and compared with a contemporary T-ALL group not tested for methylation (n = 32).

Results

Based on CpG island methylator phenotype (CIMP), T-ALL samples were subgrouped as CIMP+ (high methylation) and CIMP− (low methylation). CIMP− T-ALL patients had significantly worse overall and event free survival (p = 0.02 and p = 0.001, respectively) compared to CIMP+ cases. CIMP status was an independent factor for survival in multivariate analysis including age, gender and white blood cell count. Analysis of differently methylated genes in the CIMP subgroups showed an overrepresentation of transcription factors, ligands and polycomb target genes.

Conclusions

We identified global promoter methylation profiling as being of relevance for subgrouping and prognostication of pediatric T-ALL.

Factors associated with poor quality of life in survivors of childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia and lymphoma

BACKGROUND

Previous studies of health-related quality of life (QoL) in childhood cancer survivors have hardly focused on factors associated with poor QoL.

THE AIMS OF OUR STUDY WERE

(1) to assess QoL in long-term survivors (LTSs) of childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) and lymphomas compared to age-matched controls from the general population (NORMs). (2) To investigate factors associated with poor QoL in LTSs.

PROCEDURE

This population-based cross-sectional study enrolled 285 LTSs of ALL and lymphomas diagnosed between 1970 and 2002 at age <18 years. The LTSs completed an extensive mailed questionnaire including the Short Form 36 (SF-36) as QoL-measure. NORMs consisted of five age-matched controls for each LTS (N = 1,425). Poor QoL was defined as SF-36 physical or mental component summary score <40.

RESULTS

The median age of LTSs' at survey was 30 years (range: 18-54), median follow-up time 21 years (range: 7-39). Compared to NORMs, LTSs scored significantly lower on 7 of 8 SF-36 subscales. Among LTSs 32% reported poor QoL versus 19% among NORMs (P < 0.001). Among LTSs, psychosocial, lifestyle- and health-related variables, but not type of malignancy, treatment factors or socio-demographic factors were clinically significantly associated with poor QoL in bivariate regression analyses. In multivariate analysis, levels of fatigue, anxiety and depression, as well as obesity and insomnia remained significantly associated with poor QoL.

CONCLUSION

Significantly more LTSs than age-matched NORMs experienced poor QoL. Clinically significant associations with fatigue, anxiety, depression, obesity and insomnia were observed, which may be amenable for interventions, and thereby improvement of QoL in LTSs.

Longitudinal language outcomes following intrathecal chemotherapy for acute lymphoblastic leukaemia

Intrathecal chemotherapy (ITC) is the treatment option for acute lymphoblastic leukaemia (ALL). Neurocognitive deficits have been described following ITC, but language status post-treatment is yet to be clarified. This study examined the language skills of nine children following ITC for ALL (mean age 7;8 years and 3;2 years post-diagnosis at baseline measurement) and nine age- and sex-matched controls, at baseline then 2 years later, using a battery of tests assessing general language skills. An assessment of cognitively-demanding high level language skills was undertaken on a sub-group of the children (n =12). Statistical analysis revealed no significant difference between children treated with ITC and controls when comparing change in performance scores from baseline measurement to 2 years post-baseline measurement. Descriptive analysis of three of the ALL participants in the Intermediate Stage survivorship at language re-assessment indicated no clinically-significant change in performance over 2 years for all measures except receptive language skills, which improved over the time for two of the children. As language skills continue to develop into late adolescence, the need for the monitoring of language abilities of children treated at a young age with ITC as they enter the Intermediate and Late Stages of survivorship is discussed.

Increased uptake of social security benefits among long-term survivors of cancer in childhood, adolescence and young adulthood: a Norwegian population-based cohort study

BACKGROUND

As the number of cancer survivors increases, their health and welfare have come into focus. Thus, long-term medical consequences of cancer at a young age (<25 years), obtained from social security benefit records, were studied.

METHODS

Standardised incidence ratios (SIRs) of long-term medical consequences for 5-year cancer survivors, born during 1965-1985, were explored by linking population-based registries in Norway.

RESULTS

Among the 5-year cancer survivors (4031 individuals), 29.7% received social security benefits. The survivors had an overall 4.4 times (95% confidence interval (95% CI): 4.1-4.6) higher risk of social security benefit uptake than the cancer-free population. Survivors of malignancies of bone and connective tissues (SIR: 10.8; 95% CI: 9.1-12.9), CNS tumours (SIR: 7.7; 95% CI: 6.9-8.6) and malignancies of the haematopoietic system (SIR: 6.1; 95% CI: 5.3-7.0) had the highest risks of social security benefits uptake. The most notified causes of social security benefit uptake were diseases of the nervous system, and injury and poisoning.

CONCLUSION

The uptake of social security benefits among 5-year cancer survivors increased substantially and it may represent a solid outcome measure for the burden of the most severe late effects, especially in countries with comparable social welfare systems.