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Cayir S, Zhornitsky S, Barzegary A, Sotomayor-Carreño E, Sarfo-Ansah W, Funaro MC, Matuskey D, Angarita G. A review of the kappa opioid receptor system in opioid use. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2024; 162:105713. [PMID: 38733895 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2024.105713] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2024] [Revised: 04/23/2024] [Accepted: 05/03/2024] [Indexed: 05/13/2024]
Abstract
The kappa opioid receptor (KOR) system is implicated in dysphoria and as an "anti-reward system" during withdrawal from opioids. However, no clear consensus has been made in the field, as mixed findings have been reported regarding the relationship between the KOR system and opioid use. This review summarizes the studies to date on the KOR system and opioids. A systematic scoping review was reported following PRISMA guidelines and conducted based on the published protocol. Comprehensive searches of several databases were done in the following databases: MEDLINE, Embase, PsycINFO, Web of Science, Scopus, and Cochrane. We included preclinical and clinical studies that tested the administration of KOR agonists/antagonists or dynorphin and/or measured dynorphin levels or KOR expression during opioid intoxication or withdrawal from opioids. One hundred studies were included in the final analysis. Preclinical administration of KOR agonists decreased drug-seeking/taking behaviors and opioid withdrawal symptoms. KOR antagonists showed mixed findings, depending on the agent and/or type of withdrawal symptom. Administration of dynorphins attenuated opioid withdrawal symptoms both in preclinical and clinical studies. In the limited number of available studies, dynorphin levels were found to increase in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and peripheral blood lymphocytes (PBL) of opioid use disorder subjects (OUD). In animals, dynorphin levels and/or KOR expression showed mixed findings during opioid use. The KOR/dynorphin system appears to have a multifaceted and complex nature rather than simply functioning as an anti-reward system. Future research in well-controlled study settings is necessary to better understand the clinical role of the KOR system in opioid use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Salih Cayir
- Department of Radiology and Biomedical Imaging, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06510, USA
| | - Simon Zhornitsky
- Department of Psychology, Southern Connecticut State University, New Haven, CT 06515, USA
| | - Alireza Barzegary
- Islamic Azad University Tehran Medical Sciences School of Medicine, Iran
| | | | | | - Melissa C Funaro
- Harvey Cushing/John Hay Whitney Medical Library, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06510, USA
| | - David Matuskey
- Department of Radiology and Biomedical Imaging, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06510, USA; Department of Psychiatry, Yale University School of Medicine, 300 George Street, Suite 901, New Haven, CT 06511, USA; Department of Neurology, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06510, USA
| | - Gustavo Angarita
- Department of Psychiatry, Yale University School of Medicine, 300 George Street, Suite 901, New Haven, CT 06511, USA; Clinical Neuroscience Research Unit, Connecticut Mental Health Center, 34 Park Street, New Haven, CT 06519, USA.
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2
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Chellian R, Behnood-Rod A, Bruijnzeel AW. Mifepristone decreases nicotine intake in dependent and non-dependent adult rats. J Psychopharmacol 2024; 38:280-296. [PMID: 38332661 PMCID: PMC11061865 DOI: 10.1177/02698811241230255] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/10/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Addiction to tobacco and nicotine products has adverse health effects and afflicts more than a billion people worldwide. Therefore, there is an urgent need for new treatments to reduce tobacco and nicotine use. Glucocorticoid receptor blockade shows promise as a novel treatment for drug abuse and stress-related disorders. AIM These studies aim to investigate whether glucocorticoid receptor blockade with mifepristone diminishes the reinforcing properties of nicotine in rats with intermittent or daily long access to nicotine. METHODS The rats self-administered 0.06 mg/kg/inf of nicotine for 6 h per day, with either intermittent or daily access for 4 weeks before treatment with mifepristone. Daily nicotine self-administration models regular smoking, while intermittent nicotine self-administration models occasional smoking. To determine whether the rats were dependent, they were treated with the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor antagonist mecamylamine, and somatic signs were recorded. RESULTS The rats with intermittent access to nicotine had a higher level of nicotine intake per session than those with daily access but only the rats with daily access to nicotine showed signs of physical dependence. Furthermore, mecamylamine increased nicotine intake during the first hour of access in rats with daily access but not in those with intermittent access. Mifepristone decreased total nicotine intake in rats with intermittent and daily access to nicotine. Moreover, mifepristone decreased the distance traveled and rearing in the open field test and operant responding for food pellets. CONCLUSION These findings indicate that mifepristone decreases nicotine intake but this effect may be partially attributed to the sedative effects of mifepristone.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Azin Behnood-Rod
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
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Klenowski PM, Zhao-Shea R, Freels TG, Molas S, Zinter M, M’Angale P, Xiao C, Martinez-Núñez L, Thomson T, Tapper AR. A neuronal coping mechanism linking stress-induced anxiety to motivation for reward. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2023; 9:eadh9620. [PMID: 38055830 PMCID: PMC10699782 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.adh9620] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2023] [Accepted: 11/07/2023] [Indexed: 12/08/2023]
Abstract
Stress coping involves innate and active motivational behaviors that reduce anxiety under stressful situations. However, the neuronal bases directly linking stress, anxiety, and motivation are largely unknown. Here, we show that acute stressors activate mouse GABAergic neurons in the interpeduncular nucleus (IPN). Stress-coping behavior including self-grooming and reward behavior including sucrose consumption inherently reduced IPN GABAergic neuron activity. Optogenetic silencing of IPN GABAergic neuron activation during acute stress episodes mimicked coping strategies and alleviated anxiety-like behavior. In a mouse model of stress-enhanced motivation for sucrose seeking, photoinhibition of IPN GABAergic neurons reduced stress-induced motivation for sucrose, whereas photoactivation of IPN GABAergic neurons or excitatory inputs from medial habenula potentiated sucrose seeking. Single-cell sequencing, fiber photometry, and optogenetic experiments revealed that stress-activated IPN GABAergic neurons that drive motivated sucrose seeking express somatostatin. Together, these data suggest that stress induces innate behaviors and motivates reward seeking to oppose IPN neuronal activation as an anxiolytic stress-coping mechanism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul M. Klenowski
- Brudnick Neuropsychiatric Research Institute, Department of Neurobiology, University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School, Worcester, MA 01605, USA
- Department of Neurobiology, University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School, Worcester, MA 01605, USA
| | - Rubing Zhao-Shea
- Brudnick Neuropsychiatric Research Institute, Department of Neurobiology, University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School, Worcester, MA 01605, USA
- Department of Neurobiology, University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School, Worcester, MA 01605, USA
| | - Timothy G. Freels
- Brudnick Neuropsychiatric Research Institute, Department of Neurobiology, University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School, Worcester, MA 01605, USA
- Department of Neurobiology, University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School, Worcester, MA 01605, USA
| | - Susanna Molas
- Brudnick Neuropsychiatric Research Institute, Department of Neurobiology, University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School, Worcester, MA 01605, USA
- Department of Neurobiology, University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School, Worcester, MA 01605, USA
| | - Max Zinter
- Brudnick Neuropsychiatric Research Institute, Department of Neurobiology, University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School, Worcester, MA 01605, USA
- Department of Neurobiology, University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School, Worcester, MA 01605, USA
| | - Peter M’Angale
- Department of Neurobiology, University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School, Worcester, MA 01605, USA
| | - Cong Xiao
- Department of Neurobiology, University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School, Worcester, MA 01605, USA
| | - Leonora Martinez-Núñez
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biotechnology, University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School, Worcester, MA 01605, USA
| | - Travis Thomson
- Department of Neurobiology, University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School, Worcester, MA 01605, USA
| | - Andrew R. Tapper
- Brudnick Neuropsychiatric Research Institute, Department of Neurobiology, University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School, Worcester, MA 01605, USA
- Department of Neurobiology, University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School, Worcester, MA 01605, USA
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Chellian R, Behnood-Rod A, Bruijnzeel AW. Development of Dependence in Smokers and Rodents With Voluntary Nicotine Intake: Similarities and Differences. Nicotine Tob Res 2023; 25:1229-1240. [PMID: 36482774 PMCID: PMC10256892 DOI: 10.1093/ntr/ntac280] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2022] [Revised: 11/23/2022] [Accepted: 12/05/2022] [Indexed: 07/29/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Smoking and vaping throughout adolescence and early adulthood lead to nicotine dependence. Nicotine withdrawal is associated with somatic and affective withdrawal symptoms that contribute to smoking and relapse. Affective nicotine withdrawal symptoms in humans include craving for cigarettes, depression, anxiety, trouble sleeping, and cognitive deficits. METHODS Herein, we review clinical studies that investigated nicotine dependence in people who smoke or vape. We also discuss studies that investigated the development of dependence in animals with oral nicotine intake, nicotine aerosol self-administration, and intravenous nicotine self-administration. RESULTS Clinical studies report that adolescents who smoke daily develop nicotine dependence before those who smoke infrequently, but ultimately all smokers become dependent in adulthood. Preclinical studies indicate that rats that self-administer nicotine also become dependent. Rats that self-administer nicotine display somatic withdrawal signs and affective withdrawal signs, including increased anxiety and depressive-like behavior, cognitive deficits, and allodynia. Most nicotine withdrawal signs were observed in rodents with daily (7 days/week) or intermittent long access (23-hour) to nicotine. Clinical smoking studies report symptoms of nicotine dependence in adolescents of both sexes, but virtually all preclinical nicotine self-administration studies have been done with adult male rats. CONCLUSIONS The role of sex and age in the development of dependence in nicotine self-administration studies remains under-investigated. However, the role of sex and age in nicotine withdrawal has been thoroughly evaluated in studies in which nicotine was administered noncontingently. We discuss the need for volitional nicotine self-administration studies that explore the gradual development of dependence during adolescence and adulthood in rodents of both sexes. IMPLICATIONS The reviewed clinical studies investigated the development of nicotine dependence in male and female adolescent and young adult smokers and vapers. These studies indicate that most adolescent smokers and vapers gradually become nicotine dependent. Preclinical studies with rodents show that nicotine intake in widely used self-administration models also leads to dependence. However, almost all animal studies that investigated the development of nicotine dependence have been conducted with adult male rats. To better model smoking and vaping, it is important that nicotine intake in rats or mice starts during adolescence and that both sexes are included.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Azin Behnood-Rod
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Adriaan W Bruijnzeel
- Corresponding Author: Adriaan Bruijnzeel, PhD, University of Florida, Department of Psychiatry, 1149 Newell Dr., Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA. Telephone: 352-294-4931; Fax: 352-392-9887; E-mail:
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Mantsch JR. Corticotropin releasing factor and drug seeking in substance use disorders: Preclinical evidence and translational limitations. ADDICTION NEUROSCIENCE 2022; 4:100038. [PMID: 36531188 PMCID: PMC9757758 DOI: 10.1016/j.addicn.2022.100038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
The neuropeptide, corticotropin releasing factor (CRF), has been an enigmatic target for the development of medications aimed at treating stress-related disorders. Despite a large body of evidence from preclinical studies in rodents demonstrating that CRF receptor antagonists prevent stressor-induced drug seeking, medications targeting the CRF-R1 have failed in clinical trials. Here, we provide an overview of the abundant findings from preclinical rodent studies suggesting that CRF signaling is involved in stressor-induced relapse. The scientific literature that has defined the receptors, mechanisms and neurocircuits through which CRF contributes to stressor-induced reinstatement of drug seeking following self-administration and conditioned place preference in rodents is reviewed. Evidence that CRF signaling is recruited with repeated drug use in a manner that heightens susceptibility to stressor-induced drug seeking in rodents is presented. Factors that may determine the influence of CRF signaling in substance use disorders, including developmental windows, biological sex, and genetics are examined. Finally, we discuss the translational failure of medications targeting CRF signaling as interventions for substance use disorders and other stress-related conditions. We conclude that new perspectives and research directions are needed to unravel the mysterious role of CRF in substance use disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- John R Mantsch
- Department of Pharmacology & Toxicology, Medical College of Wisconsin, 8701 W Watertown Plank Rd, Milwaukee, WI 53226, United States
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Abstract
BACKGROUND Animal models are critical to improve our understanding of the neuronal mechanisms underlying nicotine withdrawal. Nicotine dependence in rodents can be established by repeated nicotine injections, chronic nicotine infusion via osmotic minipumps, oral nicotine intake, tobacco smoke exposure, nicotine vapor exposure, and e-cigarette aerosol exposure. The time course of nicotine withdrawal symptoms associated with these methods has not been reviewed in the literature. AIM The goal of this review is to discuss nicotine withdrawal symptoms associated with the cessation of nicotine, tobacco smoke, nicotine vapor, and e-cigarette aerosol exposure in rats and mice. Furthermore, age and sex differences in nicotine withdrawal symptoms are reviewed. RESULTS Cessation of nicotine, tobacco smoke, nicotine vapor, and e-cigarette aerosol exposure leads to nicotine withdrawal symptoms such as somatic withdrawal signs, changes in locomotor activity, anxiety- and depressive-like behavior, learning and memory deficits, attention deficits, hyperalgesia, and dysphoria. These withdrawal symptoms are most pronounced within the first week after cessation of nicotine exposure. Anxiety- and depressive-like behavior, and deficits in learning and memory may persist for several months. Adolescent (4-6 weeks old) rats and mice display fewer nicotine withdrawal symptoms than adults (>8 weeks old). In adult rats and mice, females show fewer nicotine withdrawal symptoms than males. The smoking cessation drugs bupropion and varenicline reduce nicotine withdrawal symptoms in rodents. CONCLUSION The nicotine withdrawal symptoms that are observed in rodents are similar to those observed in humans. Tobacco smoke and e-cigarette aerosol contain chemicals and added flavors that enhance the reinforcing properties of nicotine. Therefore, more valid animal models of tobacco and e-cigarette use need to be developed by using tobacco smoke and e-cigarette aerosol exposure methods to induce dependence.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Azin Behnood-Rod
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Florida, Gainesville, USA
| | | | - Ryann Wilson
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Florida, Gainesville, USA
| | - Vijayapandi Pandy
- Department of Pharmacology, Chalapathi Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Guntur, India
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7
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Harris AC. Magnitude of open-field thigmotaxis during mecamylamine-precipitated nicotine withdrawal in rats is influenced by mecamylamine dose, duration of nicotine infusion, number of withdrawal episodes, and age. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2021; 205:173185. [DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2021.173185] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2021] [Revised: 03/28/2021] [Accepted: 03/29/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
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8
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Drug addiction co-morbidity with alcohol: Neurobiological insights. INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF NEUROBIOLOGY 2021; 157:409-472. [PMID: 33648675 DOI: 10.1016/bs.irn.2020.11.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Addiction is a chronic disorder that consists of a three-stage cycle of binge/intoxication, withdrawal/negative affect, and preoccupation/anticipation. These stages involve, respectively, neuroadaptations in brain circuits involved in incentive salience and habit formation, stress surfeit and reward deficit, and executive function. Much research on addiction focuses on the neurobiology underlying single drug use. However, alcohol use disorder (AUD) can be co-morbid with substance use disorder (SUD), called dual dependence. The limited epidemiological data on dual dependence indicates that there is a large population of individuals suffering from addiction who are dependent on more than one drug and/or alcohol, yet dual dependence remains understudied in addiction research. Here, we review neurobiological data on neurotransmitter and neuropeptide systems that are known to contribute to addiction pathology and how the involvement of these systems is consistent or divergent across drug classes. In particular, we highlight the dopamine, opioid, corticotropin-releasing factor, norepinephrine, hypocretin/orexin, glucocorticoid, neuroimmune signaling, endocannabinoid, glutamate, and GABA systems. We also discuss the limited research on these systems in dual dependence. Collectively, these studies demonstrate that the use of multiple drugs can produce neuroadaptations that are distinct from single drug use. Further investigation into the neurobiology of dual dependence is necessary to develop effective treatments for addiction to multiple drugs.
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Abstract
Alcohol dependence is a chronically relapsing disorder characterized by compulsive drug-seeking and drug-taking, loss of control in limiting intake, and the emergence of a withdrawal syndrome in the absence of the drug. Accumulating evidence suggests an important role for synaptic transmission in the central nucleus of the amygdala (CeA) in mediating alcohol-related behaviors and neuroadaptive mechanisms associated with alcohol dependence. Acute alcohol facilitates γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA)ergic transmission in the CeA via both pre- and postsynaptic mechanisms, and chronic alcohol increases baseline GABAergic transmission. Acute alcohol inhibits glutamatergic transmission via effects at N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) and α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid (AMPA) receptors in the CeA, whereas chronic alcohol up-regulates NMDA receptor (NMDAR)-mediated transmission. Pro- (e.g., corticotropin-releasing factor [CRF]) and antistress (e.g., nociceptin/orphanin FQ, oxytocin) neuropeptides affect alcohol- and anxiety-related behaviors, and also alter the alcohol-induced effects on CeA neurotransmission. Alcohol dependence produces plasticity in these neuropeptide systems, reflecting a recruitment of those systems during the transition to alcohol dependence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marisa Roberto
- Departments of Molecular Medicine and Neuroscience, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, California 92037, USA
| | - Dean Kirson
- Departments of Molecular Medicine and Neuroscience, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, California 92037, USA
| | - Sophia Khom
- Departments of Molecular Medicine and Neuroscience, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, California 92037, USA
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10
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Moerke MJ, McMahon LR, Wilkerson JL. More than Smoke and Patches: The Quest for Pharmacotherapies to Treat Tobacco Use Disorder. Pharmacol Rev 2020; 72:527-557. [PMID: 32205338 DOI: 10.1124/pr.119.018028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Tobacco use is a persistent public health issue. It kills up to half its users and is the cause of nearly 90% of all lung cancers. The main psychoactive component of tobacco is nicotine, primarily responsible for its abuse-related effects. Accordingly, most pharmacotherapies for smoking cessation target nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs), nicotine's major site of action in the brain. The goal of the current review is twofold: first, to provide a brief overview of the most commonly used behavioral procedures for evaluating smoking cessation pharmacotherapies and an introduction to pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties of nicotine important for consideration in the development of new pharmacotherapies; and second, to discuss current and potential future pharmacological interventions aimed at decreasing tobacco use. Attention will focus on the potential for allosteric modulators of nAChRs to offer an improvement over currently approved pharmacotherapies. Additionally, given increasing public concern for the potential health consequences of using electronic nicotine delivery systems, which allow users to inhale aerosolized solutions as an alternative to smoking tobacco, an effort will be made throughout this review to address the implications of this relatively new form of nicotine delivery, specifically as it relates to smoking cessation. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Despite decades of research that have vastly improved our understanding of nicotine and its effects on the body, only a handful of pharmacotherapies have been successfully developed for use in smoking cessation. Thus, investigation of alternative pharmacological strategies for treating tobacco use disorder remains active; allosteric modulators of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors represent one class of compounds currently under development for this purpose.
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Affiliation(s)
- M J Moerke
- Division of Preclinical Pharmacology, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, Maryland (M.J.M.) and Department of Pharmacodynamics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida (L.R.M., J.L.W.)
| | - L R McMahon
- Division of Preclinical Pharmacology, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, Maryland (M.J.M.) and Department of Pharmacodynamics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida (L.R.M., J.L.W.)
| | - J L Wilkerson
- Division of Preclinical Pharmacology, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, Maryland (M.J.M.) and Department of Pharmacodynamics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida (L.R.M., J.L.W.)
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Ponzoni L, Braida D, Carboni L, Moretti M, Viani P, Clementi F, Zoli M, Gotti C, Sala M. Persistent cognitive and affective alterations at late withdrawal stages after long-term intermittent exposure to tobacco smoke or electronic cigarette vapour: Behavioural changes and their neurochemical correlates. Pharmacol Res 2020; 158:104941. [PMID: 32450347 DOI: 10.1016/j.phrs.2020.104941] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2020] [Revised: 05/14/2020] [Accepted: 05/19/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Smoking cessation induces a withdrawal syndrome associated with anxiety, depression, and impaired neurocognitive functions, but much less is known about the withdrawal of e-cigarettes (e-CIG). We investigated in Balb/c mice the behavioural and neurochemical effects of withdrawal for up to 90 days after seven weeks' intermittent exposure to e-CIG vapour or cigarette smoke (CIG). The withdrawal of e-CIG and CIG induced early behavioural alterations such as spatial memory deficits (spatial object recognition task), increased anxiety (elevated plus maze test) and compulsive-like behaviour (marble burying test) that persisted for 60-90 days. Notably, attention-related (virtual object recognition task) and depression-like behaviours (tail suspension and sucrose preference tests) appeared only 15-30 days after withdrawal and persisted for as long as up to 90 days. At hippocampal level, the withdrawal-induced changes in the levels of AMPA receptor GluA1 and GluA2/3 subunits, PSD 95 protein, corticotropin-releasing factor (Crf) and Crf receptor 1 (CrfR1) mRNA were biphasic: AMPA receptor subunit and PSD95 protein levels initially remained unchanged and decreased after 60-90 days, whereas Crf/CrfR1 mRNA levels initially increased and then markedly decreased after 60 days. These late reductions correlated with the behavioural impairments, particularly the appearance of depression-like behaviours. Our findings show that major behavioural and neurochemical alterations persist or even first appear late after the withdrawal of chronic CIG smoke or e-CIG vapour exposure, and underline importance of conducting similar studies of humans, including e-CIG vapers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luisa Ponzoni
- CNR, Institute of Neuroscience, Milan, Italy; Fondazione Zardi-Gori, Milan, Italy; Dept. of Medical Biotechnology and Translational Medicine, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - Daniela Braida
- Dept. of Medical Biotechnology and Translational Medicine, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - Lucia Carboni
- Department of Pharmacy and Biotechnology, Alma Mater Studiorum - Università di Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - Milena Moretti
- CNR, Institute of Neuroscience, Milan, Italy; Dept. of Medical Biotechnology and Translational Medicine, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - Paola Viani
- Dept. of Medical Biotechnology and Translational Medicine, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - Francesco Clementi
- CNR, Institute of Neuroscience, Milan, Italy; Dept. of Medical Biotechnology and Translational Medicine, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - Michele Zoli
- Department of Biomedical, Metabolic and Neural Sciences, Center for Neuroscience and Neurotechnology (CfNN), University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, 41125 Modena, Italy
| | - Cecilia Gotti
- CNR, Institute of Neuroscience, Milan, Italy; Dept. of Medical Biotechnology and Translational Medicine, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy.
| | - Mariaelvina Sala
- CNR, Institute of Neuroscience, Milan, Italy; Dept. of Medical Biotechnology and Translational Medicine, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
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Holliday ED, Logue SF, Oliver C, Bangasser DA, Gould TJ. Stress and nicotine during adolescence disrupts adult hippocampal-dependent learning and alters stress reactivity. Addict Biol 2020; 25:e12769. [PMID: 31099135 DOI: 10.1111/adb.12769] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2018] [Revised: 04/02/2019] [Accepted: 04/05/2019] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Adolescence represents increased susceptibility to stress that increases risk for nicotine dependence. The present study examined the interactive effects of brief exposure to stress (shipping/transportation or experimentally induced) and chronic nicotine during adolescence on cognitive function and stress reactivity in adulthood. Adolescent (P31), but not young adult (P47), C57BL/6J mice had higher levels of corticosterone after shipping vs mice bred onsite. Shipped preadolescent (P23) and adolescent (P38) mice, but not those bred onsite, exposed to nicotine showed deficits in contextual fear learning when tested in adulthood. Adult learning deficits were replicated in adolescent mice bred onsite, exposed to experimentally induced stress, and administered chronic nicotine. Stress and nicotine during adolescence resulted in higher expression of hippocampal glucocorticoid receptors and corticotropin-releasing factor receptors and blunted restraint induced CORT release in adulthood. Importantly, studies examining adolescent behavior in mice should consider stress influences outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erica D. Holliday
- Department of Psychology, Neuroscience Program, Weiss HallTemple University Philadelphia PA USA
| | - Sheree F. Logue
- College of Health and Human Development, Biobehavioral HealthPenn State University Park PA USA
| | - Chicora Oliver
- Department of Psychology, Neuroscience Program, Weiss HallTemple University Philadelphia PA USA
| | - Debra A. Bangasser
- Department of Psychology, Neuroscience Program, Weiss HallTemple University Philadelphia PA USA
| | - Thomas J. Gould
- College of Health and Human Development, Biobehavioral HealthPenn State University Park PA USA
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Simpson S, Shankar K, Kimbrough A, George O. Role of corticotropin-releasing factor in alcohol and nicotine addiction. Brain Res 2020; 1740:146850. [PMID: 32330519 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2020.146850] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2019] [Revised: 03/31/2020] [Accepted: 04/20/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
The two most prevalent substance use disorders involve alcohol and nicotine, which are often co-abused. Robust preclinical and translational evidence indicates that individuals initiate drug use for the acute rewarding effects of the substance. The development of negative emotional states is key for the transition from recreational use to substance use disorders as subjects seek the substance to obtain relief from the negative emotional states of acute withdrawal and protracted abstinence. The neuropeptide corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) is a major regulator of the brain stress system and key in the development of negative affective states. The present review examines the role of CRF in preclinical models of alcohol and nicotine abuse and explores links between CRF and anxiety-like, dysphoria-like, and other negative affective states. Finally, the present review discusses preclinical models of nicotine and alcohol use with regard to the CRF system, advances in molecular and genetic manipulations of CRF, and the importance of examining both males and females in this field of research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sierra Simpson
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California, San Diego, School of Medicine, La Jolla, CA 92093, United States; Department of Neuroscience, Scripps Research, La Jolla, CA 92037, United States
| | - Kokila Shankar
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California, San Diego, School of Medicine, La Jolla, CA 92093, United States; Department of Neuroscience, Scripps Research, La Jolla, CA 92037, United States
| | - Adam Kimbrough
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California, San Diego, School of Medicine, La Jolla, CA 92093, United States
| | - Olivier George
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California, San Diego, School of Medicine, La Jolla, CA 92093, United States.
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Ravula A, Chandasana H, Jagnarine D, Wall SC, Setlow B, Febo M, Bruijnzeel AW, Derendorf H. Pharmacokinetic and Pharmacodynamic Characterization of Tetrahydrocannabinol-Induced Cannabinoid Dependence After Chronic Passive Cannabis Smoke Exposure in Rats. Cannabis Cannabinoid Res 2019; 4:240-254. [PMID: 32042924 DOI: 10.1089/can.2019.0049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction: Cannabis is the most widely used illicit drug in the US, and cannabis use among young adults continues to rise. Previous studies have shown that chronic administration of delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), the main psychoactive component of cannabis, induces dependence in animal models. Because smoking is the most frequent route of THC self-administration, it is critical to investigate the effects of cannabis smoke inhalation. The goal of the current study was to develop a rat model to characterize the pharmacokinetics (PKs) of THC after cannabis smoke inhalation, and to determine if chronic cannabis smoke inhalation leads to the development of cannabis dependence. Materials and Methods: For the PK study, male Wistar rats were administered THC intravenously (1 mg/kg) or exposed to smoke from 5 or 10 sequentially smoked cannabis cigarettes (5.3% THC) in an automated smoking machine. Plasma samples were collected from 10 min to 10 hours post smoke exposure (or intravenous administration) and analyzed using liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry to characterize the PK of THC. A three-compartment PK model was used to characterize the PKs. In a separate study, three groups of male Wistar rats were trained in an intracranial self-stimulation (ICSS) procedure, and exposed to smoke from burning 5 or 10 cannabis cigarettes (or clean air control conditions), 5 days/week for 4 weeks. Discussion and Conclusions: Across exposure days, the change from baseline in ICSS thresholds for cannabis smoke-exposed groups was significantly lower and response latencies were significantly faster in the cannabis smoke-exposed groups compared to controls, suggesting that chronic cannabis smoke exposure has rewarding properties. Acute administration of the CB1 receptor antagonist rimonabant (0.3, 1.0, 3.0 mg/kg) induced a dose-dependent increase in ICSS thresholds in the smoke-exposed rats, suggestive of dependence and withdrawal. Finally, an effect compartment PK-pharmacodynamic model was used to describe the relationship between THC concentrations and changes in ICSS thresholds after cannabis smoke exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abhigyan Ravula
- Department of Pharmaceutics, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida
| | - Hardik Chandasana
- Department of Pharmaceutics, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida
| | - Darin Jagnarine
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida
| | - Shannon C Wall
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida
| | - Barry Setlow
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida
| | - Marcelo Febo
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida
| | | | - Hartmut Derendorf
- Department of Pharmaceutics, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida
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15
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Addiction and stress: An allostatic view. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2019; 106:245-262. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2018.09.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 121] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2018] [Revised: 08/30/2018] [Accepted: 09/08/2018] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
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16
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Levin B, Wilks I, Tan S, Behnood-Rod A, Bruijnzeel A. Recent Updates in Animal Models of Nicotine Withdrawal: Intracranial Self-Stimulation and Somatic Signs. Methods Mol Biol 2019; 2011:253-265. [PMID: 31273703 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4939-9554-7_14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Tobacco use is one of the leading causes of disease, disability, and death in the world. Despite the negative health consequences of smoking and the fact that most people would like to quit, very few people are able to maintain abstinence. Nicotine, the main psychoactive component of tobacco, is mildly rewarding and plays a role in the initiation and maintenance of smoking. Cessation of nicotine intake induces mild somatic withdrawal symptoms that may contribute to the maintenance of smoking. However, it has been hypothesized that negative affective nicotine withdrawal signs are of greater motivational significance in contributing to relapse and continued smoking (Markou and Koob (eds) Intracranial self-stimulation thresholds as a measure of reward, vol 2. Oxford University Press, New York, 1993; Koob et al., Semin Neurosci 5:351-358, 1993). Intracranial self-stimulation (ICSS) has been established as a method to assess the acute rewarding properties of nicotine and the dysphoria associated with nicotine withdrawal. The ICSS method provides a means to measure the negative affective aspects of nicotine withdrawal in animal models and may contribute to the understanding of the neurobiological bases of nicotine dependence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brandon Levin
- Department of Psychiatry, College of Medicine, McKnight Brain Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Isaac Wilks
- Department of Psychiatry, College of Medicine, McKnight Brain Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Sijie Tan
- Department of Psychiatry, College of Medicine, McKnight Brain Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Azin Behnood-Rod
- Department of Psychiatry, College of Medicine, McKnight Brain Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Adriaan Bruijnzeel
- Department of Psychiatry, College of Medicine, McKnight Brain Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA.
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17
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Jensen KP, Valentine G, Buta E, DeVito EE, Gelernter J, Sofuoglu M. Biochemical, demographic, and self-reported tobacco-related predictors of the acute heart rate response to nicotine in smokers. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2018; 173:36-43. [PMID: 30107183 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2018.08.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2018] [Revised: 08/03/2018] [Accepted: 08/10/2018] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
Understanding the stimulatory effects of nicotine on cardiovascular function in humans is of great interest given the wide-spread use of different forms of combustible and smokeless products that deliver nicotine. An intravenous nicotine infusion procedure was used to evaluate factors associated with the acute heart rate (HR) response to nicotine (0.5 mg per 70 kg bodyweight) in a sample of 213 smokers. We tested for differential response to nicotine based on demographic characteristics (race [European American vs African America], sex, body mass index and age); a set of blood-based biomarkers (baseline nicotine, cotinine and cortisol levels and nicotine metabolite ratio); and a set of self-reported measures related to tobacco use. Nicotine infusion was first noted to increase HR approximately 10 beats per minute (95% CI: 7.8-12.3) one minute post-infusion, and 13 beats per minute (95% CI: 11.0-15.2) two minutes post-infusion. Higher cortisol, lower nicotine levels, higher nicotine metabolite ratio, being female and greater withdrawal symptoms were independently associated with a potentiated increase in HR 1 or 2 min after nicotine infusion. Factors associated with the acute HR effects of nicotine warrant further investigation given their potential to inform the development of nicotine delivery systems as tobacco harm reduction approaches for smokers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin P Jensen
- Department of Psychiatry, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, United States of America; VA Connecticut Healthcare System, West Haven, CT, United States of America.
| | - Gerald Valentine
- Department of Psychiatry, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, United States of America; VA Connecticut Healthcare System, West Haven, CT, United States of America
| | - Eugenia Buta
- Department of Biostatistics, Yale University School of Public Health, New Haven, CT, United States of America
| | - Elise E DeVito
- Department of Psychiatry, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, United States of America; VA Connecticut Healthcare System, West Haven, CT, United States of America
| | - Joel Gelernter
- Department of Psychiatry, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, United States of America; VA Connecticut Healthcare System, West Haven, CT, United States of America; Department of Genetics, Yale University School of Medicine, United States of America; Department of Neuroscience, Yale University School of Medicine, United States of America
| | - Mehmet Sofuoglu
- Department of Psychiatry, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, United States of America; VA Connecticut Healthcare System, West Haven, CT, United States of America
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18
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Bickel WK, Mellis AM, Snider SE, Athamneh LN, Stein JS, Pope DA. 21st century neurobehavioral theories of decision making in addiction: Review and evaluation. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2018; 164:4-21. [PMID: 28942119 PMCID: PMC5747999 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2017.09.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2017] [Revised: 08/24/2017] [Accepted: 09/12/2017] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
This review critically examines neurobehavioral theoretical developments in decision making in addiction in the 21st century. We specifically compare each theory reviewed to seven benchmarks of theoretical robustness, based on their ability to address: why some commodities are addictive; developmental trends in addiction; addiction-related anhedonia; self-defeating patterns of behavior in addiction; why addiction co-occurs with other unhealthy behaviors; and, finally, means for the repair of addiction. We have included only self-contained theories or hypotheses which have been developed or extended in the 21st century to address decision making in addiction. We thus review seven distinct theories of decision making in addiction: learning theories, incentive-sensitization theory, dopamine imbalance and systems models, opponent process theory, strength models of self-control failure, the competing neurobehavioral decision systems theory, and the triadic systems theory of addiction. Finally, we have directly compared the performance of each of these theories based on the aforementioned benchmarks, and highlighted key points at which several theories have coalesced.
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Affiliation(s)
- Warren K Bickel
- Addiction Recovery Research Center, Virginia Tech Carilion Research Institute, Roanoke, VA, United States; Graduate Program in Translational Biology, Medicine, and Health, Roanoke, VA, United States; Department of Psychology, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA, United States; Department of Neuroscience, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, United States; Faculty of Health Sciences, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, United States; Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Medicine, Virginia Tech Carilion School of Medicine, United States.
| | - Alexandra M Mellis
- Addiction Recovery Research Center, Virginia Tech Carilion Research Institute, Roanoke, VA, United States; Graduate Program in Translational Biology, Medicine, and Health, Roanoke, VA, United States
| | - Sarah E Snider
- Addiction Recovery Research Center, Virginia Tech Carilion Research Institute, Roanoke, VA, United States
| | - Liqa N Athamneh
- Addiction Recovery Research Center, Virginia Tech Carilion Research Institute, Roanoke, VA, United States; Graduate Program in Translational Biology, Medicine, and Health, Roanoke, VA, United States
| | - Jeffrey S Stein
- Addiction Recovery Research Center, Virginia Tech Carilion Research Institute, Roanoke, VA, United States
| | - Derek A Pope
- Addiction Recovery Research Center, Virginia Tech Carilion Research Institute, Roanoke, VA, United States
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Harris AC, Muelken P, Smethells JR, Krueger M, LeSage MG. Similar precipitated withdrawal effects on intracranial self-stimulation during chronic infusion of an e-cigarette liquid or nicotine alone. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2017; 161:1-5. [PMID: 28867606 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2017.08.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2017] [Revised: 08/28/2017] [Accepted: 08/30/2017] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The FDA recently extended their regulatory authority to electronic cigarettes (ECs). Because the abuse liability of ECs is a leading concern of the FDA, animal models are urgently needed to identify factors that influence the relative abuse liability of these products. The ability of tobacco products to induce nicotine dependence, defined by the emergence of anhedonia and other symptoms of nicotine withdrawal following cessation of their use, contributes to tobacco abuse liability. The present study compared the severity of precipitated withdrawal during chronic infusion of nicotine alone or nicotine-dose equivalent concentrations of three different EC refill liquids in rats, as indicated by elevations in intracranial self-stimulation (ICSS) thresholds (anhedonia-like behavior). Because these EC liquids contain constituents that may enhance their abuse liability (e.g., minor alkaloids), we hypothesized that they would be associated with greater withdrawal effects than nicotine alone. Results indicated that the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor antagonist mecamylamine precipitated elevations in ICSS thresholds in rats receiving a chronic infusion of nicotine alone or EC liquids (3.2mg/kg/day, via osmotic pump). Magnitude of this effect did not differ between formulations. Our findings indicate that nicotine alone is the primary CNS determinant of the ability of ECs to engender dependence. Combined with our previous findings that nicotine alone and these EC liquids do not differ in other preclinical addiction models, these data suggest that product standards set by the FDA to reduce EC abuse liability should primarily target nicotine, other constituents with peripheral sensory effects (e.g. flavorants), and factors that influence product appeal (e.g., marketing).
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Affiliation(s)
- A C Harris
- Department of Medicine, Minneapolis Medical Research Foundation, Minneapolis, MN, USA; Department of Medicine, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA; Department of Psychology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA.
| | - P Muelken
- Department of Medicine, Minneapolis Medical Research Foundation, Minneapolis, MN, USA
| | - J R Smethells
- Department of Medicine, Minneapolis Medical Research Foundation, Minneapolis, MN, USA; Department of Psychiatry, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA
| | - M Krueger
- Department of Medicine, Minneapolis Medical Research Foundation, Minneapolis, MN, USA; Department of Psychology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA
| | - M G LeSage
- Department of Medicine, Minneapolis Medical Research Foundation, Minneapolis, MN, USA; Department of Medicine, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA; Department of Psychology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA
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20
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Roberto M, Spierling SR, Kirson D, Zorrilla EP. Corticotropin-Releasing Factor (CRF) and Addictive Behaviors. INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF NEUROBIOLOGY 2017; 136:5-51. [PMID: 29056155 PMCID: PMC6155477 DOI: 10.1016/bs.irn.2017.06.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Drug addiction is a complex disorder that is characterized by compulsivity to seek and take the drug, loss of control in limiting intake of the drug, and emergence of a withdrawal syndrome in the absence of the drug. The transition from casual drug use to dependence is mediated by changes in reward and brain stress functions and has been linked to a shift from positive reinforcement to negative reinforcement. The recruitment of brain stress systems mediates the negative emotional state produced by dependence that drives drug seeking through negative reinforcement mechanisms, defined as the "dark side" of addiction. In this chapter we focus on behavioral and cellular neuropharmacological studies that have implicated brain stress systems (i.e., corticotropin-releasing factor [CRF]) in the transition to addiction and the predominant brain regions involved. We also discuss the implication of CRF recruitment in compulsive eating disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marisa Roberto
- The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA, United States.
| | | | - Dean Kirson
- The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA, United States
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21
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Sotiriou I, Chalkiadaki K, Nikolaidis C, Sidiropoulou K, Chatzaki E. Pharmacotherapy in smoking cessation: Corticotropin Releasing Factor receptors as emerging intervention targets. Neuropeptides 2017; 63:49-57. [PMID: 28222901 DOI: 10.1016/j.npep.2017.02.082] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2016] [Revised: 02/13/2017] [Accepted: 02/13/2017] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Smoking represents perhaps the single most important health risk factor and a global contributor to mortality that can unquestionably be prevented. Smoking is responsible for many diseases, including various types of cancer, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, coronary heart disease, peripheral vascular disease and peptic ulcer, while it adversely affects fetal formation and development. Since smoking habit duration is a critical factor for mortality, the goal of treatment should be its timely cessation and relapse prevention. Drug intervention therapy is an important ally in smoking cessation. Significant positive steps have been achieved in the last few years in the development of supportive compounds. In the present review, we analyze reports studying the role of Corticotropin Releasing Factor (CRF), the principle neuroendocrine mediator of the stress response and its two receptors (CRF1 and CRF2) in the withdrawal phase as well as in the abstinence from nicotine use. Although still in pre-clinical evaluation, therapeutic implications of these data were investigated in order to highlight potential pharmaceutical interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ioannis Sotiriou
- Laboratory of Pharmacology, Medical School, Democritus University of Thrace, Alexandroupolis 68100, Greece
| | | | - Christos Nikolaidis
- Laboratory of Pharmacology, Medical School, Democritus University of Thrace, Alexandroupolis 68100, Greece
| | | | - Ekaterini Chatzaki
- Laboratory of Pharmacology, Medical School, Democritus University of Thrace, Alexandroupolis 68100, Greece.
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22
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Koob GF. Antireward, compulsivity, and addiction: seminal contributions of Dr. Athina Markou to motivational dysregulation in addiction. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2017; 234:1315-1332. [PMID: 28050629 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-016-4484-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2016] [Accepted: 11/08/2016] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
RATIONALE AND OBJECTIVES Addiction is defined as a chronically relapsing disorder characterized by compulsive drug seeking that is hypothesized to derive from multiple sources of motivational dysregulation. METHODS AND RESULTS Dr. Athina Markou made seminal contributions to our understanding of the neurobiology of addiction with her studies on the dysregulation of reward function using animal models with construct validity. Repeated overstimulation of the reward systems with drugs of abuse decreases reward function, characterized by brain stimulation reward and presumbably reflecting dysphoria-like states. The construct of negative reinforcement, defined as drug taking that alleviates a negative emotional state that is created by drug abstinence, is particularly relevant as a driving force in both the withdrawal/negative affect and preoccupation/anticipation stages of the addiction cycle. CONCLUSIONS The negative emotional state that drives such negative reinforcement is hypothesized to derive from the dysregulation of key neurochemical circuits that drive incentive-salience/reward systems (dopamine, opioid peptides) in the ventral striatum and from the recruitment of brain stress systems (corticotropin-releasing factor, dynorphin) within the extended amygdala. As drug taking becomes compulsive-like, the factors that motivate behavior are hypothesized to shift to drug-seeking behavior that is driven not only by positive reinforcement but also by negative reinforcement. This shift in motivation is hypothesized to reflect the allostatic misregulation of hedonic tone such that drug taking makes the hedonic negative emotional state worse during the process of seeking temporary relief with compulsive drug taking.
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Affiliation(s)
- George F Koob
- National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, 5635 Fishers Lane, Room 2001, Suite 2000, Rockville, MD, 20852, USA.
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23
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Bruijnzeel AW. Neuropeptide systems and new treatments for nicotine addiction. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2017; 234:1419-1437. [PMID: 28028605 PMCID: PMC5420481 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-016-4513-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2016] [Accepted: 12/12/2016] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
RATIONALE The mildly euphoric and cognitive enhancing effects of nicotine play a role in the initiation of smoking, while dysphoria and anxiety associated with smoking cessation contribute to relapse. After the acute withdrawal phase, smoking cues, a few cigarettes (i.e., lapse), and stressors can cause relapse. Human and animal studies have shown that neuropeptides play a critical role in nicotine addiction. OBJECTIVES The goal of this paper is to describe the role of neuropeptide systems in the initiation of nicotine intake, nicotine withdrawal, and the reinstatement of extinguished nicotine seeking. RESULTS The reviewed studies indicate that several drugs that target neuropeptide systems diminish the rewarding effects of nicotine by preventing the activation of dopaminergic systems. Other peptide-based drugs diminish the hyperactivity of brain stress systems and diminish withdrawal-associated symptom severity. Blockade of hypocretin-1 and nociceptin receptors and stimulation of galanin and neurotensin receptors diminishes the rewarding effects of nicotine. Both corticotropin-releasing factor type 1 and kappa-opioid receptor antagonists diminish dysphoria and anxiety-like behavior associated with nicotine withdrawal and inhibit stress-induced reinstatement of nicotine seeking. Furthermore, blockade of vasopressin 1b receptors diminishes dysphoria during nicotine withdrawal, and melanocortin 4 receptor blockade prevents stress-induced reinstatement of nicotine seeking. The role of neuropeptide systems in nicotine-primed and cue-induced reinstatement is largely unexplored, but there is evidence for a role of hypocretin-1 receptors in cue-induced reinstatement of nicotine seeking. CONCLUSION Drugs that target neuropeptide systems might decrease the euphoric effects of smoking and improve relapse rates by diminishing withdrawal symptoms and improving stress resilience.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adriaan W. Bruijnzeel
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA,Department of Neuroscience, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA,Center for Addiction Research and Education, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA
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24
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Lee H, Jang M, Noh J. Oxytocin attenuates aversive response to nicotine and anxiety-like behavior in adolescent rats. Neurosci Res 2016; 115:29-36. [PMID: 27866932 DOI: 10.1016/j.neures.2016.11.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2016] [Revised: 10/02/2016] [Accepted: 11/16/2016] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Initial tobacco use is initiated with rewarding and aversive properties of nicotine and aversive response to nicotine plays a critical role in nicotine dependency. Decrease of nicotine aversion increases the nicotine use that causes behavioral and neuronal changes of animals. Oxytocin influences drug abuse and reciprocally affect vulnerability to drug use. To assess the effect of oxytocin on initial nicotine aversion and anxiety, we examined voluntary oral nicotine intake and anxiety-like behavior following oxytocin treatment in adolescent rats. Sprague-Dawley male rats (4 weeks old) were used. For oxytocin administration, rats were injected subcutaneously with saline or oxytocin (0.01, 0.1 and 1mg/kg) according to the assigned groups. Voluntary oral nicotine consumption test was performed by two bottle free-choice paradigm. To examine anxiety-like behavior in rats, we performed a light/dark box test. Oxytocin not only significantly increased the nicotine intake but also alleviated nicotine aversion after acclimation to nicotine solution in a concentration dependent manner. Meanwhile, oxytocin significantly reduced anxiety-like behavior. We suggest that oxytocin itself mitigates aversive response toward initial nicotine intake and anxiety-like behavior. These results widen the psychophysiological perspective on oxytocin for better understanding of nicotine addiction related behaviors influenced by diverse social factors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hyunchan Lee
- Department of Science Education, Dankook University, 152 Jukjeon-ro, Suji-gu, Yongin-si, Gyeonggi-do, 16890, Republic of Korea
| | - Minji Jang
- Department of Science Education, Dankook University, 152 Jukjeon-ro, Suji-gu, Yongin-si, Gyeonggi-do, 16890, Republic of Korea
| | - Jihyun Noh
- Department of Science Education, Dankook University, 152 Jukjeon-ro, Suji-gu, Yongin-si, Gyeonggi-do, 16890, Republic of Korea.
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25
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Bagosi Z, Palotai M, Simon B, Bokor P, Buzás A, Balangó B, Pintér D, Jászberényi M, Csabafi K, Szabó G. Selective CRF2 receptor agonists ameliorate the anxiety- and depression-like state developed during chronic nicotine treatment and consequent acute withdrawal in mice. Brain Res 2016; 1652:21-29. [PMID: 27693397 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2016.09.044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2016] [Revised: 09/21/2016] [Accepted: 09/28/2016] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
The aim of the present study was to investigate the effects of the selective agonists of the corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) 2 receptor, urocortin 2 (UCN 2) and urocortin 3 (UCN 3), on the anxiety- and depression-like signs induced by acute nicotine withdrawal in mice. In order to do so, male CFLP mice were exposed for 7 days to repeated intraperitoneal (IP) injection with nicotine or saline solution and 1day of acute withdrawal and then a single intracerebroventricular (ICV) injection with UCN 2, UCN 3 or saline solution. After 30min the mice were observed in an elevated plus-maze test or a forced swim test, for anxiety- and depression-like behavior. After 5min of testing, the plasma corticosterone concentration reflecting the activity of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis was also determined by a chemo-fluorescent method. Half of the animals were treated ICV and evaluated on the 8th day, the other half on the 9th day. On the 8th day, nicotine-treated mice presented signs of anxiolysis and depression, but no significant elevation of the plasma corticosterone concentration. On the 9th day, nicotine-treated mice exhibited signs of anxiety and depression and a significant increase of the plasma corticosterone levels. Central administration of UCN 2 or UCN 3 ameliorated the anxiety- and depression-like state including the hyperactivity of the HPA axis, developed during acute withdrawal following chronic nicotine treatment. The present study suggests that selective CRF2 receptor agonists could be used as a therapy in nicotine addiction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zsolt Bagosi
- Department of Pathophysiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Szeged, Hungary.
| | - Miklós Palotai
- Department of Pathophysiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Szeged, Hungary
| | - Balázs Simon
- Department of Pathophysiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Szeged, Hungary
| | - Péter Bokor
- Department of Pathophysiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Szeged, Hungary
| | - András Buzás
- Department of Pathophysiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Szeged, Hungary
| | - Beáta Balangó
- Department of Pathophysiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Szeged, Hungary
| | - Dávid Pintér
- Department of Pathophysiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Szeged, Hungary
| | - Miklós Jászberényi
- Department of Pathophysiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Szeged, Hungary
| | - Krisztina Csabafi
- Department of Pathophysiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Szeged, Hungary
| | - Gyula Szabó
- Department of Pathophysiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Szeged, Hungary
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Targeting the Brain Stress Systems for the Treatment of Tobacco/Nicotine Dependence: Translating Preclinical and Clinical Findings. CURRENT ADDICTION REPORTS 2016; 3:314-322. [PMID: 31275802 DOI: 10.1007/s40429-016-0115-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
Tobacco use is the leading cause of preventable mortality in the United States, and Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved medications fail to maintain long-term abstinence for the majority of smokers. One of the principal mechanisms associated with the initiation, maintenance of, and relapse to smoking is stress. Targeting the brain stress systems as a potential treatment strategy for tobacco dependence may be of therapeutic benefit. This review explores brain stress systems in tobacco use and dependence. The corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) system, the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, and the noradrenergic system are discussed in relation to tobacco use. Preclinical and clinical investigations targeting these stress systems as treatment strategies for stress-induced tobacco use are also discussed. Overall, nicotine-induced activation of the CRF system, and subsequent activation of the HPA axis and noradrenergic system may be related to stress-induced nicotine-motivated behaviors. Pharmacological agents that decrease stress-induced hyperactivation of these brain stress systems may improve smoking-related outcomes.
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27
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Jee C, Goncalves JF, LeBoeuf B, Garcia LR. CRF-like receptor SEB-3 in sex-common interneurons potentiates stress handling and reproductive drive in C. elegans. Nat Commun 2016; 7:11957. [PMID: 27321013 PMCID: PMC4915151 DOI: 10.1038/ncomms11957] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2015] [Accepted: 05/13/2016] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Environmental conditions can modulate innate behaviours. Although male Caenorhabditis elegans copulation can be perturbed in the presence of stress, the mechanisms underlying its decision to sustain copulation are unclear. Here we describe a mating interference assay, which quantifies the persistence of male C. elegans copulation in noxious blue light. We show that between copulations, the male escapes from blue light illumination at intensities over 370 μW mm−2. This response is attenuated in mutants with constitutive activation of the corticotropin-releasing factor receptor family homologue SEB-3. We show that activation of this receptor causes sex-common glutamatergic lumbar ganglion interneurons (LUA) to potentiate downstream male-specific reproduction circuits, allowing copulatory behaviours to partially override the light-induced escape responses in the male. SEB-3 activation in LUA also potentiates copulation during mild starvation. We suggest that SEB-3 activation allows C. elegans to acclimate to the environment and thus continue to execute innate behaviours even under non-optimal conditions. Innate animal behaviours can be negatively regulated by environmental stressors. Jee et al. show that suppression of male C. elegans copulation behaviour by noxious light can be overcome by activation of SEB-3, a homologue of the stress-associated mammalian corticotropin-releasing factor receptor family.
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Affiliation(s)
- Changhoon Jee
- Department of Biology, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Texas A&M University, 3258 TAMU, College Station, Texas 77843-3258, USA
| | - Jimmy F Goncalves
- Department of Biology, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Texas A&M University, 3258 TAMU, College Station, Texas 77843-3258, USA
| | - Brigitte LeBoeuf
- Department of Biology, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Texas A&M University, 3258 TAMU, College Station, Texas 77843-3258, USA
| | - L Rene Garcia
- Department of Biology, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Texas A&M University, 3258 TAMU, College Station, Texas 77843-3258, USA
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Matchynski-Franks JJ, Susick LL, Schneider BL, Perrine SA, Conti AC. Impaired Ethanol-Induced Sensitization and Decreased Cannabinoid Receptor-1 in a Model of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0155759. [PMID: 27186643 PMCID: PMC4871361 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0155759] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2015] [Accepted: 04/13/2016] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Background and Purpose Impaired striatal neuroplasticity may underlie increased alcoholism documented in those with posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Cannabinoid receptor-1 (CB1) is sensitive to the effects of ethanol (EtOH) and traumatic stress, and is a critical regulator of striatal plasticity. To investigate CB1 involvement in the PTSD-alcohol interaction, this study measured the effects of traumatic stress using a model of PTSD, mouse single-prolonged stress (mSPS), on EtOH-induced locomotor sensitization and striatal CB1 levels. Methods Mice were exposed to mSPS, which includes: 2-h restraint, 10-min group forced swim, 15-min exposure to rat bedding odor, and diethyl ether exposure until unconsciousness or control conditions. Seven days following mSPS exposure, the locomotor sensitizing effects of EtOH were assessed. CB1, post-synaptic density-95 (PSD95), and dopamine-2 receptor (D2) protein levels were then quantified in the dorsal striatum using standard immunoblotting techniques. Results Mice exposed to mSPS-EtOH demonstrated impaired EtOH-induced locomotor sensitization compared to Control-EtOH mice, which was accompanied by reduced striatal CB1 levels. EtOH increased striatal PSD95 in control and mSPS-exposed mice. Additionally, mSPS-Saline exposure increased striatal PSD95 and decreased D2 protein expression, with mSPS-EtOH exposure alleviating these changes. Conclusions These data indicate that the mSPS model of PTSD blunts the behavioral sensitizing effects of EtOH, a response that suggests impaired striatal neuroplasticity. Additionally, this study demonstrates that mice exposed to mSPS and repeated EtOH exposure decreases CB1 in the striatum, providing a mechanism of interest for understanding the effects of EtOH following severe, multimodal stress exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica J. Matchynski-Franks
- Research Service, John D. Dingell VA Medical Center, Detroit, Michigan, United States of America
- Department of Neurosurgery, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, Michigan, United States of America
| | - Laura L. Susick
- Research Service, John D. Dingell VA Medical Center, Detroit, Michigan, United States of America
- Department of Neurosurgery, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, Michigan, United States of America
| | - Brandy L. Schneider
- Research Service, John D. Dingell VA Medical Center, Detroit, Michigan, United States of America
- Department of Neurosurgery, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, Michigan, United States of America
| | - Shane A. Perrine
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neurosciences, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, Michigan, United States of America
| | - Alana C. Conti
- Research Service, John D. Dingell VA Medical Center, Detroit, Michigan, United States of America
- Department of Neurosurgery, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, Michigan, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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A Two-Day Continuous Nicotine Infusion Is Sufficient to Demonstrate Nicotine Withdrawal in Rats as Measured Using Intracranial Self-Stimulation. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0144553. [PMID: 26658557 PMCID: PMC4684239 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0144553] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2015] [Accepted: 11/19/2015] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Avoidance of the negative affective (emotional) symptoms of nicotine withdrawal (e.g., anhedonia, anxiety) contributes to tobacco addiction. Establishing the minimal nicotine exposure conditions required to demonstrate negative affective withdrawal signs in animals, as well as understanding moderators of these conditions, could inform tobacco addiction-related research, treatment, and policy. The goal of this study was to determine the minimal duration of continuous nicotine infusion required to demonstrate nicotine withdrawal in rats as measured by elevations in intracranial self-stimulation (ICSS) thresholds (anhedonia-like behavior). Administration of the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor antagonist mecamylamine (3.0 mg/kg, s.c.) on alternate test days throughout the course of a 2-week continuous nicotine infusion (3.2 mg/kg/day via osmotic minipump) elicited elevations in ICSS thresholds beginning on the second day of infusion. Magnitude of antagonist-precipitated withdrawal did not change with further nicotine exposure and mecamylamine injections, and was similar to that observed in a positive control group receiving mecamylamine following a 14-day nicotine infusion. Expression of a significant withdrawal effect was delayed in nicotine-infused rats receiving mecamylamine on all test days rather than on alternate test days. In a separate study, rats exhibited a transient increase in ICSS thresholds following cessation of a 2-day continuous nicotine infusion (3.2 mg/kg/day). Magnitude of this spontaneous withdrawal effect was similar to that observed in rats receiving a 9-day nicotine infusion. Our findings demonstrate that rats exhibit antagonist-precipitated and spontaneous nicotine withdrawal following a 2-day continuous nicotine infusion, at least under the experimental conditions studied here. Magnitude of these effects were similar to those observed in traditional models involving more prolonged nicotine exposure. Further development of these models, including evaluation of more clinically relevant nicotine dosing regimens and other measures of nicotine withdrawal (e.g., anxiety-like behavior, somatic signs), may be useful for understanding the development of the nicotine withdrawal syndrome.
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Koob GF, Mason BJ. Existing and Future Drugs for the Treatment of the Dark Side of Addiction. Annu Rev Pharmacol Toxicol 2015; 56:299-322. [PMID: 26514207 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-pharmtox-010715-103143] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
The identification of a heuristic framework for the stages of the addiction cycle that are linked to neurocircuitry changes in pathophysiology includes the binge/intoxication stage, the withdrawal/negative affect stage, and the preoccupation/anticipation (craving) stage, which represent neuroadaptations in three neurocircuits (basal ganglia, extended amygdala, and frontal cortex, respectively). The identification of excellent and validated animal models, the development of human laboratory models, and an enormous surge in our understanding of neurocircuitry and neuropharmacological mechanisms have provided a revisionist view of addiction that emphasizes the loss of brain reward function and gain of stress function that drive negative reinforcement (the dark side of addiction) as a key to compulsive drug seeking. Reversing the dark side of addiction not only explains much of the existing successful pharmacotherapies for addiction but also points to vast new opportunities for future medications to alleviate this major source of human suffering.
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Affiliation(s)
- George F Koob
- Committee on the Neurobiology of Addictive Disorders, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, California 92037; ,
| | - Barbara J Mason
- Committee on the Neurobiology of Addictive Disorders, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, California 92037; ,
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Qi X, Guzhva L, Ji Y, Bruijnzeel AW. Chronic treatment with the vasopressin 1b receptor antagonist SSR149415 prevents the dysphoria associated with nicotine withdrawal in rats. Behav Brain Res 2015; 292:259-65. [PMID: 26112757 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2015.06.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2015] [Revised: 06/15/2015] [Accepted: 06/19/2015] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Nicotine addiction is a chronic brain disorder that is characterized by dysphoria upon smoking cessation and relapse after brief periods of abstinence. It has been hypothesized that the negative mood state associated with nicotine withdrawal is partly mediated by a heightened activity of brain stress systems. Animal studies suggest that blockade of vasopressin 1b (V1b) receptors diminishes high levels of drug intake in dependent animals and attenuates the emotional response to stressors. The goal of the present studies was to investigate the effect of acute and chronic treatment with the V1b receptor antagonist SSR149415 on the negative mood state associated with nicotine withdrawal in rats. An intracranial self-stimulation (ICSS) procedure was used to assess mood states and nicotine dependence was induced using minipumps. The nicotinic receptor antagonist mecamylamine was used to precipitate withdrawal. Mecamylamine elevated the brain reward thresholds of the nicotine dependent rats, which reflects a negative mood state. Mecamylamine did not affect the brain reward thresholds of the saline-treated control rats. Chronic treatment with SSR149415 completely prevented the elevations in brain reward thresholds associated with nicotine withdrawal while acute treatment only partly prevented nicotine withdrawal. These data suggest that chronic treatment with V1b receptor antagonists may prevent the dysphoria associated with smoking cessation and thereby improve relapse rates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoli Qi
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA
| | - Lidia Guzhva
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA
| | - Yue Ji
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA
| | - Adriaan W Bruijnzeel
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA; Department of Neuroscience, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA
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Kirshenbaum A, Green J, Fay M, Parks A, Phillips J, Stone J, Roy T. Reinforcer devaluation as a consequence of acute nicotine exposure and withdrawal. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2015; 232:1583-94. [PMID: 25401169 PMCID: PMC4397123 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-014-3792-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2014] [Accepted: 10/24/2014] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE Nicotine discontinuation produces behaviors in rats that are congruent with anhedonia, and these symptoms may be related to the devaluation of non-nicotine reinforcers. OBJECTIVE Four separate experiments were performed to explore the parameters surrounding nicotine-induced reinforcer devaluation. METHODS In Experiments 1 and 2, nicotine (0.1 or 0.3 mg/kg) or 0.3 mg/kg nicotine plus 1.0 mg/kg mecamylamine was delivered to rats prior to progressive ratio (PR) schedule sessions in which sucrose was used as a reinforcer. In order to evaluate (a) reinforcer enhancement by nicotine and (b) reinforcer devaluation in the absence of nicotine, all rats experienced two PR schedule sessions per day for 10 days. Experiment 3 involved nicotine (0.3 mg/kg) and a visual stimulus in place of sucrose reinforcement. In Experiment 4, rats received nicotine (0.3 mg/kg) either before or after a single PR schedule session for 10 days. RESULTS Experiments 1 and 2 demonstrate that reinforcer devaluation is related to the occupation of nicotinic-acetylcholine receptors. Results from Experiment 3 provide some evidence that devaluation occurs with either sucrose or visual-stimulus reinforcement. Experiment 4 demonstrates that a necessary condition for reinforcer devaluation to occur is the concurrent exposure to the reinforcer and nicotine. CONCLUSIONS Reinforcer devaluation in rats emerges rapidly in a progressive, orderly fashion that coincides with accumulated exposure to nicotine. These results suggest that reinforcer devaluation may be a feature of nicotine that contributes to the abuse liability of tobacco products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ari Kirshenbaum
- Department of Psychology, Saint Michael's College, 1 Winooski Park Avenue, Colchester, VT, 05439-0001, USA,
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Koob GF. The dark side of emotion: the addiction perspective. Eur J Pharmacol 2015; 753:73-87. [PMID: 25583178 PMCID: PMC4380644 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2014.11.044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 232] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2014] [Revised: 11/06/2014] [Accepted: 11/26/2014] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Emotions are "feeling" states and classic physiological emotive responses that are interpreted based on the history of the organism and the context. Motivation is a persistent state that leads to organized activity. Both are intervening variables and intimately related and have neural representations in the brain. The present thesis is that drugs of abuse elicit powerful emotions that can be interwoven conceptually into this framework. Such emotions range from pronounced euphoria to a devastating negative emotional state that in the extreme can create a break with homeostasis and thus an allostatic hedonic state that has been considered key to the etiology and maintenance of the pathophysiology of addiction. Drug addiction can be defined as a three-stage cycle-binge/intoxication, withdrawal/negative affect, and preoccupation/anticipation-that involves allostatic changes in the brain reward and stress systems. Two primary sources of reinforcement, positive and negative reinforcement, have been hypothesized to play a role in this allostatic process. The negative emotional state that drives negative reinforcement is hypothesized to derive from dysregulation of key neurochemical elements involved in the brain incentive salience and stress systems. Specific neurochemical elements in these structures include not only decreases in incentive salience system function in the ventral striatum (within-system opponent processes) but also recruitment of the brain stress systems mediated by corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF), dynorphin-κ opioid systems, and norepinephrine, vasopressin, hypocretin, and substance P in the extended amygdala (between-system opponent processes). Neuropeptide Y, a powerful anti-stress neurotransmitter, has a profile of action on compulsive-like responding for drugs similar to a CRF1 receptor antagonist. Other stress buffers include nociceptin and endocannabinoids, which may also work through interactions with the extended amygdala. The thesis argued here is that the brain has specific neurochemical neurocircuitry coded by the hedonic extremes of pleasant and unpleasant emotions that have been identified through the study of opponent processes in the domain of addiction. These neurochemical systems need to be considered in the context of the framework that emotions involve the specific brain regions now identified to differentially interpreting emotive physiological expression.
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Affiliation(s)
- George F Koob
- National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, Washington, DC, USA.
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Qi X, Yamada H, Corrie LW, Ji Y, Bauzo RM, Alexander JC, Bruijnzeel AW. A critical role for the melanocortin 4 receptor in stress-induced relapse to nicotine seeking in rats. Addict Biol 2015; 20:324-35. [PMID: 24612112 DOI: 10.1111/adb.12129] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Tobacco addiction is characterized by a lack of control over smoking and relapse after periods of abstinence. Smoking cessation leads to a dysphoric state that contributes to relapse to smoking. After the acute withdrawal phase, exposure to stressors increases the risk for relapse. Blockade of melanocortin 4 (MC4 ) receptors has anxiolytic and antidepressant-like effects in animal models. The aim of these studies was to investigate the role of MC4 receptors in the dysphoria associated with nicotine withdrawal and stress-induced reinstatement of nicotine seeking. To study stress-induced reinstatement, rats self-administered nicotine for 16 days and then nicotine seeking was extinguished by substituting saline for nicotine. Nicotine seeking was reinstated by intermittent footshock stress. The intracranial self-stimulation (ICSS) procedure was used to assess the negative mood state associated with nicotine withdrawal. Elevations in the ICSS thresholds are indicative of a dysphoric state. The selective MC4 receptor antagonists HS014 and HS024 prevented stress-induced reinstatement of extinguished nicotine seeking. Drug doses that prevented stress-induced relapse did not affect responding for food pellets, which indicates that the drugs did not induce sedation or motor impairments. In the ICSS experiments, the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor antagonist mecamylamine elevated the ICSS thresholds of the nicotine-dependent rats. Pre-treatment with HS014 or HS024 did not prevent the elevations in ICSS thresholds. These studies indicate that MC4 receptors play a critical role in stress-induced reinstatement of nicotine seeking, but these receptors may not play a role in the dysphoria associated with acute nicotine withdrawal.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoli Qi
- Department of Psychiatry; McKnight Brain Institute; University of Florida; Gainesville FL USA
| | - Hidetaka Yamada
- Department of Psychiatry; McKnight Brain Institute; University of Florida; Gainesville FL USA
| | - Lu W. Corrie
- Department of Psychiatry; McKnight Brain Institute; University of Florida; Gainesville FL USA
| | - Yue Ji
- Department of Psychiatry; McKnight Brain Institute; University of Florida; Gainesville FL USA
| | - Rayna M. Bauzo
- Department of Psychiatry; McKnight Brain Institute; University of Florida; Gainesville FL USA
| | - Jon C. Alexander
- Department of Psychiatry; McKnight Brain Institute; University of Florida; Gainesville FL USA
| | - Adrie W. Bruijnzeel
- Department of Psychiatry; McKnight Brain Institute; University of Florida; Gainesville FL USA
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Bruijnzeel AW, Alexander JC, Perez PD, Bauzo-Rodriguez R, Hall G, Klausner R, Guerra V, Zeng H, Igari M, Febo M. Acute nicotine administration increases BOLD fMRI signal in brain regions involved in reward signaling and compulsive drug intake in rats. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol 2014; 18:pyu011. [PMID: 25552431 PMCID: PMC4368882 DOI: 10.1093/ijnp/pyu011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Acute nicotine administration potentiates brain reward function and enhances motor and cognitive function. These studies investigated which brain areas are being activated by a wide range of doses of nicotine, and if this is diminished by pretreatment with the nonselective nicotinic receptor antagonist mecamylamine. METHODS Drug-induced changes in brain activity were assessed by measuring changes in the blood oxygen level dependent (BOLD) signal using an 11.1-Tesla magnetic resonance scanner. In the first experiment, nicotine naïve rats were mildly anesthetized and the effect of nicotine (0.03-0.6 mg/kg) on the BOLD signal was investigated for 10 min. In the second experiment, the effect of mecamylamine on nicotine-induced brain activity was investigated. RESULTS A high dose of nicotine increased the BOLD signal in brain areas implicated in reward signaling, such as the nucleus accumbens shell and the prelimbic area. Nicotine also induced a dose-dependent increase in the BOLD signal in the striato-thalamo-orbitofrontal circuit, which plays a role in compulsive drug intake, and in the insular cortex, which contributes to nicotine craving and relapse. In addition, nicotine induced a large increase in the BOLD signal in motor and somatosensory cortices. Mecamylamine alone did not affect the BOLD signal in most brain areas, but induced a negative BOLD response in cortical areas, including insular, motor, and somatosensory cortices. Pretreatment with mecamylamine completely blocked the nicotine-induced increase in the BOLD signal. CONCLUSIONS These studies demonstrate that acute nicotine administration activates brain areas that play a role in reward signaling, compulsive behavior, and motor and cognitive function.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Pablo D. Perez
- * These two authors equally contributed to the present work
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Jackson KJ, Muldoon PP, De Biasi M, Damaj MI. New mechanisms and perspectives in nicotine withdrawal. Neuropharmacology 2014; 96:223-34. [PMID: 25433149 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2014.11.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2014] [Revised: 10/21/2014] [Accepted: 11/17/2014] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Diseases associated with tobacco use constitute a major health problem worldwide. Upon cessation of tobacco use, an unpleasant withdrawal syndrome occurs in dependent individuals. Avoidance of the negative state produced by nicotine withdrawal represents a motivational component that promotes continued tobacco use and relapse after smoking cessation. With the modest success rate of currently available smoking cessation therapies, understanding mechanisms involved in the nicotine withdrawal syndrome are crucial for developing successful treatments. Animal models provide a useful tool for examining neuroadaptative mechanisms and factors influencing nicotine withdrawal, including sex, age, and genetic factors. Such research has also identified an important role for nicotinic receptor subtypes in different aspects of the nicotine withdrawal syndrome (e.g., physical vs. affective signs). In addition to nicotinic receptors, the opioid and endocannabinoid systems, various signal transduction pathways, neurotransmitters, and neuropeptides have been implicated in the nicotine withdrawal syndrome. Animal studies have informed human studies of genetic variants and potential targets for smoking cessation therapies. Overall, the available literature indicates that the nicotine withdrawal syndrome is complex, and involves a range of neurobiological mechanisms. As research in nicotine withdrawal progresses, new pharmacological options for smokers attempting to quit can be identified, and treatments with fewer side effects that are better tailored to the unique characteristics of patients may become available. This article is part of the Special Issue entitled 'The Nicotinic Acetylcholine Receptor: From Molecular Biology to Cognition'.
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Affiliation(s)
- K J Jackson
- Department of Psychiatry, Virginia Commonwealth University, 800 E. Leigh St., Richmond, VA 23219, USA
| | - P P Muldoon
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Virginia Commonwealth University, 1220 E. Marshall St., Richmond, VA 23219, USA
| | - M De Biasi
- Department of Psychiatry, Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - M I Damaj
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Virginia Commonwealth University, 1220 E. Marshall St., Richmond, VA 23219, USA.
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Corticotropin releasing factor: a key role in the neurobiology of addiction. Front Neuroendocrinol 2014; 35:234-44. [PMID: 24456850 PMCID: PMC4213066 DOI: 10.1016/j.yfrne.2014.01.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 176] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2013] [Revised: 01/03/2014] [Accepted: 01/06/2014] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Drug addiction is a chronically relapsing disorder characterized by loss of control over intake and dysregulation of stress-related brain emotional systems. Since the discovery by Wylie Vale and his colleagues of corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) and the structurally-related urocortins, CRF systems have emerged as mediators of the body's response to stress. Relatedly, CRF systems have a prominent role in driving addiction via actions in the central extended amygdala, producing anxiety-like behavior, reward deficits, excessive, compulsive-like drug self-administration and stress-induced reinstatement of drug seeking. CRF neuron activation in the medial prefrontal cortex may also contribute to the loss of control. Polymorphisms in CRF system molecules are associated with drug use phenotypes in humans, often in interaction with stress history. Drug discovery efforts have yielded brain-penetrant CRF1 antagonists with activity in preclinical models of addiction. The results support the hypothesis that brain CRF-CRF1 systems contribute to the etiology and maintenance of addiction.
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Influence of calcium channel antagonists on nonsomatic signs of nicotine and D-amphetamine withdrawal in mice. Pharmacol Rep 2014; 66:212-22. [PMID: 24911072 DOI: 10.1016/j.pharep.2014.02.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2013] [Revised: 08/13/2013] [Accepted: 09/06/2013] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Nonsomatic signs of psychostimulant withdrawal, difficult to demonstrate in animal paradigms, may appear to promote drug seeking and drug relapse in humans; thus, it is important to understand the mechanisms that mediate this kind of behaviors. The present study was undertaken to examine the calcium-dependent mechanism of negative nonsomatic and anhedonia-related symptoms of acute and protracted withdrawal of nicotine and D-amphetamine. METHODS Mice were chronically treated with nicotine (seven days, three times daily, 3.35 mg/kg, sc) or D-amphetamine (14 days, once daily, 2.5mg/kg, ip). Then, at the first, seventh or 14th day of withdrawal, anxiety- or depression-related effects, as well as cognition or nociception were studied. RESULTS Our results demonstrated that, at the seventh or 14th day of D-amphetamine or nicotine withdrawal, respectively, mice exhibited increased anxiety and depression-like effects, memory impairment and hyperalgesia. Further, major findings showed that calcium channel antagonists, i.e., nimodipine, verapamil and flunarizine (10 and 20mg/kg, ip), injected before the test, attenuated above-mentioned signs of drug withdrawal. CONCLUSIONS As an outcome, these findings support the hypothesis that similar calcium-dependent mechanisms are involved in an aversive nonsomatic component, associated with nicotine or d-amphetamine withdrawal. We can suggest that calcium channel blockers have potential to alleviate drug withdrawal and may thus be beneficial as pharmacotherapy of drug cessation and relapse.
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Varenicline and cytisine diminish the dysphoric-like state associated with spontaneous nicotine withdrawal in rats. Neuropsychopharmacology 2014; 39:455-65. [PMID: 23966067 PMCID: PMC3870769 DOI: 10.1038/npp.2013.216] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2013] [Revised: 08/07/2013] [Accepted: 08/11/2013] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Tobacco addiction is characterized by a negative mood state upon smoking cessation and relapse after periods of abstinence. Clinical studies indicate that negative mood states lead to craving and relapse. The partial α4/α6/β2* nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR) agonists varenicline and cytisine are widely used as smoking cessation treatments. Varenicline has been approved in the United States for smoking cessation and cytisine is used in Eastern European countries. Despite the widespread use of these compounds, very little is known about their effects on mood states. These studies investigated the effects of varenicline, cytisine, and the cytisine-derivative 3-(pyridin-3'-yl)-cytisine (3-pyr-Cyt) on brain reward function in nicotine-naive and nicotine-withdrawing rats. The cytisine-derivative 3-pyr-Cyt is a very weak α4β2* nAChR partial agonist and like cytisine and varenicline has antidepressant-like effects in animal models. The intracranial self-stimulation (ICSS) procedure was used to investigate the effects of these compounds on brain reward function. Elevations in ICSS thresholds reflect a dysphoric state and a lowering of thresholds is indicative of a potentiation of brain reward function. It was shown that acute administration of nicotine and varenicline lowered ICSS thresholds. Acute administration of cytisine or 3-pyr-Cyt did not affect ICSS thresholds. Discontinuation of chronic, 14 days, nicotine administration led to elevations in ICSS thresholds that lasted for about 2 days. Varenicline and cytisine, but not 3-pyr-Cyt, diminished the nicotine withdrawal-induced elevations in ICSS thresholds. In conclusion, these studies indicate that varenicline and cytisine diminish the dysphoric-like state associated with nicotine withdrawal and may thereby prevent relapse to smoking in humans.
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Koob GF, Buck CL, Cohen A, Edwards S, Park PE, Schlosburg JE, Schmeichel B, Vendruscolo LF, Wade CL, Whitfield TW, George O. Addiction as a stress surfeit disorder. Neuropharmacology 2014; 76 Pt B:370-82. [PMID: 23747571 PMCID: PMC3830720 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2013.05.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 344] [Impact Index Per Article: 34.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2013] [Revised: 05/22/2013] [Accepted: 05/28/2013] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Drug addiction has been conceptualized as a chronically relapsing disorder of compulsive drug seeking and taking that progresses through three stages: binge/intoxication, withdrawal/negative affect, and preoccupation/anticipation. Drug addiction impacts multiple motivational mechanisms and can be conceptualized as a disorder that progresses from positive reinforcement (binge/intoxication stage) to negative reinforcement (withdrawal/negative affect stage). The construct of negative reinforcement is defined as drug taking that alleviates a negative emotional state. Our hypothesis is that the negative emotional state that drives such negative reinforcement is derived from dysregulation of key neurochemical elements involved in the brain stress systems within the frontal cortex, ventral striatum, and extended amygdala. Specific neurochemical elements in these structures include not only recruitment of the classic stress axis mediated by corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) in the extended amygdala as previously hypothesized but also recruitment of dynorphin-κ opioid aversive systems in the ventral striatum and extended amygdala. Additionally, we hypothesized that these brain stress systems may be engaged in the frontal cortex early in the addiction process. Excessive drug taking engages activation of CRF not only in the extended amygdala, accompanied by anxiety-like states, but also in the medial prefrontal cortex, accompanied by deficits in executive function that may facilitate the transition to compulsive-like responding. Excessive activation of the nucleus accumbens via the release of mesocorticolimbic dopamine or activation of opioid receptors has long been hypothesized to subsequently activate the dynorphin-κ opioid system, which in turn can decrease dopaminergic activity in the mesocorticolimbic dopamine system. Blockade of the κ opioid system can also block anxiety-like and reward deficits associated with withdrawal from drugs of abuse and block the development of compulsive-like responding during extended access to drugs of abuse, suggesting another powerful brain stress/anti-reward system that contributes to compulsive drug seeking. Thus, brain stress response systems are hypothesized to be activated by acute excessive drug intake, to be sensitized during repeated withdrawal, to persist into protracted abstinence, and to contribute to the development and persistence of addiction. The recruitment of anti-reward systems provides a powerful neurochemical basis for the negative emotional states that are responsible for the dark side of addiction. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled 'NIDA 40th Anniversary Issue'.
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Affiliation(s)
- George F Koob
- Committee on the Neurobiology of Addictive Disorders, The Scripps Research Institute, 10550 North Torrey Pines Road, SP30-2400, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA.
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41
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Effects of oxytocin on nicotine withdrawal in rats. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2014; 116:84-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2013.11.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2013] [Revised: 10/31/2013] [Accepted: 11/07/2013] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
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Li X, Semenova S, D'Souza MS, Stoker AK, Markou A. Involvement of glutamatergic and GABAergic systems in nicotine dependence: Implications for novel pharmacotherapies for smoking cessation. Neuropharmacology 2014; 76 Pt B:554-65. [PMID: 23752091 PMCID: PMC3830589 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2013.05.042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2013] [Revised: 05/14/2013] [Accepted: 05/15/2013] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
Tobacco smoking continues to be a major global health hazard despite significant public awareness of its harmful consequences. Although several treatment options are currently available for smoking cessation, these medications are effective in only a small subset of smokers, and relapse rates continue to be high. Therefore, a better understanding of the neurobiological mechanisms that mediate tobacco dependence is essential for the development of effective smoking cessation medications. Nicotine is the primary psychoactive component of tobacco that drives the harmful tobacco smoking habit. Nicotine binds to nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) in the brain, resulting in the release of a wide range of neurotransmitters, including glutamate and γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA). This review article focuses on the role of the excitatory glutamate system and inhibitory GABA system in nicotine dependence. Accumulating evidence suggests that blockade of glutamatergic transmission or facilitation of GABAergic transmission attenuates the positive reinforcing and incentive motivational aspects of nicotine, inhibits the reward-enhancing and conditioned rewarding effects of nicotine, and blocks nicotine-seeking behavior. Chronic nicotine exposure produced long-term neuroadaptations that contribute to nicotine withdrawal, but the role of GABA and glutamate transmission in nicotine withdrawal is less understood. Overall, the findings presented in this review provide strong converging evidence for the potential effectiveness of glutamatergic and GABAergic medications in nicotine dependence. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled 'NIDA 40th Anniversary Issue'.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Astrid K. Stoker
- Department of Psychiatry, School of Medicine, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Athina Markou
- Department of Psychiatry, School of Medicine, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
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Abstract
Drug addiction can be defined by a three-stage cycle - binge/intoxication, withdrawal/negative affect, and preoccupation/anticipation - that involves allostatic changes in the brain reward and stress systems. Two primary sources of reinforcement, positive and negative reinforcement, have been hypothesized to play a role in this allostatic process. The negative emotional state that drives negative reinforcement is hypothesized to derive from dysregulation of key neurochemical elements involved in the brain reward and stress systems. Specific neurochemical elements in these structures include not only decreases in reward system function (within-system opponent processes) but also recruitment of the brain stress systems mediated by corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) and dynorphin-κ opioid systems in the ventral striatum, extended amygdala, and frontal cortex (both between-system opponent processes). CRF antagonists block anxiety-like responses associated with withdrawal, block increases in reward thresholds produced by withdrawal from drugs of abuse, and block compulsive-like drug taking during extended access. Excessive drug taking also engages the activation of CRF in the medial prefrontal cortex, paralleled by deficits in executive function that may facilitate the transition to compulsive-like responding. Neuropeptide Y, a powerful anti-stress neurotransmitter, has a profile of action on compulsive-like responding for ethanol similar to a CRF1 antagonist. Blockade of the κ opioid system can also block dysphoric-like effects associated with withdrawal from drugs of abuse and block the development of compulsive-like responding during extended access to drugs of abuse, suggesting another powerful brain stress system that contributes to compulsive drug seeking. The loss of reward function and recruitment of brain systems provide a powerful neurochemical basis that drives the compulsivity of addiction.
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Affiliation(s)
- George F. Koob
- Committee on the Neurobiology of Addictive Disorders, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA, USA
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44
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A mechanistic hypothesis of the factors that enhance vulnerability to nicotine use in females. Neuropharmacology 2013; 76 Pt B:566-80. [PMID: 23684991 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2013.04.055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2013] [Revised: 04/24/2013] [Accepted: 04/29/2013] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
Women are particularly more vulnerable to tobacco use than men. This review proposes a unifying hypothesis that females experience greater rewarding effects of nicotine and more intense stress produced by withdrawal than males. We also provide a neural framework whereby estrogen promotes greater rewarding effects of nicotine in females via enhanced dopamine release in the nucleus accumbens (NAcc). During withdrawal, we suggest that corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) stress systems are sensitized and promote a greater suppression of dopamine release in the NAcc of females versus males. Taken together, females display enhanced nicotine reward via estrogen and amplified effects of withdrawal via stress systems. Although this framework focuses on sex differences in adult rats, it is also applied to adolescent females who display enhanced rewarding effects of nicotine, but reduced effects of withdrawal from this drug. Since females experience strong rewarding effects of nicotine, a clinical implication of our hypothesis is that specific strategies to prevent smoking initiation among females are critical. Also, anxiolytic medications may be more effective in females that experience intense stress during withdrawal. Furthermore, medications that target withdrawal should not be applied in a unilateral manner across age and sex, given that nicotine withdrawal is lower during adolescence. This review highlights key factors that promote nicotine use in females, and future studies on sex-dependent interactions of stress and reward systems are needed to test our mechanistic hypotheses. Future studies in this area will have important translational value toward reducing health disparities produced by nicotine use in females. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled 'NIDA 40th Anniversary Issue'.
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Blum K, Oscar-Berman M, Barh D, Giordano J, Gold MS. Dopamine Genetics and Function in Food and Substance Abuse. JOURNAL OF GENETIC SYNDROMES & GENE THERAPY 2013; 4:1000121. [PMID: 23543775 PMCID: PMC3609029 DOI: 10.4172/2157-7412.1000121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Having entered the genomics era with confidence in the future of medicine, including psychiatry, identifying the role of DNA and polymorphic associations with brain reward circuitry has led to a new understanding of all addictive behaviors. It is noteworthy that this strategy may provide treatment for the millions who are the victims of "Reward Deficiency Syndrome" (RDS) a genetic disorder of brain reward circuitry. This article will focus on drugs and food being mutuality addictive, and the role of dopamine genetics and function in addictions, including the interaction of the dopamine transporter, and sodium food. We will briefly review our concept that concerns the genetic antecedents of multiple-addictions (RDS). Studies have also shown that evaluating a panel of established reward genes and polymorphisms enables the stratification of genetic risk to RDS. The panel is called the "Genetic Addiction Risk Score (GARS)", and is a tool for the diagnosis of a genetic predisposition for RDS. The use of this test, as pointed out by others, would benefit the medical community by identifying at risk individuals at a very early age. We encourage, in depth work in both animal and human models of addiction. We encourage further exploration of the neurogenetic correlates of the commonalities between food and drug addiction and endorse forward thinking hypotheses like "The Salted Food Addiction Hypothesis".
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Affiliation(s)
- K Blum
- Department of Psychiatry & McKnight Brain Institute, College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA
- Centre for Genomics and Applied Gene Technology, Institute of Integrative Omics and Applied Biotechnology (IIOAB), Nonakuri, Purba Medinipur, West Bengal, India
- Department of Nutrigenomics, LifeGen, Inc., Austin, Texas, USA
| | - M Oscar-Berman
- Department of Anatomy & Neurobiology, Boston University School of Medicine, 72 East Concord Street, Boston, MA, USA
| | - D Barh
- Centre for Genomics and Applied Gene Technology, Institute of Integrative Omics and Applied Biotechnology (IIOAB), Nonakuri, Purba Medinipur, West Bengal, India
| | - J Giordano
- Department of Holistic Medicine, G & G Health Care Services LLC, North Miami Beach, FL, USA
| | - MS Gold
- Department of Psychiatry & McKnight Brain Institute, College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA
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Harris AC, Manbeck KE, Schmidt CE, Shelley D. Mecamylamine elicits withdrawal-like signs in rats following a single dose of nicotine. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2013; 225:291-302. [PMID: 22868410 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-012-2814-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2012] [Accepted: 07/16/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE The ability of nicotine to induce dependence (result in a withdrawal syndrome) is typically thought to require long-term, daily smoking. Emerging evidence suggests that symptoms of nicotine withdrawal may occur following only a few cigarettes. Whether acute exposure to nicotine can induce dependence in animals has not been well established. OBJECTIVE The objective of this paper is to examine whether the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor antagonist mecamylamine elicits withdrawal-like signs in rats following acute nicotine exposure. METHODS AND RESULTS Mecamylamine (3.0 mg/kg, s.c.) administered ≈2 h after a single dose of nicotine (0.5 mg/kg, s.c.) elicited increases in intracranial self-stimulation (ICSS) thresholds and somatic signs, two well-established effects of withdrawal from long-term (chronic) nicotine exposure. The magnitude of these effects remained constant across five daily test sessions. A lower dose of mecamylamine (1.5 mg/kg, s.c.) had little or no effect on ICSS thresholds or somatic signs following acute nicotine exposure, but precipitated robust increases in these measures during a chronic nicotine infusion. Finally, rats exhibited a small increase in ICSS thresholds over time following a single nicotine injection (0.5 mg/kg, s.c.), possibly reflecting a modest spontaneous withdrawal-like effect. CONCLUSIONS Mecamylamine elicited withdrawal-like signs in rats following a single dose of nicotine. The different effects of mecamylamine 1.5 mg/kg following acute versus chronic nicotine exposure supports the notion that these models simulate the early and more advanced stages of nicotine dependence, respectively. While further optimization and validation of these models is necessary, they may provide a novel approach for studying the earliest stages of nicotine dependence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew C Harris
- Minneapolis Medical Research Foundation, 914 South 8th St. S-3 Labs, 860, Minneapolis, MN 55404, USA.
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Hollander JA, Pham D, Fowler CD, Kenny PJ. Hypocretin-1 receptors regulate the reinforcing and reward-enhancing effects of cocaine: pharmacological and behavioral genetics evidence. Front Behav Neurosci 2012; 6:47. [PMID: 22837742 PMCID: PMC3402880 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2012.00047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2012] [Accepted: 07/05/2012] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Considerable evidence suggests that transmission at hypocretin-1 (orexin-1) receptors (Hcrt-R1) plays an important role in the reinstatement of extinguished cocaine-seeking behaviors in rodents. However, far less is known about the role for hypocretin transmission in regulating ongoing cocaine-taking behavior. Here, we investigated the effects of the selective Hcrt-R1 antagonist SB-334867 on cocaine intake, as measured by intravenous (IV) cocaine self-administration in rats. The stimulatory effects of cocaine on brain reward systems contribute to the establishment and maintenance of cocaine-taking behaviors. Therefore, we also assessed the effects of SB-334867 on the reward-enhancing properties of cocaine, as measured by cocaine-induced lowering of intracranial self-stimulation (ICSS) thresholds. Finally, to definitively establish a role for Hcrt-R1 in regulating cocaine intake, we assessed IV cocaine self-administration in Hcrt-R1 knockout mice. We found that SB-334867 (1-4 mg/kg) dose-dependently decreased cocaine (0.5 mg/kg/infusion) self-administration in rats but did not alter responding for food rewards under the same schedule of reinforcement. This suggests that SB-334867 decreased cocaine reinforcement without negatively impacting operant performance. SB-334867 (1-4 mg/kg) also dose-dependently attenuated the stimulatory effects of cocaine (10 mg/kg) on brain reward systems, as measured by reversal of cocaine-induced lowering of ICSS thresholds in rats. Finally, we found that Hcrt-R1 knockout mice self-administered far less cocaine than wildtype mice across the entire dose-response function. These data demonstrate that Hcrt-R1 play an important role in regulating the reinforcing and reward-enhancing properties of cocaine and suggest that hypocretin transmission is likely essential for establishing and maintaining the cocaine habit in human addicts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan A Hollander
- Laboratory of Behavioral and Molecular Neuroscience, Department of Molecular Therapeutics, The Scripps Research Institute, Jupiter FL, USA
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48
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Bruijnzeel AW. Tobacco addiction and the dysregulation of brain stress systems. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2012; 36:1418-41. [PMID: 22405889 PMCID: PMC3340450 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2012.02.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 116] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2011] [Revised: 02/01/2012] [Accepted: 02/23/2012] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Tobacco is a highly addictive drug and is one of the most widely abused drugs in the world. The first part of this review explores the role of stressors and stress-associated psychiatric disorders in the initiation of smoking, the maintenance of smoking, and relapse after a period of abstinence. The reviewed studies indicate that stressors facilitate the initiation of smoking, decrease the motivation to quit, and increase the risk for relapse. Furthermore, people with depression or an anxiety disorder are more likely to smoke than people without these disorders. The second part of this review describes animal studies that investigated the role of brain stress systems in nicotine addiction. These studies indicate that corticotropin-releasing factor, Neuropeptide Y, the hypocretins, and norepinephrine play a pivotal role in nicotine addiction. In conclusion, the reviewed studies indicate that smoking briefly decreases subjective stress levels but also leads to a further dysregulation of brain stress systems. Drugs that decrease the activity of brain stress systems may diminish nicotine withdrawal and improve smoking cessation rates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adrie W Bruijnzeel
- Department of Psychiatry, McKnight Brain Institute, University of Florida, 1149 S. Newell Dr., Gainesville, FL 32611, USA.
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49
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Bruijnzeel AW, Ford J, Rogers JA, Scheick S, Ji Y, Bishnoi M, Alexander JC. Blockade of CRF1 receptors in the central nucleus of the amygdala attenuates the dysphoria associated with nicotine withdrawal in rats. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2012; 101:62-8. [PMID: 22182462 PMCID: PMC3315052 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2011.12.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2011] [Revised: 11/23/2011] [Accepted: 12/03/2011] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
The majority of smokers relapse during the acute withdrawal phase when withdrawal symptoms are most severe. The goal of the present studies was to investigate the role of corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) and noradrenergic transmission in the central nucleus of the amygdala (CeA) in the dysphoria associated with smoking cessation. It was investigated if blockade of CRF1 receptors, blockade of α1-adrenergic receptors, or stimulation of α2-adrenergic receptors in the CeA diminishes the deficit in brain reward function associated with nicotine withdrawal in rats. Nicotine dependence was induced by implanting minipumps that delivered a nicotine solution. Withdrawal was precipitated with the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor antagonist mecamylamine. A discrete-trial intracranial self-stimulation procedure was used to assess the negative affective aspects of nicotine withdrawal. Elevations in brain reward thresholds are indicative of a deficit in brain reward function. In all the experiments, mecamylamine elevated the brain reward thresholds of the rats chronically treated with nicotine and did not affect the brain reward thresholds of the saline-treated control rats. Intra-CeA administration of the CRF1 receptor antagonist R278995/CRA0450 completely prevented the mecamylamine-induced elevations in brain reward thresholds in the nicotine-treated rats and did not affect the brain reward thresholds of the saline-treated control rats. R278995/CRA0450 has also been shown to block sigma-1 receptors but there is no evidence that this could affect negative mood states. Intra-CeA administration of the α1-adrenergic receptor antagonist prazosin or the α2-adrenergic receptor agonist clonidine did not affect the brain reward thresholds of the nicotine or saline-treated rats. These studies suggest that CRF1 receptor antagonists may diminish the dysphoria associated with smoking cessation by blocking CRF1 receptors in the CeA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adrie W Bruijnzeel
- Department of Psychiatry, McKnight Brain Institute, University of Florida, 100 S. Newell Dr., Gainesville, Florida 32610, USA.
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Cippitelli A, Astarita G, Duranti A, Caprioli G, Ubaldi M, Stopponi S, Kallupi M, Sagratini G, Rodrìguez de Fonseca F, Piomelli D, Ciccocioppo R. Endocannabinoid regulation of acute and protracted nicotine withdrawal: effect of FAAH inhibition. PLoS One 2011; 6:e28142. [PMID: 22140525 PMCID: PMC3227620 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0028142] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2011] [Accepted: 11/02/2011] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Evidence shows that the endocannabinoid system modulates the addictive properties of nicotine. In the present study, we hypothesized that spontaneous withdrawal resulting from removal of chronically implanted transdermal nicotine patches is regulated by the endocannabinoid system. A 7-day nicotine dependence procedure (5.2 mg/rat/day) elicited occurrence of reliable nicotine abstinence symptoms in Wistar rats. Somatic and affective withdrawal signs were observed at 16 and 34 hours following removal of nicotine patches, respectively. Further behavioral manifestations including decrease in locomotor activity and increased weight gain also occurred during withdrawal. Expression of spontaneous nicotine withdrawal was accompanied by fluctuation in levels of the endocannabinoid anandamide (AEA) in several brain structures including the amygdala, the hippocampus, the hypothalamus and the prefrontal cortex. Conversely, levels of 2-arachidonoyl-sn-glycerol were not significantly altered. Pharmacological inhibition of fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH), the enzyme responsible for the intracellular degradation of AEA, by URB597 (0.1 and 0.3 mg/kg, i.p.), reduced withdrawal-induced anxiety as assessed by the elevated plus maze test and the shock-probe defensive burying paradigm, but did not prevent the occurrence of somatic signs. Together, the results indicate that pharmacological strategies aimed at enhancing endocannabinoid signaling may offer therapeutic advantages to treat the negative affective state produced by nicotine withdrawal, which is critical for the maintenance of tobacco use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Cippitelli
- School of Pharmacy, Pharmacology Unit, University of Camerino, Camerino, Italy.
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