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Viana Cabral F, Quilez Alburquerque J, Roberts HJ, Hasan T. Shedding Light on Chemoresistance: The Perspective of Photodynamic Therapy in Cancer Management. Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:3811. [PMID: 38612619 PMCID: PMC11011502 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25073811] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2024] [Revised: 03/18/2024] [Accepted: 03/26/2024] [Indexed: 04/14/2024] Open
Abstract
The persistent failure of standard chemotherapy underscores the urgent need for innovative and targeted approaches in cancer treatment. Photodynamic therapy (PDT) has emerged as a promising photochemistry-based approach to address chemoresistance in cancer regimens. PDT not only induces cell death but also primes surviving cells, enhancing their susceptibility to subsequent therapies. This review explores the principles of PDT and discusses the concept of photodynamic priming (PDP), which augments the effectiveness of treatments like chemotherapy. Furthermore, the integration of nanotechnology for precise drug delivery at the right time and location and PDT optimization are examined. Ultimately, this study highlights the potential and limitations of PDT and PDP in cancer treatment paradigms, offering insights into future clinical applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fernanda Viana Cabral
- Wellman Center for Photomedicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA; (F.V.C.); (J.Q.A.); (H.J.R.)
| | - Jose Quilez Alburquerque
- Wellman Center for Photomedicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA; (F.V.C.); (J.Q.A.); (H.J.R.)
| | - Harrison James Roberts
- Wellman Center for Photomedicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA; (F.V.C.); (J.Q.A.); (H.J.R.)
| | - Tayyaba Hasan
- Wellman Center for Photomedicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA; (F.V.C.); (J.Q.A.); (H.J.R.)
- Division of Health Sciences and Technology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
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2
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Chavda J, Rajwar A, Bhatia D, Gupta I. Synthesis of novel zinc porphyrins with bioisosteric replacement of Sorafenib: Efficient theranostic agents for anti-cancer application. J Inorg Biochem 2023; 249:112384. [PMID: 37776828 DOI: 10.1016/j.jinorgbio.2023.112384] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2023] [Revised: 09/11/2023] [Accepted: 09/20/2023] [Indexed: 10/02/2023]
Abstract
Novel zinc porphyrins (trans-A2B2 and A3B type) are reported containing pharmacophoric groups derived from Sorafenib at the meso-positions. The pharmacophoric and bioisosteric modification of Sorafenib was done with 2-methyl-4-nitro-N-phenylaniline. The in-vitro photo-cytotoxicity studies of zinc porphyrins on HeLa cells revealed excellent PDT based autophagy inhibition of cancer cells, with IC50 values between 6.2 to 15.4 μM. The trans-A2B2 type zinc porphyrin with two bioisosteric groups gave better cytotoxicity than A3B type. Molecular docking studies revealed excellent binding with mTOR protein kinase of the designed porphyrins. The confocal studies indicated significant ER localization of trans-A2B2 type zinc porphyrin in HeLa cells along with ROS generation. trans-A2B2 type zinc porphyrin induced ER stress in cancer cells, thereby causing elevation of Ca+2 ions in cytoplasm, which led to cancer cell death via autophagy pathway. The studies suggested that trans-A2B2 and A3B type zinc porphyrins can be developed as theranostic agents for anti-cancer applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jaydeepsinh Chavda
- Department of Chemistry, Indian Institute of Technology Gandhinagar, Palaj Campus, Gandhinagar, Gujarat 382355, India
| | - Anjali Rajwar
- Department of Biological Engineering, IIT Gandhinagar, Palaj Campus, Gandhinagar, Gujarat 382355, India
| | - Dhiraj Bhatia
- Department of Biological Engineering, IIT Gandhinagar, Palaj Campus, Gandhinagar, Gujarat 382355, India
| | - Iti Gupta
- Department of Chemistry, Indian Institute of Technology Gandhinagar, Palaj Campus, Gandhinagar, Gujarat 382355, India.
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3
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Rickard BP, Overchuk M, Obaid G, Ruhi MK, Demirci U, Fenton SE, Santos JH, Kessel D, Rizvi I. Photochemical Targeting of Mitochondria to Overcome Chemoresistance in Ovarian Cancer †. Photochem Photobiol 2023; 99:448-468. [PMID: 36117466 PMCID: PMC10043796 DOI: 10.1111/php.13723] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2022] [Accepted: 08/29/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Ovarian cancer is the most lethal gynecologic malignancy with a stubborn mortality rate of ~65%. The persistent failure of multiline chemotherapy, and significant tumor heterogeneity, has made it challenging to improve outcomes. A target of increasing interest is the mitochondrion because of its essential role in critical cellular functions, and the significance of metabolic adaptation in chemoresistance. This review describes mitochondrial processes, including metabolic reprogramming, mitochondrial transfer and mitochondrial dynamics in ovarian cancer progression and chemoresistance. The effect of malignant ascites, or excess peritoneal fluid, on mitochondrial function is discussed. The role of photodynamic therapy (PDT) in overcoming mitochondria-mediated resistance is presented. PDT, a photochemistry-based modality, involves the light-based activation of a photosensitizer leading to the production of short-lived reactive molecular species and spatiotemporally confined photodamage to nearby organelles and biological targets. The consequential effects range from subcytotoxic priming of target cells for increased sensitivity to subsequent treatments, such as chemotherapy, to direct cell killing. This review discusses how PDT-based approaches can address key limitations of current treatments. Specifically, an overview of the mechanisms by which PDT alters mitochondrial function, and a summary of preclinical advancements and clinical PDT experience in ovarian cancer are provided.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brittany P. Rickard
- Curriculum in Toxicology & Environmental Medicine, University of North Carolina School of Medicine, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
| | - Marta Overchuk
- Joint Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA; North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27606, USA
| | - Girgis Obaid
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Texas at Dallas, Richardson TX 95080, USA
| | - Mustafa Kemal Ruhi
- Institute of Biomedical Engineering, Boğaziçi University, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Utkan Demirci
- Canary Center at Stanford for Cancer Early Detection, Department of Radiology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Palo Alto, CA 94305, USA
| | - Suzanne E. Fenton
- Curriculum in Toxicology & Environmental Medicine, University of North Carolina School of Medicine, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
- Mechanistic Toxicology Branch, Division of the National Toxicology Program, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, USA
| | - Janine H. Santos
- Mechanistic Toxicology Branch, Division of the National Toxicology Program, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, USA
| | - David Kessel
- Department of Pharmacology, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI 48201, USA
| | - Imran Rizvi
- Curriculum in Toxicology & Environmental Medicine, University of North Carolina School of Medicine, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
- Joint Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA; North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27606, USA
- Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of North Carolina School of Medicine, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
- Center for Environmental Health and Susceptibility, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
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4
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Huis in ‘t Veld RV, Heuts J, Ma S, Cruz LJ, Ossendorp FA, Jager MJ. Current Challenges and Opportunities of Photodynamic Therapy against Cancer. Pharmaceutics 2023; 15:pharmaceutics15020330. [PMID: 36839652 PMCID: PMC9965442 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics15020330] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 27.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2022] [Revised: 01/06/2023] [Accepted: 01/12/2023] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is an established, minimally invasive treatment for specific types of cancer. During PDT, reactive oxygen species (ROS) are generated that ultimately induce cell death and disruption of the tumor area. Moreover, PDT can result in damage to the tumor vasculature and induce the release and/or exposure of damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) that may initiate an antitumor immune response. However, there are currently several challenges of PDT that limit its widespread application for certain indications in the clinic. METHODS A literature study was conducted to comprehensively discuss these challenges and to identify opportunities for improvement. RESULTS The most notable challenges of PDT and opportunities to improve them have been identified and discussed. CONCLUSIONS The recent efforts to improve the current challenges of PDT are promising, most notably those that focus on enhancing immune responses initiated by the treatment. The application of these improvements has the potential to enhance the antitumor efficacy of PDT, thereby broadening its potential application in the clinic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruben V. Huis in ‘t Veld
- Department of Ophthalmology, Leiden University Medical Centre (LUMC), 2333 ZA Leiden, Zuid-Holland, The Netherlands
- Department of Radiology, Leiden University Medical Centre (LUMC), 2333 ZA Leiden, Zuid-Holland, The Netherlands
- Correspondence:
| | - Jeroen Heuts
- Department of Immunology, Leiden University Medical Centre (LUMC), 2333 ZA Leiden, Zuid-Holland, The Netherlands
| | - Sen Ma
- Department of Ophthalmology, Leiden University Medical Centre (LUMC), 2333 ZA Leiden, Zuid-Holland, The Netherlands
| | - Luis J. Cruz
- Department of Radiology, Leiden University Medical Centre (LUMC), 2333 ZA Leiden, Zuid-Holland, The Netherlands
| | - Ferry A. Ossendorp
- Department of Immunology, Leiden University Medical Centre (LUMC), 2333 ZA Leiden, Zuid-Holland, The Netherlands
| | - Martine J. Jager
- Department of Ophthalmology, Leiden University Medical Centre (LUMC), 2333 ZA Leiden, Zuid-Holland, The Netherlands
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Sahoo S, Panda PK. In-Core N4-Coordination of Palladium(II) in Dinaphthoporphycene: Synthesis, Structure, and Photophysical Studies. Inorg Chem 2022; 61:2707-2712. [PMID: 35107282 DOI: 10.1021/acs.inorgchem.1c03629] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Dinaphthoporphycene (DNP) has emerged as a versatile ligand undergoing large out-of-plane distortion to form a cis-bimetallic complex with Pd(II) using Pd(OAc)2 and out-of-plane monometallic complexes with Pd(acac)2 and PtCl2(PhCN)2. Herein, we are finally able to synthesize the in-core complex with Pd(II) using PdCl2(PhCN)2 or PdCl2. The crystal structure shows the palladium ion resides slightly above the N4-core, with the Pd(II) dimensionally dissenting with the typical square planarity displayed by the reported in-core DNP complexes with Ni(II) and Cu(II) ions. The deformed complex displays a blue shift in the absorption spectra compared to DNP and its metallo-derivatives. PdDNP exhibits a moderate singlet oxygen generation ability (18%).
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Affiliation(s)
- Sameeta Sahoo
- School of Chemistry, University of Hyderabad, Hyderabad 500046, India
| | - Pradeepta K Panda
- School of Chemistry, University of Hyderabad, Hyderabad 500046, India
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6
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Sahoo S, Panda PK. β,β′-fusion induced unique out-of-plane platinum(II) complexation in porphycene. Inorganica Chim Acta 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ica.2021.120679] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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7
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Alectinib treatment improves photodynamic therapy in cancer cell lines of different origin. BMC Cancer 2021; 21:971. [PMID: 34461853 PMCID: PMC8404354 DOI: 10.1186/s12885-021-08667-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2020] [Accepted: 08/06/2021] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Photodynamic therapy with a photosensitizer such as protoporphyrin-IX, a light sensitive metabolite of heme synthesis, is a highly selective treatment for various carcinomas. In previous studies, we found a significant down regulation of the relevant enzyme ferrochelatase in gastrointestinal carcinomas leading to an accumulation of protoporphyrin-IX within the tumor cells. Recent studies showed that a novel anti-cancer drug, Alectinib, an orally available, highly selective, potent second-generation inhibitor of anaplastic lymphoma tyrosinkinase binds to ferrochelatase. Therefore, we were interested to see whether Alectinib treatment might lead to an accumulation of protoporphyrin IX. Methods Tumor cells of different origin were cultured, treated with LED-light and Alectinib. Results were gained by flow cytometry, immunohistochemistry and western blotting. Apoptosis was determined by flow cytometric analysis of Annexin V-FITC stained cells. In addition, cells were counterstained with propidium iodide to distinguish early apoptotic cells and late apoptotic/necrotic cells. Results Here, we report that photodynamic treatment of tumor cell lines of different origin in combination with Alectinib increased protoporphyrin-IX specific fluorescence and concomitantly cell death. Conclusions The usage of Alectinib could be another step for enhancing the effectiveness of photodynamic therapy. Further experiments will show whether photodynamic therapy in combination with Alectinib could be a new strategy for the treatment of e.g. peritoneal disseminated carcinomas. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12885-021-08667-x.
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Blaustein M, Piegari E, Martínez Calejman C, Vila A, Amante A, Manese MV, Zeida A, Abrami L, Veggetti M, Guertin DA, van der Goot FG, Corvi MM, Colman-Lerner A. Akt Is S-Palmitoylated: A New Layer of Regulation for Akt. Front Cell Dev Biol 2021; 9:626404. [PMID: 33659252 PMCID: PMC7917195 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2021.626404] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2020] [Accepted: 01/25/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The protein kinase Akt/PKB participates in a great variety of processes, including translation, cell proliferation and survival, as well as malignant transformation and viral infection. In the last few years, novel Akt posttranslational modifications have been found. However, how these modification patterns affect Akt subcellular localization, target specificity and, in general, function is not thoroughly understood. Here, we postulate and experimentally demonstrate by acyl-biotin exchange (ABE) assay and 3H-palmitate metabolic labeling that Akt is S-palmitoylated, a modification related to protein sorting throughout subcellular membranes. Mutating cysteine 344 into serine blocked Akt S-palmitoylation and diminished its phosphorylation at two key sites, T308 and T450. Particularly, we show that palmitoylation-deficient Akt increases its recruitment to cytoplasmic structures that colocalize with lysosomes, a process stimulated during autophagy. Finally, we found that cysteine 344 in Akt1 is important for proper its function, since Akt1-C344S was unable to support adipocyte cell differentiation in vitro. These results add an unexpected new layer to the already complex Akt molecular code, improving our understanding of cell decision-making mechanisms such as cell survival, differentiation and death.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matías Blaustein
- Departamento de Fisiología, Biología Molecular y Celular (DFBMC), Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales (FCEN), Universidad de Buenos Aires (UBA), Buenos Aires, Argentina.,Instituto de Fisiología, Biología Molecular y Neurociencias (IFIBYNE), Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET)-UBA, Buenos Aires, Argentina.,Instituto de Biociencias, Biotecnología y Biología Traslacional (iB3), Universidad de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Estefanía Piegari
- Departamento de Fisiología, Biología Molecular y Celular (DFBMC), Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales (FCEN), Universidad de Buenos Aires (UBA), Buenos Aires, Argentina.,Instituto de Fisiología, Biología Molecular y Neurociencias (IFIBYNE), Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET)-UBA, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Camila Martínez Calejman
- Program in Molecular Medicine, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA, United States
| | - Antonella Vila
- Departamento de Fisiología, Biología Molecular y Celular (DFBMC), Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales (FCEN), Universidad de Buenos Aires (UBA), Buenos Aires, Argentina.,Instituto de Fisiología, Biología Molecular y Neurociencias (IFIBYNE), Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET)-UBA, Buenos Aires, Argentina.,Instituto de Biociencias, Biotecnología y Biología Traslacional (iB3), Universidad de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Analía Amante
- Departamento de Fisiología, Biología Molecular y Celular (DFBMC), Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales (FCEN), Universidad de Buenos Aires (UBA), Buenos Aires, Argentina.,Instituto de Fisiología, Biología Molecular y Neurociencias (IFIBYNE), Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET)-UBA, Buenos Aires, Argentina.,Instituto de Biociencias, Biotecnología y Biología Traslacional (iB3), Universidad de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - María Victoria Manese
- Laboratorio de bioquímica y biología celular de parásitos, Instituto Tecnológico de Chascomús (IIB-INTECH), Universidad Nacional de San Martín (UNSAM) - CONICET, Chascomús, Argentina
| | - Ari Zeida
- Departamento de Bioquímica and Centro de Investigaciones Biomédicas (CEINBIO), Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de la República, Montevideo, Uruguay
| | - Laurence Abrami
- Global Health Institute, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Mariela Veggetti
- Departamento de Fisiología, Biología Molecular y Celular (DFBMC), Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales (FCEN), Universidad de Buenos Aires (UBA), Buenos Aires, Argentina.,Instituto de Fisiología, Biología Molecular y Neurociencias (IFIBYNE), Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET)-UBA, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - David A Guertin
- Program in Molecular Medicine, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA, United States.,Department of Molecular, Cell and Cancer Biology, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA, United States.,Lei Weibo Institute for Rare Diseases, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA, United States
| | - F Gisou van der Goot
- Global Health Institute, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - María Martha Corvi
- Laboratorio de bioquímica y biología celular de parásitos, Instituto Tecnológico de Chascomús (IIB-INTECH), Universidad Nacional de San Martín (UNSAM) - CONICET, Chascomús, Argentina
| | - Alejandro Colman-Lerner
- Departamento de Fisiología, Biología Molecular y Celular (DFBMC), Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales (FCEN), Universidad de Buenos Aires (UBA), Buenos Aires, Argentina.,Instituto de Fisiología, Biología Molecular y Neurociencias (IFIBYNE), Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET)-UBA, Buenos Aires, Argentina
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9
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Kessel D, Cho WJ, Rakowski J, Kim HE, Kim HRC. Effects of HPV Status on Responsiveness to Ionizing Radiation vs Photodynamic Therapy in Head and Neck Cancer Cell lines. Photochem Photobiol 2020; 96:652-657. [PMID: 31408910 PMCID: PMC7015759 DOI: 10.1111/php.13150] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2019] [Revised: 07/26/2019] [Accepted: 07/29/2019] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Efficacy of ionizing radiation (I/R) was compared with phototoxic effects of photodynamic therapy (PDT) in vitro using two cell lines derived from patients with head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC). A cell line derived from a donor with a human papilloma virus (HPV) infection was more responsive to I/R but significantly less responsive to PDT than a cell line derived from an HPV-free patient. Cell death after I/R in the HPV(+) cell line was associated with increased DEVDase activity, a hallmark of apoptosis. The HPV(-) line was considerably less responsive to I/R, with DEVDase activity greatly reduced, suggesting an impaired apoptotic program. In contrast, the HPV(-) cells were readily killed by PDT when the ER was among the targets for photodamage. While DEVDase activity was enhanced, the death pathway appears to involve paraptosis until the degree of photodamage reached the LD99 range. These data suggest that PDT-induced paraptosis can be a death pathway for cells with an impaired apoptotic program.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Kessel
- Departments of Pharmacology, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit MI 48201
| | - Won Jin Cho
- Pathology, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit MI 48201
| | - Joseph Rakowski
- Oncology, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit MI 48201
- Division of Radiation Oncology, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit MI 48201
| | - Harold E. Kim
- Oncology, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit MI 48201
- Division of Radiation Oncology, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit MI 48201
| | - Hyeong-Reh C. Kim
- Pathology, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit MI 48201
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10
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Manda G, Hinescu ME, Neagoe IV, Ferreira LF, Boscencu R, Vasos P, Basaga SH, Cuadrado A. Emerging Therapeutic Targets in Oncologic Photodynamic Therapy. Curr Pharm Des 2019; 24:5268-5295. [DOI: 10.2174/1381612825666190122163832] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2018] [Accepted: 01/18/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Background:Reactive oxygen species sustain tumorigenesis and cancer progression through deregulated redox signalling which also sensitizes cancer cells to therapy. Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is a promising anti-cancer therapy based on a provoked singlet oxygen burst, exhibiting a better toxicological profile than chemo- and radiotherapy. Important gaps in the knowledge on underlining molecular mechanisms impede on its translation towards clinical applications.Aims and Methods:The main objective of this review is to critically analyse the knowledge lately gained on therapeutic targets related to redox and inflammatory networks underlining PDT and its outcome in terms of cell death and resistance to therapy. Emerging therapeutic targets and pharmaceutical tools will be documented based on the identified molecular background of PDT.Results:Cellular responses and molecular networks in cancer cells exposed to the PDT-triggered singlet oxygen burst and the associated stresses are analysed using a systems medicine approach, addressing both cell death and repair mechanisms. In the context of immunogenic cell death, therapeutic tools for boosting anti-tumor immunity will be outlined. Finally, the transcription factor NRF2, which is a major coordinator of cytoprotective responses, is presented as a promising pharmacologic target for developing co-therapies designed to increase PDT efficacy.Conclusion:There is an urgent need to perform in-depth molecular investigations in the field of PDT and to correlate them with clinical data through a systems medicine approach for highlighting the complex biological signature of PDT. This will definitely guide translation of PDT to clinic and the development of new therapeutic strategies aimed at improving PDT.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Luis F.V. Ferreira
- CQFM-Centro de Fisica Molecular and IN-Institute for Nanosciences and Nanotechnologies and IBB-Institute for Bioengineering and Biosciences, Instituto Superior Tecnico, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal
| | | | - Paul Vasos
- Research Centre of the University of Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania
| | - Selma H. Basaga
- Molecular Biology Genetics & Program, Faculty of Engineering & Natural Sciences, Sabanci University, Istanbul, Turkey
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11
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Rizvi I, Nath S, Obaid G, Ruhi MK, Moore K, Bano S, Kessel D, Hasan T. A Combination of Visudyne and a Lipid-anchored Liposomal Formulation of Benzoporphyrin Derivative Enhances Photodynamic Therapy Efficacy in a 3D Model for Ovarian Cancer. Photochem Photobiol 2019; 95:419-429. [PMID: 30499113 DOI: 10.1111/php.13066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2018] [Accepted: 11/27/2018] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
A major objective in developing new treatment approaches for lethal tumors is to reduce toxicity to normal tissues while maintaining therapeutic efficacy. Photodynamic therapy (PDT) provides a mechanistically distinct approach to treat tumors without the systemic toxicity of chemotherapy drugs. PDT involves the light-based activation of a small molecule, a photosensitizer (PS), to generate reactive molecular species (RMS) that are toxic to target tissue. Depending on the PS localization, various cellular and subcellular components can be targeted, causing selective photodamage. It has been shown that targeted lysosomal photodamage followed by, or simultaneous with, mitochondrial photodamage using two different PS results in a considerable enhancement in PDT efficacy. Here, two liposomal formulations of benzoporphyrin derivative (BPD): (1) Visudyne (clinically approved) and (2) an in-house formulation entrapping a lipid conjugate of BPD are used in combination with direct PS localization to mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum and lysosomes, enabling simultaneous photodamage to all three organelles using a single wavelength of light. Building on findings by our group, and others, this study demonstrates, for the first time in a 3D model for ovarian cancer, that BPD-mediated photodestruction of lysosomes and mitochondria/ER significantly enhances PDT efficacy at lower light doses than treatment with either PS formulation alone.
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Affiliation(s)
- Imran Rizvi
- Wellman Center for Photomedicine, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA
| | - Shubhankar Nath
- Wellman Center for Photomedicine, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA
| | - Girgis Obaid
- Wellman Center for Photomedicine, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA
| | - Mustafa Kemal Ruhi
- Wellman Center for Photomedicine, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA.,Institute of Biomedical Engineering, Bogazici University, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Kaitlin Moore
- Wellman Center for Photomedicine, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA
| | - Shazia Bano
- Wellman Center for Photomedicine, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA
| | - David Kessel
- Department of Pharmacology, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI
| | - Tayyaba Hasan
- Wellman Center for Photomedicine, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA
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12
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Zhu B, Li S, Yu L, Hu W, Sheng D, Hou J, Zhao N, Hou X, Wu Y, Han Z, Wei L, Zhang L. Inhibition of Autophagy with Chloroquine Enhanced Sinoporphyrin Sodium Mediated Photodynamic Therapy-induced Apoptosis in Human Colorectal Cancer Cells. Int J Biol Sci 2019; 15:12-23. [PMID: 30662343 PMCID: PMC6329935 DOI: 10.7150/ijbs.27156] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2018] [Accepted: 09/28/2018] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
To evaluate the antitumor effect of sinoporphyrin sodium mediated photodynamic therapy (DVDMS-PDT) against human colorectal cancer (CRC) and to investigate the role of autophagy in its effect. Shrunken cells, condensed nuclei and increased levels of cleaved caspase-3 and Bax were observed in DVDMS-PDT treated HCT116 cells, reminiscent of apoptosis. DVDMS-PDT showed better antitumor efficiency in HCT116 cells than Photofrin mediated photodynamic therapy (PF-PDT) both in vitro and in vivo. And DVDMS-PDT caused autophagic characteristics: double membrane autophagosome structures and changes in autophagy-related protein expression (ATG7, P62, Bcl-2 and LC3-Ⅱ). In addition, inhibition of autophagy by chloroquine (CQ) promoted apoptosis, suggesting a possible protective role of autophagy in DVDMS-PDT-treated HCT116 cells, which was proved by flow cytometry and western blotting. The results of xenograft mouse model showed markedly increased apoptosis and significantly reduced tumor size in DVDMS-PDT treated group than Control, and DVDMS-PDT exhibited better antitumor efficiency than PF-PDT. Further, no visible tumor was observed in the CQ+DVDMS-PDT group at the end of the xenograft mouse experiment, which confirmed the hypothesis that autophagy was protective to DVDMS-PDT treated HCT116 cells. Our findings suggest that DVDMS is a promising photosensitizer and the combined use of autophagy inhibitor can remarkably enhance the DVDMS-PDT mediated anti-cancer efficiency in HCT116 cells both in vitro and in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bing Zhu
- Department of Pharmacy, Changhai Hospital, The Second Military Medical University, Shanghai, China
| | - Shanxin Li
- Department of Pharmacy, Changhai Hospital, The Second Military Medical University, Shanghai, China
| | - Lei Yu
- Department of Information, Changzheng Hospital, The Second Military Medical University, Shanghai, China
| | - Wei Hu
- Department of Pharmacy, The Second Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China
| | - Dandan Sheng
- Tumor Immunology and Gene Therapy Center, Eastern Hepatobiliary Surgery Hospital, The Second Military Medical University, Shanghai, China
| | - Jing Hou
- GCP Office, Xinhua Hospital Affiliated to Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Naping Zhao
- Department of Pharmacy, Changhai Hospital, The Second Military Medical University, Shanghai, China
| | - Xiaojuan Hou
- Tumor Immunology and Gene Therapy Center, Eastern Hepatobiliary Surgery Hospital, The Second Military Medical University, Shanghai, China
| | - Yechen Wu
- Tumor Immunology and Gene Therapy Center, Eastern Hepatobiliary Surgery Hospital, The Second Military Medical University, Shanghai, China
| | - Zhipeng Han
- Tumor Immunology and Gene Therapy Center, Eastern Hepatobiliary Surgery Hospital, The Second Military Medical University, Shanghai, China
| | - Lixin Wei
- Tumor Immunology and Gene Therapy Center, Eastern Hepatobiliary Surgery Hospital, The Second Military Medical University, Shanghai, China
| | - Li Zhang
- Department of Pharmacy, Changhai Hospital, The Second Military Medical University, Shanghai, China
- Department of Pharmacy, The Second Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China
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13
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Yang K, Niu T, Luo M, Tang L, Kang L. Enhanced cytotoxicity and apoptosis through inhibiting autophagy in metastatic potential colon cancer SW620 cells treated with Chlorin e6 photodynamic therapy. Photodiagnosis Photodyn Ther 2018; 24:332-341. [DOI: 10.1016/j.pdpdt.2018.10.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2018] [Revised: 09/04/2018] [Accepted: 10/15/2018] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
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14
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Xiong L, Liu Z, Ouyang G, Lin L, Huang H, Kang H, Chen W, Miao X, Wen Y. Autophagy inhibition enhances photocytotoxicity of Photosan-II in human colorectal cancer cells. Oncotarget 2018; 8:6419-6432. [PMID: 28031534 PMCID: PMC5351642 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.14117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2016] [Accepted: 12/13/2016] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Photodynamic therapy (PDT) has emerged as an attractive therapeutic treatment for colorectal cancer because of its accessibility through endoscopy and its ability to selectively target tumors without destroying the anatomical integrity of the colon. We therefore investigated the therapeutic relevance of the interplay between autophagy and apoptosis in Photosan-II (PS-II)-mediated photodynamic therapy (PS-PDT) in in vitro and in vivo models for human colorectal cancer. We observed that PS-PDT-induced dose-dependently triggered apoptosis and autophagy in both SW620 and HCT116 cells. PS-PDT-treated SW620 cells exhibited nuclear condensation and increased levels of cleaved caspase-3, PARP and Bax, which is reminiscent of apoptosis. PS-PDT also induced autophagic vacuoles, double membrane autophagosome structures and the autophagy-related proteins P62, Bcl-2, ATG7 and LC3-II. In addition, the AKT-mTOR pathway was downregulated, while AMPK was upregulated in PS-PDT-treated cells. Inhibiting autophagy using chloroquine or by downregulating ATG7 using shRNA further upregulated apoptosis, suggesting autophagy was probably was protective to PS-PDT-treated tumor cells. In vivo relevance was demonstrated when a combination of chloroquine and PS-PDT significantly reduced the tumor size in a xenograft mice model. Our findings demonstrate that combination therapy using PS-PDT and autophagy inhibitors may be an effective approach to treating colorectal cancer patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li Xiong
- General Surgery Department of Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, HN, China
| | - Zhipeng Liu
- General Surgery Department of Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, HN, China
| | - Guoqing Ouyang
- General Surgery Department of Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, HN, China
| | - Liangwu Lin
- China State Key Laboratory for Powder Metallurgy, Central South University, Changsha, HN, China
| | - He Huang
- Department of Histology and Embryology, Xiangya School of Medicine, Central South University, Changsha, HN, China
| | - Hongxiang Kang
- Institute of Radiation Medicine, Academy of Military Medical Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Wei Chen
- Department of Physics, University of Texas at Arlington, Arlington, TX, USA
| | - Xiongying Miao
- General Surgery Department of Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, HN, China
| | - Yu Wen
- General Surgery Department of Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, HN, China
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15
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Bogdan J, Pławińska-Czarnak J, Zarzyńska J. Nanoparticles of Titanium and Zinc Oxides as Novel Agents in Tumor Treatment: a Review. NANOSCALE RESEARCH LETTERS 2017; 12:225. [PMID: 28351128 PMCID: PMC5368103 DOI: 10.1186/s11671-017-2007-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2017] [Accepted: 03/17/2017] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
Cancer has become a global problem. On all continents, a great number of people are diagnosed with this disease. In spite of the progress in medical care, cancer still ends fatal for a great number of the ill, either as a result of a late diagnosis or due to inefficiency of therapies. The majority of the tumors are resistant to drugs. Thus, the search for new, more effective therapy methods continues. Recently, nanotechnology has been attributed with big expectations in respect of the cancer fight. That interdisciplinary field of science creates nanomaterials (NMs) and nanoparticles (NPs) that can be applied, e.g., in nanomedicine. NMs and NPs are perceived as very promising in cancer therapy since they can perform as drug carriers, as well as photo- or sonosensitizers (compounds that generate the formation of reactive oxygen species as a result of either electromagnetic radiation excitation with an adequate wavelength or ultrasound activation, respectively). Consequently, two new treatment modalities, the photodynamic therapy (PDT) and the sonodynamic therapy (SDT) have been created. The attachment of ligands or antibodies to NMs or to NPs improve their selective distribution into the targeted organ or cell; hence, the therapy effectiveness can be improved. An important advantage of the targeted tumor treatment is lowering the cyto- and genotoxicity of active substance towards healthy cells. Therefore, both PDT and SDT constitute a valuable alternative to chemo- or radiotherapy. The vital role in cancer eradication is attributed to two inorganic sensitizers in their nanosized scale: titanium dioxide and zinc oxide.
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Affiliation(s)
- Janusz Bogdan
- Department of Food Hygiene and Public Health Protection, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Warsaw University of Life Sciences - SGGW, Nowoursynowska 159, 02-776 Warsaw, Poland
| | - Joanna Pławińska-Czarnak
- Department of Food Hygiene and Public Health Protection, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Warsaw University of Life Sciences - SGGW, Nowoursynowska 159, 02-776 Warsaw, Poland
| | - Joanna Zarzyńska
- Department of Food Hygiene and Public Health Protection, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Warsaw University of Life Sciences - SGGW, Nowoursynowska 159, 02-776 Warsaw, Poland
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16
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Liu Z, Xiong L, Ouyang G, Ma L, Sahi S, Wang K, Lin L, Huang H, Miao X, Chen W, Wen Y. Investigation of Copper Cysteamine Nanoparticles as a New Type of Radiosensitiers for Colorectal Carcinoma Treatment. Sci Rep 2017; 7:9290. [PMID: 28839163 PMCID: PMC5570927 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-09375-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2016] [Accepted: 05/16/2017] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Copper Cysteamine (Cu-Cy) is a new photosensitizer and a novel radiosensitizer that can be activated by light, X-ray and microwave to produce singlet oxygen for cancer treatment. However, the killing mechanism of Cu-Cy nanoparticles on cancer cells is not clear yet and Cu-Cy nanoparticles as novel radiosensitizers have never been tested on colorectal cancers. Here, for the first time, we investigate the treatment efficiency of Cu-Cy nanoparticles on SW620 colorectal cells and elucidate the underlying mechanisms of the effects. The results show that X-ray activated Cu-Cy nanoparticles may kill SW620 cancerscells is in a dose-dependent manner. The JC-1 staining shows the mitochondrial membrane potential is decreased after the treatment. The observations confirm that Cu-Cy nanoparticles may improve X-ray radiotherapy on cancer treatment and X-ray activated Cu-Cy nanoparticles can be efficiently destroy colorectal cancer cells by inducing apoptosis as well as autophagy. As a new type of radiosensitizers and photosensitizers, Cu-Cy nanoparticles have a good potential for colorectal cancer treatment and the discovery of autophagy induced by X-ray irradiated Cu-Cy nanoparticles sheds a good insight to the mechanism of Cu-Cy for cancer treatment as a new radiosensitizers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhipeng Liu
- Department of General Surgery, Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, 410011, PR China
| | - Li Xiong
- Department of General Surgery, Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, 410011, PR China
| | - Guoqing Ouyang
- Department of General Surgery, Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, 410011, PR China
| | - Lun Ma
- Department of Physics and the SAVANT Center, The University of Texas at Arlington, Arlington, Texas, 76019-0059, USA
| | - Sunil Sahi
- Department of Physics and the SAVANT Center, The University of Texas at Arlington, Arlington, Texas, 76019-0059, USA
| | - Kunpeng Wang
- Department of General Surgery, Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, 410011, PR China
| | - Liangwu Lin
- State Key Laboratory for Powder Metallurgy, Central South University, Changsha Hunan, 410083, PR China
| | - He Huang
- Department of Histology and Embryology, Xiangya School of Medicine, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, 410078, PR China
| | - Xiongying Miao
- Department of General Surgery, Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, 410011, PR China
| | - Wei Chen
- Department of Physics and the SAVANT Center, The University of Texas at Arlington, Arlington, Texas, 76019-0059, USA.
| | - Yu Wen
- Department of General Surgery, Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, 410011, PR China.
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17
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Fettweis G, Di Valentin E, L'homme L, Lassence C, Dequiedt F, Fillet M, Coupienne I, Piette J. RIP3 antagonizes a TSC2-mediated pro-survival pathway in glioblastoma cell death. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA. MOLECULAR CELL RESEARCH 2017; 1864:113-124. [PMID: 27984090 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamcr.2016.10.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2016] [Revised: 09/29/2016] [Accepted: 10/25/2016] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Glioblastomas are the deadliest type of brain cancer and are frequently associated with poor prognosis and a high degree of recurrence despite removal by surgical resection and treatment by chemo- and radio-therapy. Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is a treatment well known to induce mainly necrotic and apoptotic cell death in solid tumors. 5-Aminolevulinic acid (5-ALA)-based PDT was recently shown to sensitize human glioblastoma cells (LN-18) to a RIP3 (Receptor Interacting Protein 3)-dependent cell death which is counter-acted by activation of autophagy. These promising results led us to investigate the pathways involved in cell death and survival mechanisms occurring in glioblastoma following PDT. In the present study, we describe a new TSC2 (Tuberous Sclerosis 2)-dependent survival pathway implicating MK2 (MAPKAPK2) kinase and 14-3-3 proteins which conducts to the activation of a pro-survival autophagy. Moreover, we characterized a new RIP3/TSC2 complex where RIP3 is suggested to promote cell death by targeting TSC2-dependent survival pathway. These results highlight (i) a new role of TSC2 to protect glioblastoma against PDT-induced cell death and (ii) TSC2 and 14-3-3 as new RIP3 partners.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gregory Fettweis
- Laboratory of Virology and Immunology, GIGA-I(3), University of Liège, Liège, Belgium
| | | | - Laurent L'homme
- Laboratory of Virology and Immunology, GIGA-I(3), University of Liège, Liège, Belgium
| | - Cédric Lassence
- Laboratory of Virology and Immunology, GIGA-I(3), University of Liège, Liège, Belgium
| | - Franck Dequiedt
- Laboratory of Protein Signaling and Interactions, GIGA-Molecular Biology of Diseases, University of Liège, Liège, Belgium
| | - Marianne Fillet
- Laboratory for the Analysis of Medicines (LAM), Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, CIRM, University of Liège, Liège, Belgium
| | - Isabelle Coupienne
- Laboratory of Virology and Immunology, GIGA-I(3), University of Liège, Liège, Belgium
| | - Jacques Piette
- Laboratory of Virology and Immunology, GIGA-I(3), University of Liège, Liège, Belgium.
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18
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Ziółkowska B, Woźniak M, Ziółkowski P. Co-expression of autophagic markers following photodynamic therapy in SW620 human colon adenocarcinoma cells. Mol Med Rep 2016; 14:2548-54. [PMID: 27485939 PMCID: PMC4991753 DOI: 10.3892/mmr.2016.5541] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2016] [Accepted: 05/31/2016] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is a minimally invasive cancer treatment. It involves the combination of a photosensitizer and light of a specific wavelength to generate singlet oxygen and other reactive oxygen species that lead to tumor cell death. Autophagy is one of the pathways that tumor cells undergo during photodamage and it is common in photodynamic therapy. The aim of this study was to examine the effect of in vitro PDT on the expression of autophagy‑related proteins, autophagy related 7 (Atg7), light chain 3 (LC3) and Beclin‑1. Human SW620 colon carcinoma cells were treated with 5-aminolevulinic acid (ALA)‑based PDT at a dose of 3 mM. The irradiation was performed using 4.5 J/cm2 total light and a fluence rate of 60 mW/cm2. Autophagy was evaluated by immunocytochemistry using specific antibodies to Atg7, Beclin‑1 and LC3. The evaluation was repeated at several time points (0, 4, 8 and 24 h) following irradiation. The induction of autophagy was observed directly following the 5‑ALA‑mediated PDT procedure with the strongest expression of autophagy-related proteins at 4 and 8 h after irradiation as demonstrated using immunocytochemistry. It was characterized by significantly increased expression of Beclin‑1, Atg7 and LC3. To the best of our knowledge this is the first study to analyze Beclin‑1, Atg7 and LC3 expression in a PDT‑related experiment. This study enhances the understanding of the role of autophagy in PDT, which may contribute to better and more effective tumor responses to this therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Barbara Ziółkowska
- Department of Pathology, Wrocław Medical University, 50‑368 Wrocław, Poland
| | - Marta Woźniak
- Department of Pathology, Wrocław Medical University, 50‑368 Wrocław, Poland
| | - Piotr Ziółkowski
- Department of Pathology, Wrocław Medical University, 50‑368 Wrocław, Poland
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19
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Kim J, Lim H, Kim S, Cho H, Kim Y, Li X, Choi H, Kim O. Effects of HSP27 downregulation on PDT resistance through PDT-induced autophagy in head and neck cancer cells. Oncol Rep 2016; 35:2237-45. [PMID: 26820233 DOI: 10.3892/or.2016.4597] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2015] [Accepted: 11/05/2015] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
We previously reported that photodynamic therapy (PDT) induces cell death in head and neck cancer through both autophagy and apoptosis. Regulation of cell death by autophagy and apoptosis is important to enhance the effects of PDT. Autophagy maintains a balance between cell death and PDT resistance. Downregulation of heat shock protein 27 (HSP27) induces PDT resistance in head and neck cancer cells. Furthermore, HSP70 regulates apoptosis during oxidative stress. However, the role of HSPs in PDT-induced cell death through autophagy and apoptosis is unclear. Therefore, in the present study, we investigated the effects of HSP27 and HSP70 on PDT-induced cell death of oral cancer cells through autophagy and apoptosis. Cancer cells were treated with hematoporphyrin at varying doses, followed by irradiation at 635 nm with an energy density of 5 mW/cm2. We determined the changes in HSP expression by determining the levels of PARP-1 and LC3II in PDT-resistant cells. Furthermore, we assessed cell death signaling after downregulating HSPs by transfecting specific siRNAs. We observed that PDT decreased HSP27 expression but increased HSP70 expression in the head and neck cancer cells. Treatment of cells with LC3II and PARP-1 inhibitors resulted in upregulation of HSP70 and HSP27 expression, respectively. Downregulation of HSP27 and HSP70 induced cell death and PDT resistance through autophagy and apoptosis. Moreover, downregulation of HSP27 in PDT-resistant cells resulted in enhanced survival. These results indicate that the regulation of HSP27 and HSP70 plays a principal role in increasing the effects of PDT by inducing autophagic and apoptotic cell death.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jisun Kim
- Department of Oral Pathology, Dental Science Research Institute and Medical Research Center for Biomineralization Disorders, School of Dentistry, Chonnam National University, Gwangju 500-757, Republic of Korea
| | - Haesoon Lim
- Department of Oral Pathology, Dental Science Research Institute and Medical Research Center for Biomineralization Disorders, School of Dentistry, Chonnam National University, Gwangju 500-757, Republic of Korea
| | - Sangwoo Kim
- Department of Oral Pathology, Dental Science Research Institute and Medical Research Center for Biomineralization Disorders, School of Dentistry, Chonnam National University, Gwangju 500-757, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyejung Cho
- Department of Oral Pathology, Dental Science Research Institute and Medical Research Center for Biomineralization Disorders, School of Dentistry, Chonnam National University, Gwangju 500-757, Republic of Korea
| | - Yong Kim
- Department of Oral Pathology, Dental Science Research Institute and Medical Research Center for Biomineralization Disorders, School of Dentistry, Chonnam National University, Gwangju 500-757, Republic of Korea
| | - Xiaojie Li
- College of Stomatology, Dalian Medical University, Dalian, Liaoning 116044, P.R. China
| | - Hongran Choi
- Department of Oral Pathology, Dental Science Research Institute and Medical Research Center for Biomineralization Disorders, School of Dentistry, Chonnam National University, Gwangju 500-757, Republic of Korea
| | - Okjoon Kim
- Department of Oral Pathology, Dental Science Research Institute and Medical Research Center for Biomineralization Disorders, School of Dentistry, Chonnam National University, Gwangju 500-757, Republic of Korea
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20
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Bacellar IOL, Tsubone TM, Pavani C, Baptista MS. Photodynamic Efficiency: From Molecular Photochemistry to Cell Death. Int J Mol Sci 2015; 16:20523-59. [PMID: 26334268 PMCID: PMC4613217 DOI: 10.3390/ijms160920523] [Citation(s) in RCA: 243] [Impact Index Per Article: 27.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2015] [Revised: 08/18/2015] [Accepted: 08/24/2015] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is a clinical modality used to treat cancer and infectious diseases. The main agent is the photosensitizer (PS), which is excited by light and converted to a triplet excited state. This latter species leads to the formation of singlet oxygen and radicals that oxidize biomolecules. The main motivation for this review is to suggest alternatives for achieving high-efficiency PDT protocols, by taking advantage of knowledge on the chemical and biological processes taking place during and after photosensitization. We defend that in order to obtain specific mechanisms of cell death and maximize PDT efficiency, PSes should oxidize specific molecular targets. We consider the role of subcellular localization, how PS photochemistry and photophysics can change according to its nanoenvironment, and how can all these trigger specific cell death mechanisms. We propose that in order to develop PSes that will cause a breakthrough enhancement in the efficiency of PDT, researchers should first consider tissue and intracellular localization, instead of trying to maximize singlet oxygen quantum yields in in vitro tests. In addition to this, we also indicate many open questions and challenges remaining in this field, hoping to encourage future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isabel O L Bacellar
- Instituto de Química, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo 05508-900, Brazil.
| | - Tayana M Tsubone
- Instituto de Química, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo 05508-900, Brazil.
| | - Christiane Pavani
- Programa de Pós Graduação em Biofotônica Aplicada às Ciências da Saúde, Universidade Nove de Julho, São Paulo 01504-001, Brazil.
| | - Mauricio S Baptista
- Instituto de Química, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo 05508-900, Brazil.
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21
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Weijer R, Broekgaarden M, Kos M, van Vught R, Rauws EA, Breukink E, van Gulik TM, Storm G, Heger M. Enhancing photodynamic therapy of refractory solid cancers: Combining second-generation photosensitizers with multi-targeted liposomal delivery. JOURNAL OF PHOTOCHEMISTRY AND PHOTOBIOLOGY C-PHOTOCHEMISTRY REVIEWS 2015. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jphotochemrev.2015.05.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
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22
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Čižeková L, Grolmusová A, Ipóthová Z, Barbieriková Z, Brezová V, Hunáková L, Imrich J, Janovec L, Dovinová I, Paulíková H. Novel 3,6-bis(imidazolidine)acridines as effective photosensitizers for photodynamic therapy. Bioorg Med Chem 2014; 22:4684-93. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bmc.2014.07.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2014] [Revised: 07/01/2014] [Accepted: 07/09/2014] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
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23
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Du L, Jiang N, Wang G, Chu Y, Lin W, Qian J, Zhang Y, Zheng J, Chen G. Autophagy inhibition sensitizes bladder cancer cells to the photodynamic effects of the novel photosensitizer chlorophyllin e4. JOURNAL OF PHOTOCHEMISTRY AND PHOTOBIOLOGY B-BIOLOGY 2014; 133:1-10. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jphotobiol.2014.02.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2013] [Revised: 02/12/2014] [Accepted: 02/15/2014] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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24
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Lai YC, Chang CC. Photostable BODIPY-based molecule with simultaneous type I and type II photosensitization for selective photodynamic cancer therapy. J Mater Chem B 2014; 2:1576-1583. [DOI: 10.1039/c3tb21547d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
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25
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Lai YC, Su SY, Chang CC. Special reactive oxygen species generation by a highly photostable BODIPY-based photosensitizer for selective photodynamic therapy. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2013; 5:12935-12943. [PMID: 24313397 DOI: 10.1021/am403593m] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
We introduce a new class of photostable, efficient photosensitizers based on boron-dipyrromethene (BODIPY) derivatives that can generate singlet oxygen and super oxide simultaneously under irradiation. For compound preparation, appropriate regulation of the reaction conditions and control of specifically substituted BODIPY derivatives have been achieved. After biologically evaluating the intracellular uptake, localization, and phototoxicity of the compounds, we conclude that 3,5-dianiline-substituted BODIPY is a potentially selective photodynamic therapy candidate because its photodamage is more efficient in cancer cells than in normal cells, without apparent dark toxicity. Furthermore, direct comparison of photodamage efficacy revealed that our compound has better efficacy than Foscan and nearly equal efficacy to that of methylene blue.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yen-Chih Lai
- Graduate Institute of Biomedical Engineering, National Chung Hsing University , 250 Kuo Kuang Road, Taichung, 402, Taiwan, R.O.C
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26
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Affiliation(s)
- Anup Rana
- School
of Chemistry and Advance Centre of Research in High Energy Materials
(ACRHEM), University of Hyderabad, Hyderabad-500046, India
| | - Pradeepta K. Panda
- School
of Chemistry and Advance Centre of Research in High Energy Materials
(ACRHEM), University of Hyderabad, Hyderabad-500046, India
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27
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Mroz P, Yaroslavsky A, Kharkwal GB, Hamblin MR. Cell death pathways in photodynamic therapy of cancer. Cancers (Basel) 2013; 3:2516-39. [PMID: 23914299 PMCID: PMC3729395 DOI: 10.3390/cancers3022516] [Citation(s) in RCA: 424] [Impact Index Per Article: 38.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is an emerging cancer therapy that uses the combination of non-toxic dyes or photosensitizers (PS) and harmless visible light to produce reactive oxygen species and destroy tumors. The PS can be localized in various organelles such as mitochondria, lysosomes, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus and plasma membranes and this sub-cellular location governs much of the signaling that occurs after PDT. There is an acute stress response that leads to changes in calcium and lipid metabolism and causes the production of cytokines and stress response mediators. Enzymes (particularly protein kinases) are activated and transcription factors are expressed. Many of the cellular responses center on mitochondria and frequently lead to induction of apoptosis by the mitochondrial pathway involving caspase activation and release of cytochrome c. Certain specific proteins (such as Bcl-2) are damaged by PDT-induced oxidation thereby increasing apoptosis, and a build-up of oxidized proteins leads to an ER-stress response that may be increased by proteasome inhibition. Autophagy plays a role in either inhibiting or enhancing cell death after PDT.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pawel Mroz
- Wellman Center for Photomedicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA 02114, USA; E-Mails: (A.Y.); (G.K.); (M.R.H.)
- Department of Dermatology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA
- Author to whom correspondence should be addressed; E-Mail: ; Tel.: +1-617 726 1870; Fax: +1-617-726-8566
| | - Anastasia Yaroslavsky
- Wellman Center for Photomedicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA 02114, USA; E-Mails: (A.Y.); (G.K.); (M.R.H.)
- Boston University College of Engineering, Boston, MA 02114, USA
| | - Gitika B Kharkwal
- Wellman Center for Photomedicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA 02114, USA; E-Mails: (A.Y.); (G.K.); (M.R.H.)
- Department of Dermatology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA
| | - Michael R. Hamblin
- Wellman Center for Photomedicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA 02114, USA; E-Mails: (A.Y.); (G.K.); (M.R.H.)
- Department of Dermatology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA
- Harvard-MIT Division of Health Sciences and Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
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Li Z, Zhu L, Xu J, Mon H, Lee JM, Kusakabe T. Amino Acid deprivation-induced expression of asparagine synthetase regulates the growth and survival of cultured silkworm cells. ARCHIVES OF INSECT BIOCHEMISTRY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2013; 83:57-68. [PMID: 23633098 DOI: 10.1002/arch.21091] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Expression of Bombyx mori Asparagine synthetase (BmASNS), one gene that encodes an enzyme catalyzing asparagine biosynthesis, is transcriptionally induced following amino acid deprivation. Previous transcriptional analysis of the BmASNS gene showed the involvement of Polycomb proteins, epigenetic repressors, in suppressing BmASNS expression in a cell cycle-dependent manner. However, the role of BmAsns protein in these cellular processes remains unclear. The present study thus exploited the potential function of BmAsns protein in cultured silkworm cells. Our results showed that ectopic overexpression of BmASNS gene effectively inhibited cell growth in silkworm cells, whereas its overexpression could rescue cell growth upon amino acid deprivation treatment. We found that the cells expressing BmAsns protein were capable of influencing the formation of autophagic vacuoles stimulated by amino acid deprivation. We speculated that the recovery of cell growth by overexpressed BmAsns protein is due to the rapid turnover of autophagic vacuoles in the cells. To further assess the effects of BmAsns on cell development, we used RNA interference to silence BmASNS expression in silkworm cells in the presence or absence of amino acids. Our results revealed a significant change of cell proliferation as well as cell cycle distribution after knockdown of BmASNS. Importantly, silkworm cells lacking BmASNS under the condition of amino acid deprivation showed severely impaired proliferation. Altogether, we concluded that the up-regulated expression of BmASNS would be able to protect cells from impairment induced by amino acid deprivation, which in turn facilitates cell growth and survival.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhiqing Li
- Laboratory of Silkworm Science, Kyushu University Graduate School of Bioresource and Bioenvironmental Sciences, Fukuoka, Japan
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Allison RR, Moghissi K. Oncologic photodynamic therapy: clinical strategies that modulate mechanisms of action. Photodiagnosis Photodyn Ther 2013; 10:331-41. [PMID: 24284082 DOI: 10.1016/j.pdpdt.2013.03.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 94] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2013] [Revised: 03/17/2013] [Accepted: 03/28/2013] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is an elegant minimally invasive oncologic therapy. The clinical simplicity of photosensitizer (PS) drug application followed by appropriate illumination of target leading to the oxygen dependent tumor ablative Photodynamic Reaction (PDR) has gained this treatment worldwide acceptance. Yet the true potential of clinical PDT has not yet been achieved. This paper will review current mechanisms of action and treatment paradigms with critical commentary on means to potentially improve outcome using readily available clinical tools.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ron R Allison
- Medical Director 21st Century Oncology, 801 WH Smith Boulevard, Greenville, NC 27834, USA.
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Rizvi I, Anbil S, Alagic N, Celli J, Celli JP, Zheng LZ, Palanisami A, Glidden MD, Pogue BW, Hasan T. PDT dose parameters impact tumoricidal durability and cell death pathways in a 3D ovarian cancer model. Photochem Photobiol 2013; 89:942-52. [PMID: 23442192 DOI: 10.1111/php.12065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2012] [Accepted: 02/20/2013] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
The successful implementation of photodynamic therapy (PDT)-based regimens depends on an improved understanding of the dosimetric and biological factors that govern therapeutic variability. Here, the kinetics of tumor destruction and regrowth are characterized by systematically varying benzoporphyrin derivative (BPD)-light combinations to achieve fixed PDT doses (M × J cm(-2)). Three endpoints were used to evaluate treatment response: (1) Viability evaluated every 24 h for 5 days post-PDT; (2) Photobleaching assessed immediately post-PDT; and (3) Caspase-3 activation determined 24 h post-PDT. The specific BPD-light parameters used to construct a given PDT dose significantly impact not only acute cytotoxic efficacy, but also treatment durability. For each dose, PDT with 0.25 μM BPD produces the most significant and sustained reduction in normalized viability compared to 1 and 10 μM BPD. Percent photobleaching correlates with normalized viability for a range of PDT doses achieved within BPD concentrations. To produce a cytotoxic response with 10 μM BPD that is comparable to 0.25 and 1 μM BPD a reduction in irradiance from 150 to 0.5 mW cm(-2) is required. Activated caspase-3 does not correlate with normalized viability. The parameter-dependent durability of outcomes within fixed PDT doses provides opportunities for treatment customization and improved therapeutic planning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Imran Rizvi
- Wellman Center for Photomedicine, Department of Dermatology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
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31
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Nanomaterials and autophagy: new insights in cancer treatment. Cancers (Basel) 2013; 5:296-319. [PMID: 24216709 PMCID: PMC3730308 DOI: 10.3390/cancers5010296] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2013] [Revised: 03/05/2013] [Accepted: 03/19/2013] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Autophagy represents a cell’s response to stress. It is an evolutionarily conserved process with diversified roles. Indeed, it controls intracellular homeostasis by degradation and/or recycling intracellular metabolic material, supplies energy, provides nutrients, eliminates cytotoxic materials and damaged proteins and organelles. Moreover, autophagy is involved in several diseases. Recent evidences support a relationship between several classes of nanomaterials and autophagy perturbation, both induction and blockade, in many biological models. In fact, the autophagic mechanism represents a common cellular response to nanomaterials. On the other hand, the dynamic nature of autophagy in cancer biology is an intriguing approach for cancer therapeutics, since during tumour development and therapy, autophagy has been reported to trigger both an early cell survival and a late cell death. The use of nanomaterials in cancer treatment to deliver chemotherapeutic drugs and target tumours is well known. Recently, autophagy modulation mediated by nanomaterials has become an appealing notion in nanomedicine therapeutics, since it can be exploited as adjuvant in chemotherapy or in the development of cancer vaccines or as a potential anti-cancer agent. Herein, we summarize the effects of nanomaterials on autophagic processes in cancer, also considering the therapeutic outcome of synergism between nanomaterials and autophagy to improve existing cancer therapies.
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Yoo JO, Ha KS. New insights into the mechanisms for photodynamic therapy-induced cancer cell death. INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2012; 295:139-74. [PMID: 22449489 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-394306-4.00010-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 104] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is a promising therapeutic modality for cancer treatment; however, a more detailed understanding is needed to improve the clinical use of this therapy. PDT induces cancer cell death by apoptosis, necrosis, and autophagy, and these mechanisms can be concurrently occurred. PDT destroys cancer cells by inducing apoptosis through diverse signaling pathways coupled with Bcl-2 family members, caspases, and apopotosis-inducing factor. When the apoptotic pathway is unavailable, PDT can cause cancer cell death through induction of a necrotic or autophagic mechanism. Autophagy is occurred in a Bax-independent manner and can be stimulated in parallel with apoptosis. PDT directly destroys cancer cells by inducing either apoptotic or necrotic death. PDT also can induce autophagy as a death or a survival mechanism. These mechanisms are dependent on a variety of parameters including the nature of the photosensitizer, PDT dose, and cell genotype. Understanding the complex cross talk between these pathways may improve the effectiveness of PDT. Here, we discuss the interplay between these mechanisms based on recent evidence and suggest prospects with regard to advances in PDT.
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Affiliation(s)
- Je-Ok Yoo
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry, Kangwon National University School of Medicine, Chuncheon, Kangwon-do, South Korea
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Abstract
Photodynamic therapy relies on the interaction between light, oxygen and a photosensitizing agent. Its medical significance relates to the ability of certain agents, usually based on porphyrin or phthalocyanine structures, to localize somewhat selectively in neoplastic cells and their vasculature. Subsequent irradiation, preferably at a sufficiently high wavelength to have a significant pathway through tissues, results in a photophysical reaction whereby the excited state of the photosensitizing agent transfers energy to molecular oxygen and results in the formation of reactive oxygen species. Analogous reactive nitrogen species are also formed. These contain both nitrogen and oxygen atoms. The net result is both direct tumor cell death and a shutdown of the tumor vasculature. Other processes may also occur that promote the anti-tumor response but these are outside the scope of this review.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Kessel
- Department of Pharmacology Wayne State University School of Medicine Detroit, MI 48201 (USA) phone: +0013135771787
| | - John Reiners
- Institute of Environmental Health Sciences Wayne State University Detroit, MI 48201 (USA) phone: +0013135775594
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Kessel DH, Price M, Reiners JJ. ATG7 deficiency suppresses apoptosis and cell death induced by lysosomal photodamage. Autophagy 2012; 8:1333-41. [PMID: 22889762 DOI: 10.4161/auto.20792] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Photodynamic therapy (PDT) involves photosensitizing agents that, in the presence of oxygen and light, initiate formation of cytotoxic reactive oxygen species (ROS). PDT commonly induces both apoptosis and autophagy. Previous studies with murine hepatoma 1c1c7 cells indicated that loss of autophagy-related protein 7 (ATG7) inhibited autophagy and enhanced the cytotoxicity of photosensitizers that mediate photodamage to mitochondria or the endoplasmic reticulum. In this study, we examined two photosensitizing agents that target lysosomes: the chlorin NPe6 and the palladium bacteriopheophorbide WST11. Irradiation of wild-type 1c1c7 cultures loaded with either photosensitizer induced apoptosis and autophagy, with a blockage of autophagic flux. An ATG7- or ATG5-deficiency suppressed the induction of autophagy in PDT protocols using either photosensitizer. Whereas ATG5-deficient cells were quantitatively similar to wild-type cultures in their response to NPe6 and WST11 PDT, an ATG7-deficiency suppressed the apoptotic response (as monitored by analyses of chromatin condensation and procaspase-3/7 activation) and increased the LD(50) light dose by > 5-fold (as monitored by colony-forming assays). An ATG7-deficiency did not prevent immediate lysosomal photodamage, as indicated by loss of the lysosomal pH gradient. However, unlike wild-type and ATG5-deficient cells, the lysosomes of ATG7-deficient cells recovered this gradient within 4 h of irradiation, and never underwent permeabilization (monitored as release of endocytosed 10-kDa dextran polymers). We propose that the efficacy of lysosomal photosensitizers is in part due to both promotion of autophagic stress and suppression of autophagic prosurvival functions. In addition, an effect of ATG7 unrelated to autophagy appears to modulate lysosomal photodamage.
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Affiliation(s)
- David H Kessel
- Department of Pharmacology, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI, USA.
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Celli JP, Solban N, Liang A, Pereira SP, Hasan T. Verteporfin-based photodynamic therapy overcomes gemcitabine insensitivity in a panel of pancreatic cancer cell lines. Lasers Surg Med 2012; 43:565-74. [PMID: 22057484 DOI: 10.1002/lsm.21093] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE Pancreatic cancer is notoriously difficult to treat and resistant to virtually all therapeutics including gemcitabine, the standard front line agent for palliative chemotherapy. Early clinical studies point to a potential role for photodynamic therapy (PDT) in the management of this deadly disease. Here we examine PDT with verteporfin for treatment of cells that are nonresponsive to gemcitabine and identify intracellular and extracellular factors that govern sensitivity to each modality. STUDY DESIGN Using MTS we assess cytotoxicity of verteporfin-PDT in gemcitabine-treated nonresponsive populations from a panel of five pancreatic cancer cell lines representing a range of tumor histopathology and origin. We conduct Western blots for pro-/anti-apoptotic proteins bax and Bcl-XL to identify factors relevant to PDT and gemcitabine sensitivity. To examine the role of extracellular matrix influences we compare response to each modality in traditional cell culture conditions and cells grown on a laminin-rich basement membrane. RESULTS All cell lines have gemcitabine nonresponsive populations (17-33%) at doses up to 1 mM while moderate total verteporfin PDT doses (1-6 µM J/cm2) produce nearly complete killing. Our data shows that cells that are nonresponsive to sustained gemcitabine incubation are sensitive to verteporfin PDT indicating that the latter is agnostic to gemcitabine sensitivity. Verteporfin-based PDT decreases Bcl-XL and increases the bax/Bcl-XL ratio toward a pro-apoptotic balance. Insensitivity to gemcitabine is increased in cells that are adherent to basement membrane relative to traditional tissue culture conditions. CONCLUSIONS Collectively these results indicate the ability of verteporfin-based PDT to bypass intracellular and extracellular cues leading to gemcitabine resistance and point to the emerging role of this therapy for treatment of pancreatic cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan P Celli
- Wellman Center for Photomedicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02114, USA
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36
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Klyta M, Ostasiewicz P, Jurczyszyn K, Duś K, Latos-Grażyński L, Pacholska-Dudziak E, Ziółkowski P. Vacata- and divacataporphyrin: new photosensitizers for application in photodynamic therapy-an in vitro study. Lasers Surg Med 2012; 43:607-13. [PMID: 22057488 DOI: 10.1002/lsm.21086] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE The photodynamic therapy is a well-known method of treatment of both malignant tumors and non-tumor lesions in human patients. In the present study, we aimed at evaluating the in vitro efficacy of the new photosensitizing agents, vacataporphyrin (VP), and divacataporphyrin (DVP). MATERIALS AND METHODS The effectiveness of VP and DVP was compared to well-known photosensitizers, that is, hematoporphyrin derivative (HPD) and chlorin e6 (Ce6) in identical in vitro conditions. The experiment was performed on a well-established breast cancer cell line, MCF-7 and compared to HCV 29T11-2-D1 cell line. Cells were incubated in standard conditions and they were exposed to different concentrations of VP, DVP, HPD, and Ce6, that is, 180, 90, 45, 22.5, and 10 µg/ml. After incubation with photosensitizers, the cells were washed, medium was exchanged and the cells were subjected to irradiation at the proper wavelengths, light intensity (100 mW/sq cm), and total light doses 4.5 and 9 J/sq cm. RESULTS Our results showed that the VP and DVP are potent photosensitizers and the photocytotoxic effect after the incubation with DVP was much better than that of VP. The cytotoxic effects of VP and DVP were less intensive than these of HPD and Ce6. VP and DVP also accumulated well in the tumor cells. Our results also indicated that the VP and DVP effectiveness on MCF-7 cells was photosensitizer dose and light dose dependent. CONCLUSION The overall properties revealed by both new porphyrins and particularly a possibility for excitation at a higher wavelength and thus a deeper tissue penetration, make them promising candidates for further in vivo experiments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Magdalena Klyta
- Department of Pathology, Wroclaw Medical University, 50-368 Wroclaw, Poland
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37
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Autophagy Contributes to the Death/Survival Balance in Cancer PhotoDynamic Therapy. Cells 2012; 1:464-91. [PMID: 24710486 PMCID: PMC3901101 DOI: 10.3390/cells1030464] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2012] [Revised: 07/09/2012] [Accepted: 07/19/2012] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Autophagy is an important cellular program with a “double face” role, since it promotes either cell survival or cell death, also in cancer therapies. Its survival role occurs by recycling cell components during starvation or removing stressed organelles; when damage becomes extensive, autophagy provides another programmed cell death pathway, known as Autophagic Cell Death (ACD). The induction of autophagy is a common outcome in PhotoDynamic Therapy (PDT), a two-step process involving the irradiation of photosensitizer (PS)-loaded cancer cells. Upon tissue oxygen interaction, PS provokes immediate and direct Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS)-induced damage to Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER), mitochondria, plasma membrane, and/or lysosomes. The main biological effects carried out in cancer PDT are direct cytotoxicity to tumor cells, vasculature damage and induction of inflammatory reactions stimulating immunological responses. The question about the role of autophagy in PDT and its putative immunological impact is hotly controversial and largely studied in recent times. This review deals with the induction of autophagy in PDT protocols and its dual role, also considering its interrelationship with apoptosis, the preferential cell death program triggered in the photodynamic process.
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38
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Role of autophagy in the progression and suppression of leukemias. Crit Rev Oncol Hematol 2012; 81:275-85. [DOI: 10.1016/j.critrevonc.2011.03.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2010] [Revised: 03/09/2011] [Accepted: 03/25/2011] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
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Andrzejak M, Price M, Kessel DH. Apoptotic and autophagic responses to photodynamic therapy in 1c1c7 murine hepatoma cells. Autophagy 2011; 7:979-84. [PMID: 21555918 DOI: 10.4161/auto.7.9.15865] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is a process that can induce apoptosis, autophagy or both depending on the cell phenotype. Apoptosis is a pathway to cell death while autophagy can protect from photokilling or act as a death pathway. In a previous study, we reported a cytoprotective effect of autophagy in murine leukemia cell lines where both autophagy and apoptosis occur within minutes after irradiation of photosensitized cells. In this study, we examined the effects of mitochondrial photodamage catalyzed by low (≤ 1 μM) concentrations of the photosensitizing agent termed benzoporphyrin derivative (BPD, Verteporfin) on murine hepatoma 1c1c7 cells. Apoptosis was not observed until several hours after irradiation of photosensitized cells. Autophagy was clearly cytoprotective since PDT efficacy was significantly enhanced in a knockdown sub-line (KD) in which the level of a critical autophagy protein (Atg7) was markedly reduced. This result indicates that autophagy can protect from phototoxicity even when apoptosis is substantially delayed. Much higher concentrations (≥ 10 μM) of BPD had previously been shown to inhibit autophagosome formation. Phototoxicity studies performed with 10 μM BPD and a proportionally reduced light dose were consistent with the absence of an autophagic process in wild-type (WT) cells under these conditions.
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40
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Celli JP, Solban N, Liang A, Pereira SP, Hasan T. Verteporfin-based photodynamic therapy overcomes gemcitabine insensitivity in a panel of pancreatic cancer cell lines. Lasers Surg Med 2011; 43:565-574. [PMID: 22057484 DOI: 10.1002/lsm.v43.7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE Pancreatic cancer is notoriously difficult to treat and resistant to virtually all therapeutics including gemcitabine, the standard front line agent for palliative chemotherapy. Early clinical studies point to a potential role for photodynamic therapy (PDT) in the management of this deadly disease. Here we examine PDT with verteporfin for treatment of cells that are nonresponsive to gemcitabine and identify intracellular and extracellular factors that govern sensitivity to each modality. STUDY DESIGN Using MTS we assess cytotoxicity of verteporfin-PDT in gemcitabine-treated nonresponsive populations from a panel of five pancreatic cancer cell lines representing a range of tumor histopathology and origin. We conduct Western blots for pro-/anti-apoptotic proteins bax and Bcl-XL to identify factors relevant to PDT and gemcitabine sensitivity. To examine the role of extracellular matrix influences we compare response to each modality in traditional cell culture conditions and cells grown on a laminin-rich basement membrane. RESULTS All cell lines have gemcitabine nonresponsive populations (17-33%) at doses up to 1 mM while moderate total verteporfin PDT doses (1-6 µM J/cm2) produce nearly complete killing. Our data shows that cells that are nonresponsive to sustained gemcitabine incubation are sensitive to verteporfin PDT indicating that the latter is agnostic to gemcitabine sensitivity. Verteporfin-based PDT decreases Bcl-XL and increases the bax/Bcl-XL ratio toward a pro-apoptotic balance. Insensitivity to gemcitabine is increased in cells that are adherent to basement membrane relative to traditional tissue culture conditions. CONCLUSIONS Collectively these results indicate the ability of verteporfin-based PDT to bypass intracellular and extracellular cues leading to gemcitabine resistance and point to the emerging role of this therapy for treatment of pancreatic cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan P Celli
- Wellman Center for Photomedicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02114, USA
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41
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Muñoz MA, Pacheco A, Becker MI, Silva E, Ebensperger R, Garcia AM, Ioannes AED, Edwards AM. Different cell death mechanisms are induced by a hydrophobic flavin in human tumor cells after visible light irradiation. JOURNAL OF PHOTOCHEMISTRY AND PHOTOBIOLOGY B-BIOLOGY 2011; 103:57-67. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jphotobiol.2011.01.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2010] [Revised: 12/17/2010] [Accepted: 01/10/2011] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Casas A, Di Venosa G, Hasan T, Al Batlle. Mechanisms of resistance to photodynamic therapy. Curr Med Chem 2011; 18:2486-515. [PMID: 21568910 PMCID: PMC3780570 DOI: 10.2174/092986711795843272] [Citation(s) in RCA: 211] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2011] [Accepted: 05/11/2011] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
Photodynamic therapy (PDT) involves the administration of a photosensitizer (PS) followed by illumination with visible light, leading to generation of reactive oxygen species. The mechanisms of resistance to PDT ascribed to the PS may be shared with the general mechanisms of drug resistance, and are related to altered drug uptake and efflux rates or altered intracellular trafficking. As a second step, an increased inactivation of oxygen reactive species is also associated to PDT resistance via antioxidant detoxifying enzymes and activation of heat shock proteins. Induction of stress response genes also occurs after PDT, resulting in modulation of proliferation, cell detachment and inducing survival pathways among other multiple extracellular signalling events. In addition, an increased repair of induced damage to proteins, membranes and occasionally to DNA may happen. PDT-induced tissue hypoxia as a result of vascular damage and photochemical oxygen consumption may also contribute to the appearance of resistant cells. The structure of the PS is believed to be a key point in the development of resistance, being probably related to its particular subcellular localization. Although most of the features have already been described for chemoresistance, in many cases, no cross-resistance between PDT and chemotherapy has been reported. These findings are in line with the enhancement of PDT efficacy by combination with chemotherapy. The study of cross resistance in cells with developed resistance against a particular PS challenged against other PS is also highly complex and comprises different mechanisms. In this review we will classify the different features observed in PDT resistance, leading to a comparison with the mechanisms most commonly found in chemo resistant cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Casas
- Centro de Invesigaciones sobre Porfirinas y Porfirias (CIPYP), CONICET and Hospital de Clinicas José de San Martin, University of Buenos Aires Córdoba 2351 ler subsuelo, Argentina.
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Dewaele M, Martinet W, Rubio N, Verfaillie T, de Witte PA, Piette J, Agostinis P. Autophagy pathways activated in response to PDT contribute to cell resistance against ROS damage. J Cell Mol Med 2010; 15:1402-14. [PMID: 20626525 PMCID: PMC4373339 DOI: 10.1111/j.1582-4934.2010.01118.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 95] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Reactive oxygen species (ROS) concurrently instigate apoptosis and autophagy pathways, but the link between these processes remains unclear. Because cytotoxic ROS formation is exploited in anticancer therapy, such as in photodynamic therapy (PDT), a better understanding of the complex interplay between autophagy and apoptosis is urgently required. Previously, we reported that ROS generated by PDT with an endoplasmic reticulum (ER)-associated sensitizer leads to loss of ER-Ca2+ homeostasis, ER stress and apoptosis. Here we show that PDT prompted Akt-mTOR (mammalian target of rapamycin) pathway down-regulation and stimulated macroautophagy (MA) in cancer and normal cells. Overexpression of the antioxidant enzyme glutathione peroxidase-4 reversed mTOR down-regulation and blocked MA progression and apoptosis. Attenuating MA using Atg5 knockdown or 3-methyladenine, reduced clearance of oxidatively damaged proteins and increased apoptosis, thus revealing a cytoprotective role of MA in PDT. Paradoxically, genetic loss of MA improved clearance of oxidized proteins and reduced photokilling. We found that up-regulation of chaperone-mediated autophagy (CMA) in unstressed Atg5−/− cells compensated for MA loss and increased cellular resistance to PDT. CMA-deficient cells were significantly sensitized to photokilling but were protected against the ER stressor thapsigargin. These results disclose a stress-specific recruitment of autophagy pathways with cytoprotective function and unravel CMA as the dominant defence mechanism against PDT.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Dewaele
- Cell Death Research and Therapy Laboratory, Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Faculty of Medicine, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
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Karnak D, Xu L. Chemosensitization of prostate cancer by modulating Bcl-2 family proteins. Curr Drug Targets 2010; 11:699-707. [PMID: 20298153 DOI: 10.2174/138945010791170888] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2009] [Accepted: 12/27/2009] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
A major challenge in oncology is the development of chemoresistance. This often occurs as cancer progresses and malignant cells acquire mechanisms to resist insults that would normally induce apoptosis. The onset of androgen independence in advanced prostate cancer is a prime example of this phenomenon. Overexpression of the pro-survival/anti-apoptotic proteins Bcl-2, Bcl-xL, and Mcl-1 are hallmarks of this transition. Here we outline the evolution of therapeutics designed to either limit the source or disrupt the interactions of these pro-survival proteins. By either lessening the stoichiometric abundance of Bcl-2/xL/Mcl-1 in reference to their pro-apoptotic foils or freeing these pro-apoptotic proteins from their grip, these treatments aim to sensitize cells to chemotherapy by priming cells for death. DNA anti-sense and RNA interference have been effectively employed to decrease Bcl-2 family mRNA and protein levels in cell culture models of advanced prostate cancer. However, clinical studies are lagging due to in vivo delivery challenges. The burgeoning field of nanoparticle delivery holds great promise in helping to overcome the challenge of administering highly labile nucleic acid based therapeutics. On another front, small molecule inhibitors that block the hetero-dimerization of pro-survival with pro-apoptotic proteins have significant clinical advantages and have advanced farther in clinical trials with promising early results. Most recently, a peptide has been discovered that can convert Bcl-2 from a pro-survival to a pro-apoptotic protein. The future may lie in targeting multiple steps of the apoptotic pathway, including Bcl-2/xL/Mcl-1, to debilitate the survival capacity of cancer cells and make chemotherapy induced death their only option.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Karnak
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Division of Radiation and Cancer Biology, Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-5637, USA
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Xue LY, Chiu SM, Oleinick NL. Atg7 deficiency increases resistance of MCF-7 human breast cancer cells to photodynamic therapy. Autophagy 2010; 6:248-55. [PMID: 20083906 PMCID: PMC4459572 DOI: 10.4161/auto.6.2.11077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Photodynamic therapy (PDT) uses a photosensitizer, light and oxygen to produce extensive oxidative damage to organelles housing the photosensitizer. Although PDT is an efficient trigger of apoptosis, it also induces autophagy in many kinds of cells. Autophagy can serve as both a cell survival and a cell death mechanism. Our previous study indicates that autophagy contributes to cell death after PDT, especially in apoptosis-deficient cells. Here, we provide further evidence to support the role of autophagy in cell killing after PDT. Autophagy was blocked by knockdown of one essential factor, LC3 or Atg7, in MCF-7 cells. The cells were exposed to a range of doses of PDT sensitized by the phthalocyanine Pc 4; steps in autophagy were monitored by western blotting for LC3-II and by fluorescence microscopy for the uptake of monodansylcadaverine or for the distribution of transfected GFP-LC3; and overall cell death was monitored by MTT assay and by clonogenic assay. We find that blocking autophagy increased the survival of MCF-7 cells after PDT and increased the shoulder on the dose-response curve. In response to Pc 4-PDT, Atg7-deficient MCF-7 cells remained capable of robust accumulation of LC3-II, but were defective in comparison to Atg7(+) cells in the formation of autophagosomes. We conclude that apoptosis-deficient cells rely on autophagy for cell death after Pc 4-PDT and that the strong activation of LC3 maturation in response to PDT could occur even in cells with limited or no Atg7 expression.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Nancy L. Oleinick
- Department of Radiation Oncology; Cleveland, OH USA
- The Case Comprehensive Cancer Center; Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine; Cleveland, OH USA
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Price M, Terlecky SR, Kessel D. A role for hydrogen peroxide in the pro-apoptotic effects of photodynamic therapy. Photochem Photobiol 2010; 85:1491-6. [PMID: 19659920 DOI: 10.1111/j.1751-1097.2009.00589.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Although the first reactive oxygen species (ROS) formed during irradiation of photosensitized cells is almost invariably singlet molecular oxygen (1O2), other ROS have been implicated in the phototoxic effects of photodynamic therapy (PDT). Among these are superoxide anion radical (*O2(-)), hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) and hydroxyl radical (*OH). In this study, we investigated the role of H2O2 in the pro-apoptotic response to PDT in murine leukemia P388 cells. A primary route for detoxification of cellular H2O2 involves the peroxisomal enzyme catalase. Inhibition of catalase activity by 3-amino-1,2,4-triazole led to an increased apoptotic response. PDT-induced apoptosis was impaired by addition of an exogenous recombinant catalase analog (CAT-skl) that was specifically designed to enter cells and more efficiently localize in peroxisomes. A similar effect was observed upon addition of 2,2'-bipyridine, a reagent that can chelate Fe+2, a co-factor in the Fenton reaction that results in the conversion of H2O2 to *OH. These results provide evidence that formation of H2O2 during irradiation of photosensitized cells contributes to PDT efficacy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Price
- Cancer Biology Program, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI, USA
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Ren Y, Xie Y, Chai L, Wang S, Cheng M. Autophagy modification augmented the treatment effects initiated by arsenic trioxide in NB4 cells. Med Oncol 2010; 28:231-6. [DOI: 10.1007/s12032-010-9430-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2009] [Accepted: 01/14/2010] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
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Abstract
Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is the term used to describe the irradiation of photosensitized cells or tissue with phototoxic consequences. This process can result in the rapid initiation of not only apoptosis, an irreversible death pathway, but also autophagy. The procedures described here are designed to characterize the correlation between the PDT dose vs. survival of cells in vitro, the apoptotic effects of photodamage, and the extent of an autophagic response. These are assessed by clonogenic assays, observation of condensed chromatin characteristic of apoptosis, activation of "executioner" caspases, and the autophagic flux as indicated by comparing accumulation of the LC3-II protein under conditions where processing of autophagosomes is retarded vs. is not retarded.
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Reiners JJ, Agostinis P, Berg K, Oleinick NL, Kessel D. Assessing autophagy in the context of photodynamic therapy. Autophagy 2010; 6:7-18. [PMID: 19855190 DOI: 10.4161/auto.6.1.10220] [Citation(s) in RCA: 166] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is a procedure that has applications in the selective eradication of neoplasia where sites of malignant lesions are clearly delineated. It is a two-step process whereby cells are first sensitized to light and then photoirradiated. This results in the formation of singlet molecular oxygen and other reactive oxygen species that can cause photodamage at sites where the photosensitizing agent has localized. Photosensitizers found to be clinically useful show affinity for the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), mitochondria, lysosomes, or combinations of these sites. The induction of apoptosis and/or autophagy in photosensitized cells is a common outcome of PDT. This report explores the following issues: (1) Does the induction of autophagy in PDT protocols occur independent of, or in association with, apoptosis? (2) Does the resulting autophagy play a prosurvival or prodeath role? (3) Do photosensitizers damage/inactivate specific proteins that are components of, or that modulate the autophagic process? (4) Can an autophagic response be mounted in cells in which lysosomes are specifically photodamaged? In brief, autophagy can occur independently of apoptosis in PDT protocols, and appears to play a prosurvival role in apoptosis competent cells, and a prodeath role in apoptosis incompetent cells. Mitochondrial and ER-localized sensitizers cause selective photodamage to some (i.e., Bcl-2, Bcl-x(L), mTOR) proteins involved in the apoptotic/autophagic process. Finally, an aborted autophagic response occurs in cells with photodamaged lysosomes. Whereas autophagosomes form, digestion of their cargo is compromised because of the absence of functional lysosomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- John J Reiners
- Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI, USA
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Theodossiou TA, Hothersall JS, De Witte PA, Pantos A, Agostinis P. The Multifaceted Photocytotoxic Profile of Hypericin. Mol Pharm 2009; 6:1775-89. [DOI: 10.1021/mp900166q] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Theodossis A. Theodossiou
- Institute of Physical Chemistry, NCSR Demokritos, Patriarchou Gregoriou & Neapoleos, 153 10, Aghia Paraskevi, Attiki, Greece, Centre for Cardiovascular Biology and Medicine, BHF Laboratories, 5 University Street, University College London, London WC1E 6JJ, U.K., Laboratory for Pharmaceutical Biology, K.U. Leuven, Herestraat 49, B-3000 Leuven, Belgium, and Department of Molecular Cell Biology, K.U. Leuven, Herestraat 49, B-3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - John S. Hothersall
- Institute of Physical Chemistry, NCSR Demokritos, Patriarchou Gregoriou & Neapoleos, 153 10, Aghia Paraskevi, Attiki, Greece, Centre for Cardiovascular Biology and Medicine, BHF Laboratories, 5 University Street, University College London, London WC1E 6JJ, U.K., Laboratory for Pharmaceutical Biology, K.U. Leuven, Herestraat 49, B-3000 Leuven, Belgium, and Department of Molecular Cell Biology, K.U. Leuven, Herestraat 49, B-3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Peter A. De Witte
- Institute of Physical Chemistry, NCSR Demokritos, Patriarchou Gregoriou & Neapoleos, 153 10, Aghia Paraskevi, Attiki, Greece, Centre for Cardiovascular Biology and Medicine, BHF Laboratories, 5 University Street, University College London, London WC1E 6JJ, U.K., Laboratory for Pharmaceutical Biology, K.U. Leuven, Herestraat 49, B-3000 Leuven, Belgium, and Department of Molecular Cell Biology, K.U. Leuven, Herestraat 49, B-3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Alexandros Pantos
- Institute of Physical Chemistry, NCSR Demokritos, Patriarchou Gregoriou & Neapoleos, 153 10, Aghia Paraskevi, Attiki, Greece, Centre for Cardiovascular Biology and Medicine, BHF Laboratories, 5 University Street, University College London, London WC1E 6JJ, U.K., Laboratory for Pharmaceutical Biology, K.U. Leuven, Herestraat 49, B-3000 Leuven, Belgium, and Department of Molecular Cell Biology, K.U. Leuven, Herestraat 49, B-3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Patrizia Agostinis
- Institute of Physical Chemistry, NCSR Demokritos, Patriarchou Gregoriou & Neapoleos, 153 10, Aghia Paraskevi, Attiki, Greece, Centre for Cardiovascular Biology and Medicine, BHF Laboratories, 5 University Street, University College London, London WC1E 6JJ, U.K., Laboratory for Pharmaceutical Biology, K.U. Leuven, Herestraat 49, B-3000 Leuven, Belgium, and Department of Molecular Cell Biology, K.U. Leuven, Herestraat 49, B-3000 Leuven, Belgium
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