1
|
Tan M, Tian Y, Zhang D, Wang Q, Gao Z. Aerosol Transmission of Norovirus. Viruses 2024; 16:151. [PMID: 38275961 PMCID: PMC10818780 DOI: 10.3390/v16010151] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/26/2023] [Revised: 01/16/2024] [Accepted: 01/18/2024] [Indexed: 01/27/2024] Open
Abstract
Norovirus (NoV) is a major cause of acute gastroenteritis outbreaks worldwide. A comprehensive understanding of the transmission mode is of great significance for the prevention and control of the NoV infection. Currently, the transmission modes of NoV include contact, food-borne, water-borne and aerosol transmission. The first three modes are more common, while aerosol transmission is seldom reported. In this paper, the source, generation mechanism, infectivity, sampling and related outbreaks of NoV aerosol are summarized and discussed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mengdi Tan
- School of Public Health, China Medical University, Shenyang 110122, China
| | - Yi Tian
- Institute for the Control of Infectious and Endemic Diseases, Beijing Center for Disease Prevention and Control, Beijing 100013, China
| | - Daitao Zhang
- Institute for the Control of Infectious and Endemic Diseases, Beijing Center for Disease Prevention and Control, Beijing 100013, China
| | - Quanyi Wang
- Institute for the Control of Infectious and Endemic Diseases, Beijing Center for Disease Prevention and Control, Beijing 100013, China
| | - Zhiyong Gao
- School of Public Health, China Medical University, Shenyang 110122, China
- Institute for the Control of Infectious and Endemic Diseases, Beijing Center for Disease Prevention and Control, Beijing 100013, China
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Ouyang H, Wang L, Sapkota D, Yang M, Morán J, Li L, Olson BA, Schwartz M, Hogan CJ, Torremorell M. Control technologies to prevent aerosol-based disease transmission in animal agriculture production settings: a review of established and emerging approaches. Front Vet Sci 2023; 10:1291312. [PMID: 38033641 PMCID: PMC10682736 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2023.1291312] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2023] [Accepted: 10/26/2023] [Indexed: 12/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Transmission of infectious agents via aerosols is an ever-present concern in animal agriculture production settings, as the aerosol route to disease transmission can lead to difficult-to-control and costly diseases, such as porcine respiratory and reproductive syndrome virus and influenza A virus. It is increasingly necessary to implement control technologies to mitigate aerosol-based disease transmission. Here, we review currently utilized and prospective future aerosol control technologies to collect and potentially inactivate pathogens in aerosols, with an emphasis on technologies that can be incorporated into mechanically driven (forced air) ventilation systems to prevent aerosol-based disease spread from facility to facility. Broadly, we find that control technologies can be grouped into three categories: (1) currently implemented technologies; (2) scaled technologies used in industrial and medical settings; and (3) emerging technologies. Category (1) solely consists of fibrous filter media, which have been demonstrated to reduce the spread of PRRSV between swine production facilities. We review the mechanisms by which filters function and are rated (minimum efficiency reporting values). Category (2) consists of electrostatic precipitators (ESPs), used industrially to collect aerosol particles in higher flow rate systems, and ultraviolet C (UV-C) systems, used in medical settings to inactivate pathogens. Finally, category (3) consists of a variety of technologies, including ionization-based systems, microwaves, and those generating reactive oxygen species, often with the goal of pathogen inactivation in aerosols. As such technologies are typically first tested through varied means at the laboratory scale, we additionally review control technology testing techniques at various stages of development, from laboratory studies to field demonstration, and in doing so, suggest uniform testing and report standards are needed. Testing standards should consider the cost-benefit of implementing the technologies applicable to the livestock species of interest. Finally, we examine economic models for implementing aerosol control technologies, defining the collected infectious particles per unit energy demand.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hui Ouyang
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, United States
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Texas-Dallas, Richardson, TX, United States
| | - Lan Wang
- Department of Veterinary Population Medicine, University of Minnesota, Saint Paul, MN, United States
| | - Deepak Sapkota
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Texas-Dallas, Richardson, TX, United States
| | - My Yang
- Department of Veterinary Population Medicine, University of Minnesota, Saint Paul, MN, United States
| | - José Morán
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, United States
| | - Li Li
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, United States
| | - Bernard A. Olson
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, United States
| | - Mark Schwartz
- Department of Veterinary Population Medicine, University of Minnesota, Saint Paul, MN, United States
- Schwartz Farms, Sleepy Eye, MN, United States
| | - Christopher J. Hogan
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, United States
| | - Montserrat Torremorell
- Department of Veterinary Population Medicine, University of Minnesota, Saint Paul, MN, United States
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Pratt A, Eckermann N, Venugopalan SR, Uribe LM, Barlow L, Nonnenmann M. Evaluation of aerosols in a simulated orthodontic debanding procedure. Sci Rep 2023; 13:4826. [PMID: 36964164 PMCID: PMC10036970 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-32082-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2022] [Accepted: 03/22/2023] [Indexed: 03/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Dental practitioners may be at risk for exposure to severe acute respiratory syndrome corona virus 2 when performing aerosol generating procedures. Though recent evidence suggests that coronavirus may be transmitted through aerosol generating procedures, it is unknown whether common procedures performed in dental clinics generate aerosol. The aim of this study was to simultaneously quantify airborne concentrations of the bacteriophage MS2 near the oral cavity of a dental mannequin and behind personal protective equipment (i.e., face shield) of the practitioner during a simulated orthodontic debanding procedure. A deband was performed eight times on a dental mannequin. Optical particle counters and SKC Biosamplers were used to measure particle concentration and to collect virus aerosol generated during the procedure, both near the oral cavity and behind the orthodontists face shield. A plaque assay was used to determine the viable virus airborne concentration. When comparing the two measuring locations, near the oral cavity and behind the clinician's face shield, there was no statistically significant difference of virus concentrations or particle size distribution. This study suggests that debanding under these conditions generates live virus aerosol and a face shield does not provide increased protection from virus aerosol, but does provide some protection against splatter during the procedure.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Alessandra Pratt
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Health, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, USA.
- Center for Access and Delivery Research and Evaluation, Iowa City VA Medical Center, Iowa City, IA, USA.
| | - Nile Eckermann
- Department of Orthodontics, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, USA
| | | | | | - Lauren Barlow
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Health, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, USA
| | - Matthew Nonnenmann
- Department of Environmental, Agricultural and Occupational Health, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE, USA
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Fu J, Xu Y, Arts EJ, Bai Z, Chen Z, Zheng Y. Viral disinfection using nonthermal plasma: A critical review and perspectives on the plasma-catalysis system. CHEMOSPHERE 2022; 309:136655. [PMID: 36191766 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2022.136655] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2022] [Revised: 09/25/2022] [Accepted: 09/27/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
The transmission of viral infections via aerosol has become a serious threat to public health. This has produced an ever-increasing demand for effective forms of viral inactivation technology/processes. Plasma technology is rising in popularity and gaining interest for viral disinfection use. Due to its highly effectively disinfection and flexible operation, non-thermal plasma (NTP) is a promising technology in decontaminating bacteria or virus from air or surfaces. This review discusses the fundamentals of non-thermal plasma and the disinfection mechanisms of the biocidal agents produced in plasma, including ultraviolet (UV) photons, reactive oxygen species, and reactive nitrogen species. Perspectives on the role of catalysts and its potential applications in cold plasma disinfection are discussed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jile Fu
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Key Laboratory of Green Chemical Media and Reactions, Ministry of Education, Collaborative Innovation Center of Henan Province for Fine Chemicals Green Manufacturing, Henan Normal University, Xinxiang, 453007, China; Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering, Western University, London, Ontario, Canada
| | - Yiyi Xu
- Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering, Western University, London, Ontario, Canada
| | - Eric J Arts
- Schulich School of Medicine & Dentistry, Western University, London, Ontario, Canada
| | - Zhengyu Bai
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Key Laboratory of Green Chemical Media and Reactions, Ministry of Education, Collaborative Innovation Center of Henan Province for Fine Chemicals Green Manufacturing, Henan Normal University, Xinxiang, 453007, China.
| | - Zhongwei Chen
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada.
| | - Ying Zheng
- Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering, Western University, London, Ontario, Canada.
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Saccani C, Guzzini A, Vocale C, Gori D, Pellegrini M, Fantini MP, Primavera A. Experimental testing of air filter efficiency against the SARS-CoV-2 virus: The role of droplet and airborne transmission. BUILDING AND ENVIRONMENT 2022; 210:108728. [PMID: 34975206 PMCID: PMC8710432 DOI: 10.1016/j.buildenv.2021.108728] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2021] [Revised: 12/08/2021] [Accepted: 12/22/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Verifying the capacity of different types of air filters to stop the propagation of the SARS-CoV-2 virus has become a strategic element to contain viral spreading in enclosed spaces. This paper shows the results of experimental tests about the capacity of different commercial filter grades to stop SARS-CoV-2 propagation using inactivated virions. In the first test, the obtained results showed that the F8 filter blocks SARS-CoV-2 propagation if it encounters a flow devoid of liquid phase, i.e., a biphasic flow that can wet the filtering material. On the contrary, as shown in the second test, the SARS-CoV-2 virus propagates through the F8 filter if the droplet content in the air flow is enough to wet it. In these operational conditions, i.e., when the filter is wet by a flow with a high droplet content, the absolute H14 filter was also shown to fail to stop the transmission of the SARS-CoV-2 virus. Lastly, in the third test, the viral load was shown to be stopped when the pathway of the infected droplet is blocked.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Cesare Saccani
- Department of Industrial Engineering (DIN), University of Bologna, Viale del Risorgimento 2, 40136, Bologna, Italy
| | - Alessandro Guzzini
- Department of Industrial Engineering (DIN), University of Bologna, Viale del Risorgimento 2, 40136, Bologna, Italy
| | - Caterina Vocale
- Regional Reference Center for Microbiological Emergencies (CRREM), Microbiology Unit, IRCCS, Azienda Ospedaliero-Universitaria di Bologna, Via Albertoni 15, 40138, Bologna, Italy
| | - Davide Gori
- Department of Biomedical and Neuromotor Sciences (DIBINEM), University of Bologna, via San Giacomo 12, 40126, Bologna, Italy
| | - Marco Pellegrini
- Department of Industrial Engineering (DIN), University of Bologna, Viale del Risorgimento 2, 40136, Bologna, Italy
| | - Maria Pia Fantini
- Department of Biomedical and Neuromotor Sciences (DIBINEM), University of Bologna, via San Giacomo 12, 40126, Bologna, Italy
| | - Alessandra Primavera
- Regional Reference Center for Microbiological Emergencies (CRREM), Microbiology Unit, IRCCS, Azienda Ospedaliero-Universitaria di Bologna, Via Albertoni 15, 40138, Bologna, Italy
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Qiao Y, Yang M, Marabella IA, McGee DA, Olson BA, Torremorell M, Hogan CJ. Wind tunnel-based testing of a photoelectrochemical oxidative filter-based air purification unit in coronavirus and influenza aerosol removal and inactivation. INDOOR AIR 2021; 31:2058-2069. [PMID: 33960547 PMCID: PMC8242653 DOI: 10.1111/ina.12847] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2021] [Revised: 03/17/2021] [Accepted: 04/12/2021] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Recirculating air purification technologies are employed as potential means of reducing exposure to aerosol particles and airborne viruses. Toward improved testing of recirculating air purification units, we developed and applied a medium-scale single-pass wind tunnel test to examine the size-dependent collection of particles and the collection and inactivation of viable bovine coronavirus (BCoV, a betacoronavirus), porcine respiratory coronavirus (PRCV, an alphacoronavirus), and influenza A virus (IAV), by a commercial air purification unit. The tested unit, the Molekule Air Mini, incorporates a MERV 16 filter as well as a photoelectrochemical oxidating layer. It was found to have a collection efficiency above 95.8% for all tested particle diameters and flow rates, with collection efficiencies above 99% for supermicrometer particles with the minimum collection efficiency for particles smaller than 100 nm. For all three tested viruses, the physical tracer-based log reduction was near 2.0 (99% removal). Conversely, the viable virus log reductions were found to be near 4.0 for IAV, 3.0 for BCoV, and 2.5 for PRCV, suggesting additional inactivation in a virus family- and genus-specific manner. In total, this work describes a suite of test methods which can be used to rigorously evaluate the efficacy of recirculating air purification technologies.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yuechen Qiao
- Department of Mechanical EngineeringCollege of Science and EngineeringUniversity of MinnesotaMinneapolisMNUSA
| | - My Yang
- Department of Veterinary Population MedicineCollege of Veterinary MedicineUniversity of MinnesotaSaint PaulMNUSA
| | - Ian A. Marabella
- Department of Mechanical EngineeringCollege of Science and EngineeringUniversity of MinnesotaMinneapolisMNUSA
| | - Devin A.J. McGee
- Department of Mechanical EngineeringCollege of Science and EngineeringUniversity of MinnesotaMinneapolisMNUSA
| | - Bernard A. Olson
- Department of Mechanical EngineeringCollege of Science and EngineeringUniversity of MinnesotaMinneapolisMNUSA
| | - Montserrat Torremorell
- Department of Veterinary Population MedicineCollege of Veterinary MedicineUniversity of MinnesotaSaint PaulMNUSA
| | - Christopher J. Hogan
- Department of Mechanical EngineeringCollege of Science and EngineeringUniversity of MinnesotaMinneapolisMNUSA
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Comparison between Whatman FTA Elute Cards and Conventional Swab for the Detection of Pathogenic Enteric Bacteria Using an RT-qPCR Assay. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2021; 2021:9963047. [PMID: 34306273 PMCID: PMC8270717 DOI: 10.1155/2021/9963047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2021] [Accepted: 06/25/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
The emergence of outbreaks of foodborne illness is closely associated with food contamination caused by various enteric pathogens, such as Escherichia coli O157:H7, Listeria monocytogenes, Salmonella enterica serovar Enteritidis, and Staphylococcus aureus. The control of enteric pathogens poses a challenge due to the fact that these pathogens can persist for a long period of time in the environment. The rapid detection of pathogenic organisms plays a crucial role in the prevention and identification of crises related to health, safety, and well-being. Improper sample handling and processing may influence the diagnostic efficacy and accuracy. The aim of the present study was to compare the preservation capacity for enteric bacteria between Whatman Flinders Technology Associates (FTA) cards and swabs for reverse transcription-quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR) detection. It was found that Whatman FTA cards exhibited an improved preservation capacity for five types (both laboratory and environmental strains) of enteric bacteria, including Escherichia coli O157:H7, Listeria monocytogenes, Salmonella enterica serovar Enteritidis, and Staphylococcus aureus for RT-qPCR detection. Hence, Whatman FTA cards may be a suitable tool for the routine isolation of foodborne bacteria for molecular diagnosis. Therefore, the use of Whatman FTA cards for sample collection and preservation may increase sensitivity and accuracy for bacteria isolation and diagnosis.
Collapse
|
8
|
Rowell CER, Dobrovolny HM. Energy Requirements for Loss of Viral Infectivity. FOOD AND ENVIRONMENTAL VIROLOGY 2020; 12:281-294. [PMID: 32757142 PMCID: PMC7405386 DOI: 10.1007/s12560-020-09439-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2020] [Accepted: 07/31/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Outside the host, viruses will eventually lose their ability to infect cells due to conformational changes that occur to proteins on the viral capsid. In order to undergo a conformational change, these proteins require energy to activate the chemical reaction that leads to the conformational change. In this study, data from the literature is used to calculate the energy required for viral inactivation for a variety of different viruses by means of the Arrhenius equation. We find that some viruses (rhinovirus, poliovirus, human immunodeficiency virus, Alkhumra hemorrhagic fever virus, and hepatitis A virus) have high inactivation energies, indicative of breaking of a chemical double bond. We also find that several viruses (respiratory syncytial virus, poliovirus, and norovirus) have nonlinear Arrhenius plots, suggesting that there is more than a single pathway for inactivation of these viruses.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Caroline E R Rowell
- Department of Chemistry, Wingate University, Hendersonville, NC, USA
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, Texas Christian University, Fort Worth, TX, USA
| | - Hana M Dobrovolny
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, Texas Christian University, Fort Worth, TX, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Versoza M, Heo J, Ko S, Kim M, Park D. Solid Oxygen-Purifying (SOP) Filters: A Self-Disinfecting Filters to Inactivate Aerosolized Viruses. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2020; 17:E7858. [PMID: 33120940 PMCID: PMC7662992 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph17217858] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2020] [Revised: 10/14/2020] [Accepted: 10/20/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Normal heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems typically use high-efficiency particulate air (HEPA) filters, which can filter dust, various pollutants, and even bacteria and viruses from indoor air. However, since HEPA filters cannot not clean themselves and due to the nature of these microbes which can survive for long periods of time, changing these filters improperly could transmit pathogenic bacteria or viruses, and could even lead to new infections. This study indicated that these manufactured Solid Oxygen-purifying (SOP) filters have the potential to self-disinfect, filter, and inactivate aerosolized viruses. MS2 bacteriophage was used as a model virus in two different experiments. The first experiment involved aerosolization of the virus, while the second were a higher viral load using a soaking method. The SOP filters inactivated up to 99.8% of the virus particles in both experiments, provided that the density of the SOP filter was high. Thus, SOP filters could self-clean, which led to protection against airborne and aerosolized viruses by inactivating them on contact. Furthermore, SOP filters could be potentially use or addition in HVAC systems and face masks to prevent the transmission of airborne and aerosolized viruses.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Michael Versoza
- Transportation Environmental Research Team, Korea Railroad Research Institute, Uiwang City 16105, Korea; (M.V.); (J.H.); (S.K.); (M.K.)
- Railway System Engineering, University of Science and Technology, Daejeon City 34113, Korea
| | - Jaeseok Heo
- Transportation Environmental Research Team, Korea Railroad Research Institute, Uiwang City 16105, Korea; (M.V.); (J.H.); (S.K.); (M.K.)
- Railway System Engineering, University of Science and Technology, Daejeon City 34113, Korea
| | - Sangwon Ko
- Transportation Environmental Research Team, Korea Railroad Research Institute, Uiwang City 16105, Korea; (M.V.); (J.H.); (S.K.); (M.K.)
| | - Minjeong Kim
- Transportation Environmental Research Team, Korea Railroad Research Institute, Uiwang City 16105, Korea; (M.V.); (J.H.); (S.K.); (M.K.)
| | - Duckshin Park
- Transportation Environmental Research Team, Korea Railroad Research Institute, Uiwang City 16105, Korea; (M.V.); (J.H.); (S.K.); (M.K.)
- Railway System Engineering, University of Science and Technology, Daejeon City 34113, Korea
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Boles C, Brown G, Park JH, Nonnenmann M. The Optimization of Methods for the Collection of Aerosolized Murine Norovirus. FOOD AND ENVIRONMENTAL VIROLOGY 2020; 12:199-208. [PMID: 32524378 DOI: 10.1007/s12560-020-09430-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2020] [Accepted: 05/30/2020] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
Globally, norovirus is the most common gastroenteritis causing pathogen. Annually, norovirus causes 685 million cases of acute gastroenteritis and 200,000 deaths, worldwide. Recent evidence has suggested that norovirus can also be spread via aerosolization; however, an indoor generation source has yet to be determined. We optimized a sampling method for the collection of aerosolized norovirus using murine norovirus (MNV) as a surrogate. Optimization of the sampling method was performed using two bioaerosol samplers (SKC BioSampler and the NIOSH Bioaerosol Cyclone Sampler 251) and two sampling media (Hanks Balanced Salt Solution [HBSS] and Phosphate Buffered Saline [PBS]). Murine norovirus was aerosolized in a bioaerosol chamber and later collected using each sampler/media combination. Collected MNV was quantified using quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR). Intact capsids of MNV were assessed using propidium monoazide dye in combination with qPCR and confirmed with transmission electron microscopy. Ten trials were conducted, with each trial lasting for 30 min. The SKC BioSampler collected a significantly higher concentration of MNV than the NIOSH-251 sampler did (p-value < 0.0001). However, there were no significant differences in the relative percent of MNV that remained viable between both samplers (p-value = 0.2215). The use of HBSS sampling media yielded a higher concentration of MNV than PBS media (p-value = 0.0125). However, PBS media maintained viability at a significantly higher percentage than HBSS media (p-value < 0.0001). The results support the optimization of a sampling method for the collection of aerosolized MNV and possibly norovirus in different sampling environments.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Grant Brown
- College of Public Health, University of Iowa, Iowa City, USA
| | - Jae Hong Park
- School of Health Sciences, Purdue University, West Lafayette, USA
| | | |
Collapse
|
11
|
Rezaei N, Jafari M, Nazari A, Salehi S, Talati F, Torab R, Nejad-Rahim R. A novel methodology and new concept of SARS-CoV-2 elimination in heating and ventilating air conditioning systems using waste heat recovery. AIP ADVANCES 2020; 10:085308. [PMID: 33194314 PMCID: PMC7665056 DOI: 10.1063/5.0021575] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2020] [Accepted: 07/14/2020] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
Heating and ventilation air conditioning systems in hospitals (cleanroom HVAC systems) are used to control the transmission/spreading of airborne diseases such as COVID-19. Air exiting from these systems may contribute to the spreading of coronavirus droplets outside of hospitals. Some research studies indicate that the shortest time of survival of SARS-CoV-2 in aerosol form (as droplets in the air) is four hours and the virus becomes inactive above 60 °C air temperature. Therefore, SARS-CoV-2 droplets cannot exit from the exhaust duct if the temperature is above 60 °C. At the condenser, heat is dissipated in the form of hot air which could be utilized to warm the exhaust air. The objective of this paper is to establish a novel technique for eliminating SARS-CoV-2 from cleanroom HVAC systems using the recovered heat of exhaust air. This can eliminate SARS-CoV-2 and reduce the greenhouse effect.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Naser Rezaei
- University of Tabriz, Department of Mechanical
Engineering, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Moharram Jafari
- University of Tabriz, Department of Mechanical
Engineering, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Ata Nazari
- University of Tabriz, Department of Mechanical
Engineering, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Sina Salehi
- University of Tabriz, Department of Mechanical
Engineering, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Faramarz Talati
- University of Tabriz, Department of Mechanical
Engineering, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Reza Torab
- Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Department
of Orthopedics, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Rahim Nejad-Rahim
- Urmia University of Medical Sciences, Department
of Dermatology and Infectious Diseases, Urmia,
Iran
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Xia T, Yang M, Marabella I, Lee EM, Olson B, Zarling D, Torremorell M, Clack HL. Inactivation of airborne porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSv) by a packed bed dielectric barrier discharge non-thermal plasma. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2020; 393:122266. [PMID: 32126420 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2020.122266] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2019] [Revised: 02/04/2020] [Accepted: 02/08/2020] [Indexed: 05/16/2023]
Abstract
Porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSv) is one of the most significant airborne viruses impacting the pork industry in the US. Non-thermal plasmas (NTPs) are electrical discharges comprised of reactive radicals and excited species that inactivate viruses and bacteria. Our previous experiments using a packed bed NTP reactor demonstrated effective inactivation of bacteriophage MS2 as a function of applied voltage and power. The present study examined the effectiveness of the same reactor in inactivating aerosolized PRRSv. A PRRSv solution containing ∼105 TCID50/ml of PRRSv VR2332 strain was aerosolized at 3 ml/min by an air-jet nebulizer and introduced into 5 or 12 cfm air flow followed by NTP exposure in the reactor. Twin impingers upstream and downstream of the reactor collected samples of the virus-laden air flow for subsequent TCID50 assay and qPCR analyses. An optical particle sizer measured upstream and downstream aerosol size distributions, giving estimates of aerosol filtration by the reactor. The results showed that PRRSv was inactivated to a similar degree as MS2 at the same conditions, with the maximum 1.3-log inactivation of PRRSv achieved at 20 kV and 12 cfm air flow rate. The results demonstrate the potential of properly optimized NTPs in controlling PRRSv transmission.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- T Xia
- Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, United States.
| | - M Yang
- Veterinary Population Medicine, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN, United States
| | - I Marabella
- Mechanical Engineering, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, United States
| | - E M Lee
- Mechanical, Materials and Aerospace Engineering, Illinois Institute of Technology, Chicago, IL, United States
| | - B Olson
- Mechanical Engineering, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, United States
| | - D Zarling
- Mechanical Engineering, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, United States
| | - M Torremorell
- Veterinary Population Medicine, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN, United States
| | - H L Clack
- Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, United States
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Covid-19 Airborne Transmission and Its Prevention: Waiting for Evidence or Applying the Precautionary Principle? ATMOSPHERE 2020. [DOI: 10.3390/atmos11070710] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Besides the predominant ways of transmission of SARS-CoV-2 (namely, contacts and large droplets) the airborne one is increasingly taken into consideration as a result of latest research findings. Nevertheless, this possibility has been already suggested by previous studies on other coronaviruses including SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV. To describe the state of the art of coronaviruses and airborne transmission, a systematic review was carried out using the PRISMA methodology. Overall, 64 papers were selected and classified into three main groups: laboratory experiments (12 papers), air monitoring (22) and epidemiological and airflow model studies (30). The airborne transmission of SARS-CoV-2 is suggested by the studies of the three groups, but none has yet obtained complete evidence. The sampling and detection methods have not been validated, therefore monitoring results are affected by a possible underestimation. Then, epidemiological investigations only hypothesize the airborne transmission as a possible explanation for some illness cases, but without estimating its attributable risk. Nevertheless, while waiting for more evidence, it is urgent to base advice on preventive measures, such as the use of masks, safe distancing and air ventilation, on the precautionary principle.
Collapse
|
14
|
Bekeschus S, Kramer A, Suffredini E, von Woedtke T, Colombo V. Gas Plasma Technology-An Asset to Healthcare During Viral Pandemics Such as the COVID-19 Crisis? IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON RADIATION AND PLASMA MEDICAL SCIENCES 2020; 4:391-399. [PMID: 34192214 PMCID: PMC8043491 DOI: 10.1109/trpms.2020.3002658] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2020] [Accepted: 06/12/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
The COVID-19 crisis profoundly disguised the vulnerability of human societies and healthcare systems in the situation of a pandemic. In many instances, it became evident that the quick and safe reduction of viral load and spread is the foremost principle in the successful management of such a pandemic. However, it became also clear that many of the established routines in healthcare are not always sufficient to cope with the increased demand for decontamination procedures of items, healthcare products, and even infected tissues. For the last 25 years, the use of gas plasma technology has sparked a tremendous amount of literature on its decontaminating properties, especially for heat-labile targets, such as polymers and tissues, where chemical decontamination often is not appropriate. However, while the majority of earlier work focused on bacteria, only relatively few reports are available on the inactivation of viruses. We here aim to provide a perspective for the general audience of the chances and opportunities of gas plasma technology for supporting healthcare during viral pandemics such as the COVID-19 crisis. This includes possible real-world plasma applications, appropriate laboratory viral test systems, and critical points on the technical and safety requirements of gas plasmas for virus inactivation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sander Bekeschus
- ZIK plasmatis, Leibniz Institute for Plasma Science and Technology (INP)17489GreifswaldGermany
- Leibniz Networks on Health Technologies and Immune-mediated Diseases
| | - Axel Kramer
- Institute for Hygiene and Environmental Medicine, Greifswald University Medical Center17489GreifswaldGermany
| | - Elisabetta Suffredini
- Department of Food Safety, Nutrition and Veterinary Public HealthIstituto Superiore di Sanità00161RomeItaly
| | - Thomas von Woedtke
- ZIK plasmatis, Leibniz Institute for Plasma Science and Technology (INP)17489GreifswaldGermany
- Leibniz Network on Health Technologies
| | - Vittorio Colombo
- Department of Industrial Engineering, Interdepartmental Center for Agri-food Industrial Research, Interdepartmental Center for Industrial Research on Advanced Applications in Mechanical Engineering and Materials TechnologyAlma Mater Studiorum-Università di Bologna40136BolognaItaly
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Analysis of Yearly Effectiveness of a Diaphragm Ground Heat Exchanger Supported by an Ultraviolet Sterilamp. ENERGIES 2020. [DOI: 10.3390/en13112804] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Ground heat exchangers supplement ventilation systems and provide notable power gains by heating ventilated air during winter and cooling it in summer. Additionally, they prevent recuperator exchangers from freezing. In atmospheric air, there are many types of contaminants and microorganisms that significantly affect the quality of ventilated air. The air that flows through the system of pipes of the heat exchanger may also become contaminated. In order to remove contamination from ventilated air, ultraviolet radiation may be used. This article presents a concept of using a UV-C (ultraviolet with a wavelength of 200–280 nm) lamp in the air duct in front of the air handling unit connected to the ground heat exchanger. The UV-C lamp, apart from clearing the air, may also decrease operational costs thanks to eliminating contamination that forms bacterial jelly on heat exchanger elements.
Collapse
|
16
|
Mainelis G. Bioaerosol Sampling: Classical Approaches, Advances, and Perspectives. AEROSOL SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY : THE JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOR AEROSOL RESEARCH 2020; 54:496-519. [PMID: 35923417 PMCID: PMC9344602 DOI: 10.1080/02786826.2019.1671950] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/15/2023]
Abstract
Bioaerosol sampling is an essential and integral part of any bioaerosol investigation. Since bioaerosols are very diverse in terms of their sizes, species, biological properties, and requirements for their detection and quantification, bioaerosol sampling is an active, yet challenging research area. This paper was inspired by the discussions during the 2018 International Aerosol Conference (IAC) (St. Louis, MO) regarding the need to summarize the current state of the art in bioaerosol research, including bioaerosol sampling, and the need to develop a more standardized set of guidelines for protocols used in bioaerosol research. The manuscript is a combination of literature review and perspectives: it discusses the main bioaerosol sampling techniques and then overviews the latest technical developments in each area; the overview is followed by the discussion of the emerging trends and developments in the field, including personal sampling, application of passive samplers, and advances toward improving bioaerosol detection limits as well as the emerging challenges such as collection of viruses and collection of unbiased samples for bioaerosol sequencing. The paper also discusses some of the practical aspects of bioaerosol sampling with particular focus on sampling aspects that could lead to bioaerosol determination bias. The manuscript concludes by suggesting several goals for bioaerosol sampling and development community to work towards and describes some of the grand bioaerosol challenges discussed at the IAC 2018.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Gediminas Mainelis
- Department of Environmental Sciences, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, 14 College Farm Road, New Brunswick, NJ 08901, USA
| |
Collapse
|
17
|
Prussin AJ, Torres PJ, Shimashita J, Head SR, Bibby KJ, Kelley ST, Marr LC. Seasonal dynamics of DNA and RNA viral bioaerosol communities in a daycare center. MICROBIOME 2019; 7:53. [PMID: 30935423 PMCID: PMC6444849 DOI: 10.1186/s40168-019-0672-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2018] [Accepted: 03/22/2019] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Viruses play an important role in ecosystems, including the built environment (BE). While numerous studies have characterized bacterial and fungal microbiomes in the BE, few have focused on the viral microbiome (virome). Longitudinal microbiome studies provide insight into the stability and dynamics of microbial communities; however, few such studies exist for the microbiome of the BE, and most have focused on bacteria. Here, we present a longitudinal, metagenomic-based analysis of the airborne DNA and RNA virome of a children's daycare center. Specifically, we investigate how the airborne virome varies as a function of season and human occupancy, and we identify possible sources of the viruses and their hosts, mainly humans, animals, plants, and insects. RESULTS Season strongly influenced the airborne viral community composition, and a single sample collected when the daycare center was unoccupied suggested that occupancy also influenced the community. The pattern of influence differed between DNA and RNA viromes. Human-associated viruses were much more diverse and dominant in the winter, while the summertime virome contained a high relative proportion and diversity of plant-associated viruses. CONCLUSIONS This airborne microbiome in this building exhibited seasonality in its viral community but not its bacterial community. Human occupancy influenced both types of communities. By adding new data about the viral microbiome to complement burgeoning information about the bacterial and fungal microbiomes, this study contributes to a more complete understanding of the airborne microbiome.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Aaron J. Prussin
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061 USA
| | - Pedro J. Torres
- Department of Biology, San Diego State University, San Diego, CA 92182 USA
| | - John Shimashita
- Next Generation Sequencing and Microarray Core Facility, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037 USA
| | - Steven R. Head
- Next Generation Sequencing and Microarray Core Facility, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037 USA
| | - Kyle J. Bibby
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN 46556 USA
| | - Scott T. Kelley
- Department of Biology, San Diego State University, San Diego, CA 92182 USA
| | - Linsey C. Marr
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061 USA
| |
Collapse
|
18
|
Bandaly V, Joubert A, Andres Y, Le Cann P. Adenovirus behavior in air handling unit fiberglass filters. AEROBIOLOGIA 2019; 35:357-366. [PMID: 32214630 PMCID: PMC7087798 DOI: 10.1007/s10453-019-09565-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2018] [Accepted: 01/19/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Viral aerosols can lead to respiratory viral infections with high infectivity. About 90% of people's time is spent in closed environments. A few studies have pointed out that the ventilation systems in air handling units (AHUs) that treat and transmit a new synthetic clean and conditioned environment can also spread and transport viral particles in buildings. The aim of this work is to study the characterization of adenovirus, a DNA non-enveloped respiratory virus, on the F7 fiberglass filter used in AHUs. In this study, an experimental setup simulating an AHU was used. The SYBR® QPCR, Electrical Low-Pressure Impactor (ELPI™) and Scanning Mobility Particle Sizer (SMPS™) were used to detect, measure and characterize the aerosolized adenovirus solution. The characterization results showed that the nebulized adenovirus could be aerosolized in different forms associated or not with cell debris and proteins. The quantification and level of infectivity of adenovirus demonstrated that viruses passed through filters and remained infectious up- and downstream of the system during the 25 min of aerosolization. This study showed that AHUs should be considered an indoor source of viral contamination.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Victor Bandaly
- GEPEA-CNRS, UMR 6144, IMT Atlantique, 44000 Nantes, France
- EHESP, 35000 Rennes, France
- IRSET-INSERM UMR 1085, 35000 Rennes, France
| | | | - Yves Andres
- GEPEA-CNRS, UMR 6144, IMT Atlantique, 44000 Nantes, France
| | - Pierre Le Cann
- EHESP, 35000 Rennes, France
- IRSET-INSERM UMR 1085, 35000 Rennes, France
| |
Collapse
|
19
|
Yu Z, Deslouches B, Walton WG, Redinbo MR, Di YP. Enhanced biofilm prevention activity of a SPLUNC1-derived antimicrobial peptide against Staphylococcus aureus. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0203621. [PMID: 30216370 PMCID: PMC6138395 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0203621] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2018] [Accepted: 08/23/2018] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
SPLUNC1 is a multifunctional protein of the airway with antimicrobial properties. We previously reported that it displayed antibiofilm activities against P. aeruginosa. The goal of this study was to determine whether (1) the antibiofilm property is broad (including S. aureus, another prevalent organism in cystic fibrosis); (2) the α4 region is responsible for such activity; and (3), if so, this motif could be structurally optimized as an antimicrobial peptide with enhanced activities. We used S. aureus biofilm-prevention assays to determine bacterial biomass in the presence of SPLUNC1 and SPLUNC1Δα4 recombinant proteins, or SPLUNC1-derived peptides (α4 and α4M1), using the well-established crystal-violet biofilm detection assay. The SPLUNC1Δα4 showed markedly reduced biofilm prevention compared to the parent protein. Surprisingly, the 30-residue long α4 motif alone demonstrated minimal biofilm prevention activities. However, structural optimization of the α4 motif resulted in a modified peptide (α4M1) with significantly enhanced antibiofilm properties against methicillin–sensitive (MSSA) and–resistant (MRSA) S. aureus, including six different clinical strains of MRSA and the well-known USA300. Hemolytic activity was undetectable at up to 100μM for the peptides. The data warrant further investigation of α4-derived AMPs to explore the potential application of antimicrobial peptides to combat bacterial biofilm-related infections.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Zhongjie Yu
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, United States of America
- Center for Molecular Genetics, Institute for Translational Medicine, Qingdao University, Qingdao, China
| | - Berthony Deslouches
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, United States of America
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, United States of America
| | - William G. Walton
- Departments of Chemistry, Biochemistry, and Microbiology, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, United States of America
| | - Matthew R. Redinbo
- Departments of Chemistry, Biochemistry, and Microbiology, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, United States of America
| | - Y. Peter Di
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| |
Collapse
|
20
|
Bandaly V, Joubert A, Le Cann P, Andres Y. The Fate of Mengovirus on Fiberglass Filter of Air Handling Units. FOOD AND ENVIRONMENTAL VIROLOGY 2017; 9:464-472. [PMID: 28660425 PMCID: PMC7090558 DOI: 10.1007/s12560-017-9310-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2017] [Accepted: 06/23/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
One of the most important topics that occupy public health problems is the air quality. That is the reason why mechanical ventilation and air handling units (AHU) were imposed by the different governments in the collective or individual buildings. Many buildings create an artificial climate using heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning systems. Among the existing aerosols in the indoor air, we can distinguish the bioaerosol with biological nature such as bacteria, viruses, and fungi. Respiratory viral infections are a major public health issue because they are usually highly infective. We spend about 90% of our time in closed environments such as homes, workplaces, or transport. Some studies have shown that AHU contribute to the spread and transport of viral particles within buildings. The aim of this work is to study the characterization of viral bioaerosols in indoor environments and to understand the fate of mengovirus eukaryote RNA virus on glass fiber filter F7 used in AHU. In this study, a set-up close to reality of AHU system was used. The mengovirus aerosolized was characterized and measured with the electrical low pressure impact and the scanner mobility particle size and detected with RT-qPCR. The results about quantification and the level of infectivity of mengovirus on the filter and in the biosampler showed that mengovirus can pass through the filter and remain infectious upstream and downstream the system. Regarding the virus infectivity on the filter under a constant air flow, mengovirus was remained infectious during 10 h after aerosolization.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Victor Bandaly
- GEPEA-CNRS, UMR 6144, IMT Atlantique, 44000, Nantes, France.
- EHESP, 35000, Rennes, France.
- IRSET-INSERM, UMR 1085, 35000, Rennes, France.
| | | | - Pierre Le Cann
- EHESP, 35000, Rennes, France
- IRSET-INSERM, UMR 1085, 35000, Rennes, France
| | - Yves Andres
- GEPEA-CNRS, UMR 6144, IMT Atlantique, 44000, Nantes, France
| |
Collapse
|
21
|
Lv Y, Hu G, Wang C, Yuan W, Wei S, Gao J, Wang B, Song F. Actual measurement, hygrothermal response experiment and growth prediction analysis of microbial contamination of central air conditioning system in Dalian, China. Sci Rep 2017; 7:44190. [PMID: 28367963 PMCID: PMC5377260 DOI: 10.1038/srep44190] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2016] [Accepted: 02/03/2017] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
The microbial contamination of central air conditioning system is one of the important factors that affect the indoor air quality. Actual measurement and analysis were carried out on microbial contamination in central air conditioning system at a venue in Dalian, China. Illumina miseq method was used and three fungal samples of two units were analysed by high throughput sequencing. Results showed that the predominant fungus in air conditioning unit A and B were Candida spp. and Cladosporium spp., and two fungus were further used in the hygrothermal response experiment. Based on the data of Cladosporium in hygrothermal response experiment, this paper used the logistic equation and the Gompertz equation to fit the growth predictive model of Cladosporium genera in different temperature and relative humidity conditions, and the square root model was fitted based on the two environmental factors. In addition, the models were carried on the analysis to verify the accuracy and feasibility of the established model equation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yang Lv
- School of Civil Engineering, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian, China
| | - Guangyao Hu
- School of Civil Engineering, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian, China
| | - Chunyang Wang
- School of Civil Engineering, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian, China
| | - Wenjie Yuan
- School of Life Science and Biotechnology, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian, China
| | - Shanshan Wei
- School of Civil Engineering, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian, China
| | - Jiaoqi Gao
- School of Life Science and Biotechnology, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian, China
| | - Boyuan Wang
- China Academy of Building Research, Beijing, China
| | - Fangchao Song
- Department of Biomedical and Chemical Engineering, Syracuse University, Syracuse, United States
| |
Collapse
|
22
|
Assessment of air sampling methods and size distribution of virus-laden aerosols in outbreaks in swine and poultry farms. J Vet Diagn Invest 2017; 29:298-304. [DOI: 10.1177/1040638717700221] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Swine and poultry viruses, such as porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV), porcine epidemic diarrhea virus (PEDV), and highly pathogenic avian influenza virus (HPAIV), are economically important pathogens that can spread via aerosols. The reliability of methods for quantifying particle-associated viruses as well as the size distribution of aerosolized particles bearing these viruses under field conditions are not well documented. We compared the performance of 2 size-differentiating air samplers in disease outbreaks that occurred in swine and poultry facilities. Both air samplers allowed quantification of particles by size, and measured concentrations of PRRSV, PEDV, and HPAIV stratified by particle size both within and outside swine and poultry facilities. All 3 viruses were detectable in association with aerosolized particles. Proportions of positive sampling events were 69% for PEDV, 61% for HPAIV, and 8% for PRRSV. The highest virus concentrations were found with PEDV, followed by HPAIV and PRRSV. Both air collectors performed equally for the detection of total virus concentration. For all 3 viruses, higher numbers of RNA copies were associated with larger particles; however, a bimodal distribution of particles was observed in the case of PEDV and HPAIV.
Collapse
|
23
|
Haaland D, Siegel JA. Quantitative filter forensics for indoor particle sampling. INDOOR AIR 2017; 27:364-376. [PMID: 27385357 DOI: 10.1111/ina.12319] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2016] [Accepted: 07/04/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Filter forensics is a promising indoor air investigation technique involving the analysis of dust which has collected on filters in central forced-air heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) or portable systems to determine the presence of indoor particle-bound contaminants. In this study, we summarize past filter forensics research to explore what it reveals about the sampling technique and the indoor environment. There are 60 investigations in the literature that have used this sampling technique for a variety of biotic and abiotic contaminants. Many studies identified differences between contaminant concentrations in different buildings using this technique. Based on this literature review, we identified a lack of quantification as a gap in the past literature. Accordingly, we propose an approach to quantitatively link contaminants extracted from HVAC filter dust to time-averaged integrated air concentrations. This quantitative filter forensics approach has great potential to measure indoor air concentrations of a wide variety of particle-bound contaminants. Future studies directly comparing quantitative filter forensics to alternative sampling techniques are required to fully assess this approach, but analysis of past research suggests the enormous possibility of this approach.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- D Haaland
- Department of Civil Engineering, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - J A Siegel
- Department of Civil Engineering, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
- Dalla Lana School of Public Health, The University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
24
|
Prussin AJ, Vikram A, Bibby KJ, Marr LC. Seasonal Dynamics of the Airborne Bacterial Community and Selected Viruses in a Children's Daycare Center. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0151004. [PMID: 26942410 PMCID: PMC4778917 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0151004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2015] [Accepted: 02/21/2016] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Children’s daycare centers appear to be hubs of respiratory infectious disease transmission, yet there is only limited information about the airborne microbial communities that are present in daycare centers. We have investigated the microbial community of the air in a daycare center, including seasonal dynamics in the bacterial community and the presence of specific viral pathogens. We collected filters from the heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) system of a daycare center every two weeks over the course of a year. Amplifying and sequencing the 16S rRNA gene revealed that the air was dominated by Proteobacteria, Firmicutes, Actinobacteria, and Bacteroidetes that are commonly associated with the human skin flora. Clear seasonal differences in the microbial community were not evident; however, the community structure differed when the daycare center was closed and unoccupied for a 13-day period. These results suggest that human occupancy, rather than the environment, is the major driver in shaping the microbial community structure in the air of the daycare center. Using PCR for targeted viruses, we detected a seasonal pattern in the presence of respiratory syncytial virus that included the period of typical occurrence of the disease related to the virus; however, we did not detect the presence of adenovirus or rotavirus at any time.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Aaron J. Prussin
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia, United States of America
| | - Amit Vikram
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Kyle J. Bibby
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Linsey C. Marr
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| |
Collapse
|
25
|
Field Study on Humidification Performance of a Desiccant Air-Conditioning System Combined with a Heat Pump. ENERGIES 2016. [DOI: 10.3390/en9020089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
|
26
|
Prussin AJ, Marr LC, Bibby KJ. Challenges of studying viral aerosol metagenomics and communities in comparison with bacterial and fungal aerosols. FEMS Microbiol Lett 2014; 357:1-9. [PMID: 24891293 DOI: 10.1111/1574-6968.12487] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2014] [Revised: 05/21/2014] [Accepted: 05/23/2014] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Despite the obvious importance of viral transmission and ecology to medicine, epidemiology, ecology, agriculture, and microbiology, the study of viral bioaerosols and community structure has remained a vastly underexplored area, due to both unresolved technical challenges and unrecognized importance. High-throughput, culture-independent techniques such as viral metagenomics are beginning to revolutionize the study of viral ecology. With recent developments in viral metagenomics, characterization of viral bioaerosol communities provides an opportunity for high-impact future research. However, there remain significant challenges for the study of viral bioaerosols compared with viruses in other matrices, such as water, the human gut, and soil. Collecting enough biomass is essential for successful metagenomic analysis, but this is a challenge with viral bioaerosols. Herein, we provide a perspective on the importance of studying viral bioaerosols, the challenges of studying viral community structure, and the potential opportunities for improvements in methods to study viruses in indoor and outdoor air.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Aaron J Prussin
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA, USA
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
27
|
Hoisington A, Maestre JP, Siegel JA, Kinney KA. Exploring the microbiome of the built environment: A primer on four biological methods available to building professionals. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2014. [DOI: 10.1080/10789669.2013.840524] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
|
28
|
Calfee MW, Rose LJ, Tufts J, Morse S, Clayton M, Touati A, Griffin-Gatchalian N, Slone C, McSweeney N. Evaluation of sampling methods for Bacillus spore-contaminated HVAC filters. J Microbiol Methods 2013; 96:1-5. [PMID: 24184312 DOI: 10.1016/j.mimet.2013.10.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2013] [Revised: 10/17/2013] [Accepted: 10/18/2013] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
The objective of this study was to compare an extraction-based sampling method to two vacuum-based sampling methods (vacuum sock and 37mm cassette filter) with regards to their ability to recover Bacillus atrophaeus spores (surrogate for Bacillus anthracis) from pleated heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) filters that are typically found in commercial and residential buildings. Electrostatic and mechanical HVAC filters were tested, both without and after loading with dust to 50% of their total holding capacity. The results were analyzed by one-way ANOVA across material types, presence or absence of dust, and sampling device. The extraction method gave higher relative recoveries than the two vacuum methods evaluated (p≤0.001). On average, recoveries obtained by the vacuum methods were about 30% of those achieved by the extraction method. Relative recoveries between the two vacuum methods were not significantly different (p>0.05). Although extraction methods yielded higher recoveries than vacuum methods, either HVAC filter sampling approach may provide a rapid and inexpensive mechanism for understanding the extent of contamination following a wide-area biological release incident.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- M Worth Calfee
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, National Homeland Security Research Center, Research Triangle Park, NC, USA.
| | - Laura J Rose
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Jenia Tufts
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, National Homeland Security Research Center, Research Triangle Park, NC, USA; Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education, Research Triangle Park, NC, USA
| | - Stephen Morse
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Matt Clayton
- ARCADIS Geraghty & Miller, Inc., Durham, NC, USA
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
29
|
Detection and Isolation of Airborne Influenza A H3N2 Virus Using a Sioutas Personal Cascade Impactor Sampler. INFLUENZA RESEARCH AND TREATMENT 2013; 2013:656825. [PMID: 24224087 PMCID: PMC3810434 DOI: 10.1155/2013/656825] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2013] [Revised: 09/03/2013] [Accepted: 09/13/2013] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
The air we breathe contains microorganisms that can cause infectious respiratory diseases. After two occupants of an apartment were diagnosed with influenza in February of 2013, efforts were made to detect and isolate airborne influenza virus using two different types of active air samplers: a Sioutas Personal Cascade Impactor Sampler (PCIS) and an SKC BioSampler. The PCIS collects size-fractionated particles by impaction on polytetrafluoroethylene filters, whereas the SKC BioSampler collects airborne particles in liquid media. Influenza H3N2 virus was collected by both types of air samplers. The PCIS collected a range of particle sizes containing influenza virus near one of the sick individuals but only ultrafine particles when the samplers were positioned farther away. Viable virus was present in the liquid collection media of the SKC BioSampler and some PCIS filters. These findings suggest that influenza patients produce ultrafine aerosol particles that contain viable virus.
Collapse
|
30
|
Korves TM, Piceno YM, Tom LM, DeSantis TZ, Jones BW, Andersen GL, Hwang GM. Bacterial communities in commercial aircraft high-efficiency particulate air (HEPA) filters assessed by PhyloChip analysis. INDOOR AIR 2013; 23:50-61. [PMID: 22563927 PMCID: PMC7201892 DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-0668.2012.00787.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2011] [Accepted: 04/29/2012] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
UNLABELLED Air travel can rapidly transport infectious diseases globally. To facilitate the design of biosensors for infectious organisms in commercial aircraft, we characterized bacterial diversity in aircraft air. Samples from 61 aircraft high-efficiency particulate air (HEPA) filters were analyzed with a custom microarray of 16S rRNA gene sequences (PhyloChip), representing bacterial lineages. A total of 606 subfamilies from 41 phyla were detected. The most abundant bacterial subfamilies included bacteria associated with humans, especially skin, gastrointestinal and respiratory tracts, and with water and soil habitats. Operational taxonomic units that contain important human pathogens as well as their close, more benign relatives were detected. When compared to 43 samples of urban outdoor air, aircraft samples differed in composition, with higher relative abundance of Firmicutes and Gammaproteobacteria lineages in aircraft samples, and higher relative abundance of Actinobacteria and Betaproteobacteria lineages in outdoor air samples. In addition, aircraft and outdoor air samples differed in the incidence of taxa containing human pathogens. Overall, these results demonstrate that HEPA filter samples can be used to deeply characterize bacterial diversity in aircraft air and suggest that the presence of close relatives of certain pathogens must be taken into account in probe design for aircraft biosensors. PRACTICAL IMPLICATIONS A biosensor that could be deployed in commercial aircraft would be required to function at an extremely low false alarm rate, making an understanding of microbial background important. This study reveals a diverse bacterial background present on aircraft, including bacteria closely related to pathogens of public health concern. Furthermore, this aircraft background is different from outdoor air, suggesting different probes may be needed to detect airborne contaminants to achieve minimal false alarm rates. This study also indicates that aircraft HEPA filters could be used with other molecular techniques to further characterize background bacteria and in investigations in the wake of a disease outbreak.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- T. M. Korves
- Cognitive Tools and Data Management Department, The MITRE Corporation, Bedford, MA, USA
| | - Y. M. Piceno
- Ecology Department, Earth Sciences Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | - L. M. Tom
- Ecology Department, Earth Sciences Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | - T. Z. DeSantis
- Department of Bioinformatics, Second Genome, San Bruno, CA, USA
| | - B. W. Jones
- Department of Mechanical and Nuclear Engineering, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, USA
| | - G. L. Andersen
- Ecology Department, Earth Sciences Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | - G. M. Hwang
- Office of the Chief Engineer, The MITRE Corporation, Woodlawn, MD, USA
| |
Collapse
|
31
|
Balocco C. Hospital ventilation simulation for the study of potential exposure to contaminants. BUILDING SIMULATION 2011; 4:5-20. [PMID: 32218908 PMCID: PMC7090620 DOI: 10.1007/s12273-011-0019-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2010] [Revised: 01/02/2011] [Accepted: 01/06/2011] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Airflow and ventilation are particularly important in healthcare rooms for controlling thermo-hygrometric conditions, providing anaesthetic gas removal, diluting airborne bacterial contamination and minimizing bacteria transfer airborne. An actual hospitalization room was the investigate case study. Transient simulations with computational fluid dynamics (CFD), based on the finite element method (FEM) were performed to investigate the efficiency of the existing heating, ventilation and air-conditioning (HVAC) plant with a variable air volume (VAV) primary air system. Solid modelling of the room, taking into account thermo-physical properties of building materials, architectural features (e.g., window and wall orientation) and furnishing (e.g., beds, tables and lamps) arrangement of the room, inlet turbulence high induction air diffuser, the return air diffusers and two patients lying on two parallel beds was carried out. Multiphysics modelling was used: a thermo-fluidynamic model (convection-conduction and incompressible Navier-Stokes) was combined with a convection-diffusion model. Three 3D models were elaborated considering different conditions/events of the patients (i.e., the first was considered coughing and/or the second breathing). A particle tracing and diffusion model, connected to cough events, was developed to simulate the dispersal of bacteria-carrying droplets in the isolation room equipped with the existing ventilation system. An analysis of the region of droplet fallout and the dilution time of bacteria diffusion of coughed gas in the isolation room was performed. The analysis of transient simulation results concerning particle path and distance, and then particle tracing combined with their concentration, provided evidence of the formation of zones that should be checked by microclimatic and contaminant control. The present study highlights the fact that the CFD-FEM application is useful for understanding the efficiency, adequacy and reliability of the ventilation system, but also provides important suggestions for controlling air quality, patients' comfort and energy consumption in a hospital.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Carla Balocco
- Department of Energy Engineering “Sergio Stecco”, via S. Marta 3, 50139 Firenze, Italy
| |
Collapse
|
32
|
Goyal SM, Anantharaman S, Ramakrishnan MA, Sajja S, Kim SW, Stanley NJ, Farnsworth JE, Kuehn TH, Raynor PC. Detection of viruses in used ventilation filters from two large public buildings. Am J Infect Control 2011; 39:e30-8. [PMID: 21549446 PMCID: PMC7132662 DOI: 10.1016/j.ajic.2010.10.036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2010] [Revised: 10/19/2010] [Accepted: 10/20/2010] [Indexed: 12/05/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Viral and bacterial pathogens may be present in the air after being released from infected individuals and animals. Filters are installed in the heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning (HVAC) systems of buildings to protect ventilation equipment and maintain healthy indoor air quality. These filters process enormous volumes of air. This study was undertaken to determine the utility of sampling used ventilation filters to assess the types and concentrations of virus aerosols present in buildings. METHODS The HVAC filters from 2 large public buildings in Minneapolis and Seattle were sampled to determine the presence of human respiratory viruses and viruses with bioterrorism potential. Four air-handling units were selected from each building, and a total of 64 prefilters and final filters were tested for the presence of influenza A, influenza B, respiratory syncytial, corona, parainfluenza 1-3, adeno, orthopox, entero, Ebola, Marburg, Lassa fever, Machupo, eastern equine encephalitis, western equine encephalitis, and Venezuelan equine encephalitis viruses. Representative pieces of each filter were cut and eluted with a buffer solution. RESULTS Attempts were made to detect viruses by inoculation of these eluates in cell cultures (Vero, MDCK, and RK-13) and specific pathogen-free embryonated chicken eggs. Two passages of eluates in cell cultures or these eggs did not reveal the presence of any live virus. The eluates were also examined by polymerase chain reaction or reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction to detect the presence of viral DNA or RNA, respectively. Nine of the 64 filters tested were positive for influenza A virus, 2 filters were positive for influenza B virus, and 1 filter was positive for parainfluenza virus 1. CONCLUSION These findings indicate that existing building HVAC filters may be used as a method of detection for airborne viruses. As integrated long-term bioaerosol sampling devices, they may yield valuable information on the epidemiology and aerobiology of viruses in air that can inform the development of methods to prevent airborne transmission of viruses and possible deterrents against the spread of bioterrorism agents.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sagar M Goyal
- Department of Veterinary Population Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Minnesota, Saint Paul, 55108, USA.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
33
|
Ackelsberg J, Leykam FM, Hazi Y, Madsen LC, West TH, Faltesek A, Henderson GD, Henderson CL, Leighton T. The NYC native air sampling pilot project: using HVAC filter data for urban biological incident characterization. Biosecur Bioterror 2011; 9:213-24. [PMID: 21793731 DOI: 10.1089/bsp.2010.0064] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
Native air sampling (NAS) is distinguished from dedicated air sampling (DAS) devices (eg, BioWatch) that are deployed to detect aerosol disseminations of biological threat agents. NAS uses filter samples from heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems in commercial properties for environmental sampling after DAS detection of biological threat agent incidents. It represents an untapped, scientifically sound, efficient, widely distributed, and comparably inexpensive resource for postevent environmental sampling. Calculations predict that postevent NAS would be more efficient than environmental surface sampling by orders of magnitude. HVAC filter samples could be collected from pre-identified surrounding NAS facilities to corroborate the DAS alarm and delineate the path taken by the bioaerosol plume. The New York City (NYC) Native Air Sampling Pilot Project explored whether native air sampling would be acceptable to private sector stakeholders and could be implemented successfully in NYC. Building trade associations facilitated outreach to and discussions with property owners and managers, who expedited contact with building managers of candidate NAS properties that they managed or owned. Nominal NAS building requirements were determined; procedures to identify and evaluate candidate NAS facilities were developed; data collection tools and other resources were designed and used to expedite candidate NAS building selection and evaluation in Manhattan; and exemplar environmental sampling playbooks for emergency responders were completed. In this sample, modern buildings with single or few corporate tenants were the best NAS candidate facilities. The Pilot Project successfully demonstrated that in one urban setting a native air sampling strategy could be implemented with effective public-private collaboration.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Joel Ackelsberg
- Bureau of Communicable Diseases, NYC Department of Health and Mental Hygiene, 2 Gotham Center, 28th Street, Queens, NY 11101-4132, USA.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
34
|
Korves TM, Johnson D, Jones BW, Watson J, Wolk DM, Hwang GM. Detection of respiratory viruses on air filters from aircraft. Lett Appl Microbiol 2011; 53:306-12. [PMID: 21707676 PMCID: PMC7197756 DOI: 10.1111/j.1472-765x.2011.03107.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Aims: To evaluate the feasibility of identifying viruses from aircraft cabin air, we evaluated whether respiratory viruses trapped by commercial aircraft air filters can be extracted and detected using a multiplex PCR, bead‐based assay. Methods and Results: The ResPlex II assay was first tested for its ability to detect inactivated viruses applied to new filter material; all 18 applications of virus at a high concentration were detected. The ResPlex II assay was then used to test for 18 respiratory viruses on 48 used air filter samples from commercial aircraft. Three samples tested positive for viruses, and three viruses were detected: rhinovirus, influenza A and influenza B. For 33 of 48 samples, internal PCR controls performed suboptimally, suggesting sample matrix effect. Conclusion: In some cases, influenza and rhinovirus RNA can be detected on aircraft air filters, even more than 10 days after the filters were removed from aircraft. Significance and Impact of the Study: With protocol modifications to overcome PCR inhibition, air filter sampling and the ResPlex II assay could be used to characterize viruses in aircraft cabin air. Information about viruses in aircraft could support public health measures to reduce disease transmission within aircraft and between cities.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- T M Korves
- Cognitive Tools and Data Management Department, The MITRE Corporation, Bedford, MA, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
35
|
Damit B, Lee C, Wu CY. Flash infrared radiation disinfection of fibrous filters contaminated with bioaerosols. J Appl Microbiol 2011; 110:1074-84. [PMID: 21294821 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2672.2011.04965.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
AIMS To investigate the effectiveness of infrared (IR) radiation heating in disinfecting air filters loaded with bioaerosols. METHODS AND RESULTS An irradiation device was constructed considering the unique characteristics of IR and the physical dimensions and radiative properties of air filters. Filters loaded with test bioaerosols were irradiated with the device and flash heated to an ultra-high temperature (UHT). A maximum of 3·77-, 4·38- and 5·32-log inactivation of B. subtilis spores, E. coli, and MS2 virus respectively was achieved within 5 s of irradiation. Inactivation efficiency could be increased by using a higher IR power. Microscopic analysis showed no visible damage from the heat treatment that would affect filtration efficiency. CONCLUSIONS Because the disinfection was a dry heat process, a temperature greater than 200°C was found necessary to successfully inactivate the test micro-organisms. The results demonstrate that IR is able to quickly disinfect filters given sufficient incident power. Compared to existing filter disinfection technologies, it offers a faster and more effective solution. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY It has been shown that IR heating is a feasible option for filter disinfection; possibly reducing fomite transmission of collected micro-organisms and preventing bioaerosol reaerosolization.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- B Damit
- Department of Environmental Engineering Sciences, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
36
|
Greenberg DL, Busch JD, Keim P, Wagner DM. Identifying experimental surrogates for Bacillus anthracis spores: a review. INVESTIGATIVE GENETICS 2010; 1:4. [PMID: 21092338 PMCID: PMC2988482 DOI: 10.1186/2041-2223-1-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2010] [Accepted: 09/01/2010] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Bacillus anthracis, the causative agent of anthrax, is a proven biological weapon. In order to study this threat, a number of experimental surrogates have been used over the past 70 years. However, not all surrogates are appropriate for B. anthracis, especially when investigating transport, fate and survival. Although B. atrophaeus has been widely used as a B. anthracis surrogate, the two species do not always behave identically in transport and survival models. Therefore, we devised a scheme to identify a more appropriate surrogate for B. anthracis. Our selection criteria included risk of use (pathogenicity), phylogenetic relationship, morphology and comparative survivability when challenged with biocides. Although our knowledge of certain parameters remains incomplete, especially with regards to comparisons of spore longevity under natural conditions, we found that B. thuringiensis provided the best overall fit as a non-pathogenic surrogate for B. anthracis. Thus, we suggest focusing on this surrogate in future experiments of spore fate and transport modelling.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- David L Greenberg
- Center for Microbial Genetics and Genomics, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, AZ 86011-4073, USA
| | - Joseph D Busch
- Center for Microbial Genetics and Genomics, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, AZ 86011-4073, USA
| | | | - David M Wagner
- Center for Microbial Genetics and Genomics, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, AZ 86011-4073, USA
| |
Collapse
|
37
|
Fabian P, McDevitt JJ, Houseman EA, Milton DK. Airborne influenza virus detection with four aerosol samplers using molecular and infectivity assays: considerations for a new infectious virus aerosol sampler. INDOOR AIR 2009; 19:433-41. [PMID: 19689447 PMCID: PMC3684270 DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-0668.2009.00609.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
As a first step in conducting studies of airborne influenza transmission, we compared the collection performance of an SKC Biosampler, a compact cascade impactor (CCI), Teflon filters, and gelatin filters by collecting aerosolized influenza virus in a one-pass aerosol chamber. Influenza virus infectivity was determined using a fluorescent focus assay and influenza virus nucleic acid (originating from viable and non-viable viruses) was measured using quantitative PCR. The results showed that the SKC Biosampler recovered and preserved influenza virus infectivity much better than the other samplers - the CCI, Teflon, and gelatin filters recovered only 7-22% of infectious viruses compared with the Biosampler. Total virus collection was not significantly different among the SKC Biosampler, the gelatin, and Teflon filters, but was significantly lower in the CCI. Results from this study show that a new sampler is needed for virus aerosol sampling, as commercially available samplers do not efficiently collect and conserve virus infectivity. Applications for a new sampler include studies of airborne disease transmission and bioterrorism monitoring. Design parameters for a new sampler include high collection efficiency for fine particles and liquid sampling media to preserve infectivity. Practical Implications New air samplers are needed to study infectious airborne viruses and learn about airborne disease transmission. As a first step in designing a new air sampler to collect influenza virus we evaluated four commercial samplers and determined necessary design parameters for a new collector.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- P Fabian
- Department of Environmental Health, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
38
|
Abstract
To better understand the underlying mechanisms of aerovirology, accurate sampling of airborne viruses is fundamental. The sampling instruments commonly used in aerobiology have also been used to recover viruses suspended in the air. We reviewed over 100 papers to evaluate the methods currently used for viral aerosol sampling. Differentiating infections caused by direct contact from those caused by airborne dissemination can be a very demanding task given the wide variety of sources of viral aerosols. While epidemiological data can help to determine the source of the contamination, direct data obtained from air samples can provide very useful information for risk assessment purposes. Many types of samplers have been used over the years, including liquid impingers, solid impactors, filters, electrostatic precipitators, and many others. The efficiencies of these samplers depend on a variety of environmental and methodological factors that can affect the integrity of the virus structure. The aerodynamic size distribution of the aerosol also has a direct effect on sampler efficiency. Viral aerosols can be studied under controlled laboratory conditions, using biological or nonbiological tracers and surrogate viruses, which are also discussed in this review. Lastly, general recommendations are made regarding future studies on the sampling of airborne viruses.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Verreault
- Centre de Recherche, Hôpital Laval, Institut Universitaire de Cardiologie et de Pneumologie, 2725 Chemin Ste.-Foy, Quebec City, Quebec, Canada G1V 4G5
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
39
|
Stanley NJ, Kuehn TH, Kim SW, Raynor PC, Anantharaman S, Ramakrishnan MA, Goyal SM. Background culturable bacteria aerosol in two large public buildings using HVAC filters as long term, passive, high-volume air samplers. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2008; 10:474-81. [DOI: 10.1039/b719316e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
|
40
|
Kim SW, Ramakrishnan MA, Raynor PC, Goyal SM. Effects of humidity and other factors on the generation and sampling of a coronavirus aerosol. AEROBIOLOGIA 2007; 23:239-248. [PMID: 32214623 PMCID: PMC7087841 DOI: 10.1007/s10453-007-9068-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2007] [Accepted: 06/20/2007] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
Suspensions of transmissible gastroenteritis virus (TGEV), a porcine coronavirus, were nebulized at rates of 0.1-0.2 ml/min into moving air using a Collison nebulizer or a plastic medical nebulizer operating at pressures ranging from 7 to 15 psi. The airborne viruses were collected on heating, ventilating, and air conditioning (HVAC) filters in an experimental apparatus and also sampled upstream of these test filters using AGI-30 and BioSampler impinger samplers. To study the effects of relative humidity (RH) on TGEV collection by the filters and samplers, the virus was nebulized into air at 30, 50, 70, and 90% RH. There were no significant changes in virus titer in the nebulizer suspension before and after nebulization for either nebulizer at any of the pressures utilized. Aerosolization efficiency - the ratio of viable virus sampled with impingers to the quantity of viable virus nebulized - decreased with increasing humidity. BioSamplers detected more airborne virus than AGI-30 samplers at all RH levels. This difference was statistically significant at 30 and 50% RH. Nebulizer type and pressure did not significantly affect the viability of the airborne virus. Virus recovery from test filters relative to the concentration of virus in the nebulizer suspension was less than 10%. The most and the least virus were recovered from filter media at 30% and 90% RH, respectively. The results suggest that TGEV, and perhaps other coronaviruses, remain viable longer in an airborne state and are sampled more effectively at low RH than at high humidity.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Seung Won Kim
- Division of Environmental Health Sciences, School of Public Health, University of Minnesota, Mayo MC 807, 420 Delaware St. S.E., Minneapolis, MN 55455 USA
| | - M. A. Ramakrishnan
- Department of Veterinary Population Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Minnesota, 1333 Gortner Ave., St. Paul, MN 55108 USA
| | - Peter C. Raynor
- Division of Environmental Health Sciences, School of Public Health, University of Minnesota, Mayo MC 807, 420 Delaware St. S.E., Minneapolis, MN 55455 USA
| | - Sagar M. Goyal
- Department of Veterinary Population Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Minnesota, 1333 Gortner Ave., St. Paul, MN 55108 USA
| |
Collapse
|