1
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Grübel J, Wendlandt T, Urban D, Jauch CO, Wege C, Tovar GEM, Southan A. Soft Sub-Structured Multi-Material Biosensor Hydrogels with Enzymes Retained by Plant Viral Scaffolds. Macromol Biosci 2024; 24:e2300311. [PMID: 37922890 DOI: 10.1002/mabi.202300311] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2023] [Revised: 10/13/2023] [Indexed: 11/07/2023]
Abstract
An all-soft multi-material combination consisting of a hydrogel based on poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) coated with spatially defined spots of gelatin methacryloyl (GM) containing selectively addressable viral nanorods is presented, and its basic application as a qualitative biosensor with reporter enzymes displayed on the tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) bioscaffolds within the GM is demonstrated. Biologically inert PEG supports are equipped with GM spots serving as biological matrix for enzymes clustered on TMV particles preventing diffusion out of the gel. For this multi-material combination, i) the PEG-based hydrogel surface is modified to achieve a clear boundary between coated and non-coated regions by introducing either isothiouronium or thiol groups. ii) Cross-linking of the GM spots is studied to achieve anchoring to the hydrogel surface. iii) The enzymes horseradish peroxidase or penicillinase (Pen) are conjugated to TMV and integrated into the GM matrix. In contrast to free enzymes, enzyme-decorated TMVs persist in GM spots and show sustained enzyme activity as evidenced by specific color reaction after 7 days of washing, and for Pen after 22 months after dry storage. Therefore, the integration of enzyme-coupled TMV into hydrogel matrices is a promising and versatile approach to obtaining reusable and analyte-specific sensor components.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jana Grübel
- Institute of Interfacial Process Engineering and Plasma Technology IGVP, University of Stuttgart, Nobelstr. 12, 70569, Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Tim Wendlandt
- Institute of Biomaterials and Biomolecular Systems, University of Stuttgart, Pfaffenwaldring 57, 70569, Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Daniela Urban
- Institute of Interfacial Process Engineering and Plasma Technology IGVP, University of Stuttgart, Nobelstr. 12, 70569, Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Corinna O Jauch
- Institute of Interfacial Process Engineering and Plasma Technology IGVP, University of Stuttgart, Nobelstr. 12, 70569, Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Christina Wege
- Institute of Biomaterials and Biomolecular Systems, University of Stuttgart, Pfaffenwaldring 57, 70569, Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Günter E M Tovar
- Institute of Interfacial Process Engineering and Plasma Technology IGVP, University of Stuttgart, Nobelstr. 12, 70569, Stuttgart, Germany
- Fraunhofer Institute for Interfacial Engineering and Biotechnology IGB, Nobelstr. 12, 70569, Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Alexander Southan
- Institute of Interfacial Process Engineering and Plasma Technology IGVP, University of Stuttgart, Nobelstr. 12, 70569, Stuttgart, Germany
- Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems, Heisenbergstr. 3, 70569, Stuttgart, Germany
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2
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Welden M, Poghossian A, Vahidpour F, Wendlandt T, Keusgen M, Christina Wege, Schöning MJ. Capacitive field-effect biosensor modified with a stacked bilayer of weak polyelectrolyte and plant virus particles as enzyme nanocarriers. Bioelectrochemistry 2023; 151:108397. [PMID: 36906982 DOI: 10.1016/j.bioelechem.2023.108397] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2022] [Revised: 01/29/2023] [Accepted: 02/08/2023] [Indexed: 02/17/2023]
Abstract
This work presents a new approach for the development of field-effect biosensors based on an electrolyte-insulator-semiconductor capacitor (EISCAP) modified with a stacked bilayer of weak polyelectrolyte and tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) particles as enzyme nanocarriers. With the aim to increase the surface density of virus particles and thus, to achieve a dense immobilization of enzymes, the negatively charged TMV particles were loaded onto the EISCAP surface modified with a positively charged poly(allylamine hydrochloride) (PAH) layer. The PAH/TMV bilayer was prepared on the Ta2O5-gate surface by means of layer-by-layer technique. The bare and differently modified EISCAP surfaces were physically characterized by fluorescence microscopy, zeta-potential measurements, atomic force microscopy and scanning electron microscopy. Transmission electron microscopy was used to scrutinize the PAH effect on TMV adsorption in a second system. Finally, a highly sensitive TMV-assisted EISCAP antibiotics biosensor was realized by immobilizing the enzyme penicillinase onto the TMV surface. This PAH/TMV bilayer-modified EISCAP biosensor was electrochemically characterized in solutions with different penicillin concentrations via capacitance-voltage and constant-capacitance methods. The biosensor possessed a mean penicillin sensitivity of 113 mV/dec in a concentration range from 0.1 mM to 5 mM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melanie Welden
- Institute of Nano- and Biotechnologies, Aachen University of Applied Sciences, 52428 Jülich, Germany; Institute of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Philipps University Marburg, 35032 Marburg, Germany.
| | | | - Farnoosh Vahidpour
- Institute of Nano- and Biotechnologies, Aachen University of Applied Sciences, 52428 Jülich, Germany.
| | - Tim Wendlandt
- Institute of Biomaterials and Biomolecular Systems, University of Stuttgart, 70569 Stuttgart, Germany.
| | - Michael Keusgen
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Philipps University Marburg, 35032 Marburg, Germany.
| | - Christina Wege
- Institute of Biomaterials and Biomolecular Systems, University of Stuttgart, 70569 Stuttgart, Germany.
| | - Michael J Schöning
- Institute of Nano- and Biotechnologies, Aachen University of Applied Sciences, 52428 Jülich, Germany; Institute of Biological Information Processing (IBI-3), Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH, 52425 Jülich, Germany.
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3
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Welden M, Poghossian A, Vahidpour F, Wendlandt T, Keusgen M, Wege C, Schöning MJ. Towards Multi-Analyte Detection with Field-Effect Capacitors Modified with Tobacco Mosaic Virus Bioparticles as Enzyme Nanocarriers. BIOSENSORS 2022; 12:bios12010043. [PMID: 35049671 PMCID: PMC8773754 DOI: 10.3390/bios12010043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2021] [Revised: 01/07/2022] [Accepted: 01/13/2022] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
Utilizing an appropriate enzyme immobilization strategy is crucial for designing enzyme-based biosensors. Plant virus-like particles represent ideal nanoscaffolds for an extremely dense and precise immobilization of enzymes, due to their regular shape, high surface-to-volume ratio and high density of surface binding sites. In the present work, tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) particles were applied for the co-immobilization of penicillinase and urease onto the gate surface of a field-effect electrolyte-insulator-semiconductor capacitor (EISCAP) with a p-Si-SiO2-Ta2O5 layer structure for the sequential detection of penicillin and urea. The TMV-assisted bi-enzyme EISCAP biosensor exhibited a high urea and penicillin sensitivity of 54 and 85 mV/dec, respectively, in the concentration range of 0.1-3 mM. For comparison, the characteristics of single-enzyme EISCAP biosensors modified with TMV particles immobilized with either penicillinase or urease were also investigated. The surface morphology of the TMV-modified Ta2O5-gate was analyzed by scanning electron microscopy. Additionally, the bi-enzyme EISCAP was applied to mimic an XOR (Exclusive OR) enzyme logic gate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melanie Welden
- Institute of Nano- and Biotechnologies, Aachen University of Applied Sciences, 52428 Jülich, Germany; (M.W.); (F.V.)
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Philipps University Marburg, 35032 Marburg, Germany;
| | | | - Farnoosh Vahidpour
- Institute of Nano- and Biotechnologies, Aachen University of Applied Sciences, 52428 Jülich, Germany; (M.W.); (F.V.)
| | - Tim Wendlandt
- Institute of Biomaterials and Biomolecular Systems, University of Stuttgart, 70569 Stuttgart, Germany; (T.W.); (C.W.)
| | - Michael Keusgen
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Philipps University Marburg, 35032 Marburg, Germany;
| | - Christina Wege
- Institute of Biomaterials and Biomolecular Systems, University of Stuttgart, 70569 Stuttgart, Germany; (T.W.); (C.W.)
| | - Michael J. Schöning
- Institute of Nano- and Biotechnologies, Aachen University of Applied Sciences, 52428 Jülich, Germany; (M.W.); (F.V.)
- Institute of Biological Information Processing (IBI-3), Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH, 52425 Jülich, Germany
- Correspondence:
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4
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Atanasova P, Atanasov V, Wittum L, Southan A, Choi E, Wege C, Kerres J, Eiben S, Bill J. Hydrophobization of Tobacco Mosaic Virus to Control the Mineralization of Organic Templates. NANOMATERIALS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2019; 9:E800. [PMID: 31137720 PMCID: PMC6567237 DOI: 10.3390/nano9050800] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2019] [Revised: 05/20/2019] [Accepted: 05/20/2019] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
The robust, anisotropic tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) provides a monodisperse particle size and defined surface chemistry. Owing to these properties, it became an excellent bio-template for the synthesis of diverse nanostructured organic/inorganic functional materials. For selective mineralization of the bio-template, specific functional groups were introduced by means of different genetically encoded amino acids or peptide sequences into the polar virus surface. An alternative approach for TMV surface functionalization is chemical coupling of organic molecules. To achieve mineralization control in this work, we developed a synthetic strategy to manipulate the surface hydrophilicity of the virus through covalent coupling of polymer molecules. Three different types of polymers, namely the perfluorinated (poly(pentafluorostyrene) (PFS)), the thermo-responsive poly(propylene glycol) acrylate (PPGA), and the block-copolymer polyethylene-block-poly(ethylene glycol) were examined. We have demonstrated that covalent attachment of hydrophobic polymer molecules with proper features retains the integrity of the virus structure. In addition, it was found that the degree of the virus hydrophobicity, examined via a ZnS mineralization test, could be tuned by the polymer properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Petia Atanasova
- Institute for Materials Science, University of Stuttgart, Heisenbergstr. 3, 70569 Stuttgart, Germany.
| | - Vladimir Atanasov
- Institute of Chemical Process Engineering, University of Stuttgart, Böblinger Straße 78, 70199 Stuttgart, Germany.
| | - Lisa Wittum
- Institute of Biomaterials and Biological Systems, University of Stuttgart, Pfaffenwaldring 57, 70569 Stuttgart, Germany.
| | - Alexander Southan
- Institute of Interfacial Process Engineering and Plasma Technology, University of Stuttgart, Pfaffenwaldring 31, 70569 Stuttgart, Germany.
| | - Eunjin Choi
- Institute for Materials Science, University of Stuttgart, Heisenbergstr. 3, 70569 Stuttgart, Germany.
| | - Christina Wege
- Institute of Biomaterials and Biological Systems, University of Stuttgart, Pfaffenwaldring 57, 70569 Stuttgart, Germany.
| | - Jochen Kerres
- Institute of Chemical Process Engineering, University of Stuttgart, Böblinger Straße 78, 70199 Stuttgart, Germany.
| | - Sabine Eiben
- Institute of Biomaterials and Biological Systems, University of Stuttgart, Pfaffenwaldring 57, 70569 Stuttgart, Germany.
| | - Joachim Bill
- Institute for Materials Science, University of Stuttgart, Heisenbergstr. 3, 70569 Stuttgart, Germany.
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5
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Application of Plant Viruses as a Biotemplate for Nanomaterial Fabrication. Molecules 2018; 23:molecules23092311. [PMID: 30208562 PMCID: PMC6225259 DOI: 10.3390/molecules23092311] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2018] [Revised: 09/01/2018] [Accepted: 09/04/2018] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Viruses are widely used to fabricate nanomaterials in the field of nanotechnology. Plant viruses are of great interest to the nanotechnology field because of their symmetry, polyvalency, homogeneous size distribution, and ability to self-assemble. This homogeneity can be used to obtain the high uniformity of the templated material and its related properties. In this paper, the variety of nanomaterials generated in rod-like and spherical plant viruses is highlighted for the cowpea chlorotic mottle virus (CCMV), cowpea mosaic virus (CPMV), brome mosaic virus (BMV), and tobacco mosaic virus (TMV). Their recent studies on developing nanomaterials in a wide range of applications from biomedicine and catalysts to biosensors are reviewed.
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6
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Icik E, Eiben S, Schädel N, Kupka J, Martini M, Wege C, Laschat S. Plant virus hybrid materials based on tobacco mosaic virus and small organic cross-linkers. BIOINSPIRED BIOMIMETIC AND NANOBIOMATERIALS 2018. [DOI: 10.1680/jbibn.18.00016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Esra Icik
- Institut für Organische Chemie, Universität Stuttgart, Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Sabine Eiben
- Department of Molecular Biology and Plant Virology, Institute of Biomaterials and Biomolecular Systems, Universität Stuttgart, Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Nicole Schädel
- Institut für Organische Chemie, Universität Stuttgart, Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Julia Kupka
- Institut für Organische Chemie, Universität Stuttgart, Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Maike Martini
- Institut für Organische Chemie, Universität Stuttgart, Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Christina Wege
- Department of Molecular Biology and Plant Virology, Institute of Biomaterials and Biomolecular Systems, Universität Stuttgart, Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Sabine Laschat
- Institut für Organische Chemie, Universität Stuttgart, Stuttgart, Germany
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7
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Poghossian A, Jablonski M, Koch C, Bronder TS, Rolka D, Wege C, Schöning MJ. Field-effect biosensor using virus particles as scaffolds for enzyme immobilization. Biosens Bioelectron 2018; 110:168-174. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bios.2018.03.036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2018] [Revised: 03/01/2018] [Accepted: 03/16/2018] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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8
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Construction of Artificial Enzymes on a Virus Surface. Methods Mol Biol 2018. [PMID: 29869259 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4939-7808-3_29] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register]
Abstract
Combination of artificial enzyme design and self-assembly strategies leads to a novel way to construct supramolecular enzymes. To address this challenge, auxotrophic expression systems show great potential because they can introduce nonnatural catalytic groups into the subunits of protein assemblies. Among nonnatural amino acids, selenocysteine is the catalytic group of glutathione peroxidase (GPx). With the aid of computer simulation, we have incorporated selenocysteine into natural protein assemblies such as tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) and ferritin by cysteine auxotrophic technology, resulting in the conversion of TMV and ferritin into supramolecular enzymes.
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9
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Chu S, Winkler TE, Brown AD, Culver JN, Ghodssi R. Localized Three-Dimensional Functionalization of Bionanoreceptors on High-Density Micropillar Arrays via Electrowetting. LANGMUIR : THE ACS JOURNAL OF SURFACES AND COLLOIDS 2018; 34:1725-1732. [PMID: 29301087 DOI: 10.1021/acs.langmuir.7b02920] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
In this work, we introduce an electrowetting-assisted 3-D biofabrication process allowing both complete and localized functionalization of bionanoreceptors onto densely arranged 3-D microstructures. The integration of biomaterials with 3-D microdevice components offers exciting opportunities for communities developing miniature bioelectronics with enhanced performance and advanced modes of operation. However, most biological materials are stable only in properly conditioned aqueous solutions, thus the water-repellent properties exhibited by densely arranged micro/nanostructures (widely known as the Cassie-Baxter state) represent a significant challenge to biomaterial integration. Here, we first investigate such potential limitations using cysteine-modified tobacco mosaic virus (TMV1cys) as a model bionanoreceptor and a set of Au-coated Si-micropillar arrays (μPAs) of varying densities. Furthermore, we introduce a novel biofabrication system adopting electrowetting principles for the controlled localization of TMV1cys bionanoreptors on densely arranged μPAs. Contact angle analysis and SEM characterizations provide clear evidence to indicate structural hydrophobicity as a key limiting factor for 3-D biofunctionalization and for electrowetting as an effective method to overcome this limitation. The successful 3-D biofabrication is confirmed using SEM and fluorescence microscopy that show spatially controlled and uniform assemblies of TMV1cys on μPAs. The increased density of TMV1cys per device footprint produces a 7-fold increase in fluorescence intensity attributed to the μPAs when compared to similar assemblies on planar substrates. Combined, this work demonstrates the potential of electrowetting as a unique enabling solution for the controlled and efficient biofabrication of 3-D-patterned micro/nanodomains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sangwook Chu
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, ‡Institute for Systems Research, §Fischell Department of Bioengineering, ∥Institute for Bioscience and Biotechnology Research, and ⊥Department of Plant Science and Landscape Architecture, University of Maryland , College Park, Maryland 20742, United States
| | - Thomas E Winkler
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, ‡Institute for Systems Research, §Fischell Department of Bioengineering, ∥Institute for Bioscience and Biotechnology Research, and ⊥Department of Plant Science and Landscape Architecture, University of Maryland , College Park, Maryland 20742, United States
| | - Adam D Brown
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, ‡Institute for Systems Research, §Fischell Department of Bioengineering, ∥Institute for Bioscience and Biotechnology Research, and ⊥Department of Plant Science and Landscape Architecture, University of Maryland , College Park, Maryland 20742, United States
| | - James N Culver
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, ‡Institute for Systems Research, §Fischell Department of Bioengineering, ∥Institute for Bioscience and Biotechnology Research, and ⊥Department of Plant Science and Landscape Architecture, University of Maryland , College Park, Maryland 20742, United States
| | - Reza Ghodssi
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, ‡Institute for Systems Research, §Fischell Department of Bioengineering, ∥Institute for Bioscience and Biotechnology Research, and ⊥Department of Plant Science and Landscape Architecture, University of Maryland , College Park, Maryland 20742, United States
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10
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Abstract
Nanosized bioscaffolds can be utilized to tackle the challenge of size reduction of metallic rings owing to their miniature features as well as their well-known biomineralization capacity. The tobacco mosaic virus coat protein is used as a command surface to grow and assemble silver nanoparticles into sub-30 nm rings. The versatility of TMV allows the formation of both solid silver rings and rings consisting of discrete silver nanoparticles. The pH-dependent coulombic surface map along with the annular geometry of the protein aggregate allow the generation of rings with or without a central nanoparticle. Our silver rings are believed to be the smallest to date, and they can offer a test material for existing theories on metallic nanorings of this heretofore unreached size scale.
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11
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Tiu BDB, Advincula RC, Steinmetz NF. Nanomanufacture of Free-Standing, Porous, Janus-Type Films of Polymer-Plant Virus Nanoparticle Arrays. Methods Mol Biol 2018; 1776:143-157. [PMID: 29869239 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4939-7808-3_9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
We present a facile method for preparing hierarchical assemblies of cowpea mosaic virus (CPMV) nanoparticles adsorbed onto patterned polypyrrole copolymer arrays, which can be released as a freely standing and microporous polymer-protein membrane with a Janus-type structure. The patterning protocol is based on colloidal sphere lithography wherein a sacrificial honeycomb pattern composed of colloidal polystyrene (PS) microspheres is assembled on an electrode. A thin layer of polypyrrole film is electropolymerized within the interstices of the template and monitored using an electrochemical quartz crystal microbalance with dissipation (EC-QCM-D) and microscopy. Dissolving the PS template reveals an inverse opaline pattern capable of electrostatically capturing the CPMV particles. Through an electrochemical trigger, the polypyrrole-CPMV delaminates from the surface producing a self-sustaining polymer-protein membrane that can potentially be used for sensing and nanocargo applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brylee David B Tiu
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, USA
- Department of Macromolecular Science and Engineering, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, USA
| | - Rigoberto C Advincula
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, USA.
- Department of Macromolecular Science and Engineering, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, USA.
| | - Nicole F Steinmetz
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, USA.
- Department of Macromolecular Science and Engineering, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, USA.
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, USA.
- Department of Radiology, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, USA.
- Case Comprehensive Cancer Center, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, USA.
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12
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Koch C, Poghossian A, Wege C, Schöning MJ. TMV-Based Adapter Templates for Enhanced Enzyme Loading in Biosensor Applications. Methods Mol Biol 2018; 1776:553-568. [PMID: 29869265 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4939-7808-3_35] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
Nanotubular tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) particles and RNA-free lower-order coat protein (CP) aggregates have been employed as enzyme carriers in different diagnostic layouts and compared for their influence on biosensor performance. In the following, we describe a label-free electrochemical biosensor for improved glucose detection by use of TMV adapters and the enzyme glucose oxidase (GOD). A specific and efficient immobilization of streptavidin-conjugated GOD ([SA]-GOD) complexes on biotinylated TMV nanotubes or CP aggregates was achieved via bioaffinity binding. Glucose sensors with adsorptively immobilized [SA]-GOD, and with [SA]-GOD cross-linked with glutardialdehyde, respectively, were tested in parallel on the same sensor chip. Comparison of these sensors revealed that TMV adapters enhanced the amperometric glucose detection remarkably, conveying highest sensitivity, an extended linear detection range and fastest response times. These results underline a great potential of an integration of virus/biomolecule hybrids with electronic transducers for applications in biosensorics and biochips. Here, we describe the fabrication and use of amperometric sensor chips combining an array of circular Pt electrodes, their loading with GOD-modified TMV nanotubes (and other GOD immobilization methods), and the subsequent investigations of the sensor performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claudia Koch
- Department of Molecular Biology and Plant Virology, Institute of Biomaterials and Biomolecular Systems, University of Stuttgart, Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Arshak Poghossian
- Institute of Nano- and Biotechnologies, Aachen University of Applied Sciences, Jülich, Germany
| | - Christina Wege
- Department of Molecular Biology and Plant Virology, Institute of Biomaterials and Biomolecular Systems, University of Stuttgart, Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Michael J Schöning
- Institute of Nano- and Biotechnologies, Aachen University of Applied Sciences, Jülich, Germany.
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13
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Adigun OO, Retzlaff-Roberts EL, Novikova G, Wang L, Kim BS, Ilavsky J, Miller JT, Loesch-Fries LS, Harris MT. BSMV as a Biotemplate for Palladium Nanomaterial Synthesis. LANGMUIR : THE ACS JOURNAL OF SURFACES AND COLLOIDS 2017; 33:1716-1724. [PMID: 28118012 DOI: 10.1021/acs.langmuir.6b03341] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
The vast unexplored virus biodiversity makes the application of virus templates to nanomaterial synthesis especially promising. Here, a new biotemplate, Barley stripe mosaic virus (BSMV) was successfully used to synthesize organic-metal nanorods of similarly high quality to those produced with Tobacco mosaic virus (TMV). The mineralization behavior was characterized in terms of the reduction and adsorption of precursor and nanocrystal formation processes. The BSMV surface-mediated reduction of Pd(2+) proceeded via first-order kinetics in both Pd(2+) and BSMV. The adsorption equilibrium relationship of PdCl3H2O- on the BSMV surface was described by a multistep Langmuir isotherm suggesting alternative adsorbate-adsorbent interactions when compared to those on TMV. It was deduced that the first local isotherm is governed by electrostatically driven adsorption, which is then followed by sorption driven by covalent affinity of metal precursor molecules for amino acid residues. Furthermore, the total adsorption capacity of palladium species on BSMV is more than double of that on TMV. Finally, study of the BSMV-Pd particles by combining USAXS and SAXS enabled the characterization of all length scales in the synthesized nanomaterials. Results confirm the presence of core-shell cylindrical particles with 1-2 nm grains. The nanorods were uniform and monodisperse, with controllable diameters and therefore, of similar quality to those synthesized with TMV. Overall, BSMV has been confirmed as a viable alternate biotemplate with unique biomineralization behavior. With these results, the biotemplate toolbox has been expanded for the synthesis of new materials and comparative study of biomineralization processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oluwamayowa O Adigun
- School of Chemical Engineering, Purdue University , 480 Stadium Mall Drive, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
| | - Erin Lynn Retzlaff-Roberts
- School of Chemical Engineering, Purdue University , 480 Stadium Mall Drive, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
| | - Gloria Novikova
- School of Chemical Engineering, Purdue University , 480 Stadium Mall Drive, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
| | - Longfei Wang
- Department of Botany and Plant Pathology, Purdue University , 915 West State Street, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
| | | | - Jan Ilavsky
- X-ray Science Division, APS Argonne National Laboratory , 9700S Cass Avenue, Lemont, Illinois 60439, United States
| | - Jeffrey T Miller
- School of Chemical Engineering, Purdue University , 480 Stadium Mall Drive, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
| | - L Sue Loesch-Fries
- Department of Botany and Plant Pathology, Purdue University , 915 West State Street, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
| | - Michael T Harris
- School of Chemical Engineering, Purdue University , 480 Stadium Mall Drive, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
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14
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Decoupling and elucidation of surface-driven processes during inorganic mineralization on virus templates. J Colloid Interface Sci 2016; 483:165-176. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jcis.2016.07.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2016] [Revised: 07/11/2016] [Accepted: 07/14/2016] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
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15
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Zhang Y, Ardejani MS, Orner BP. Design and Applications of Protein-Cage-Based Nanomaterials. Chem Asian J 2016; 11:2814-2828. [DOI: 10.1002/asia.201600769] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2016] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Yu Zhang
- Jiangsu Key Lab of Biomass-Based Green Fuels and Chemicals; College of Chemical Engineering; Nanjing Forestry University; Nanjing 210037 P.R. China
| | - Maziar S. Ardejani
- Department of Chemistry; The Scripps Research Institute; La Jolla CA 92037 United States
| | - Brendan P. Orner
- Department of Chemistry; King's College London; London SE1 1DB United Kingdom
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Wen AM, Steinmetz NF. Design of virus-based nanomaterials for medicine, biotechnology, and energy. Chem Soc Rev 2016; 45:4074-126. [PMID: 27152673 PMCID: PMC5068136 DOI: 10.1039/c5cs00287g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 246] [Impact Index Per Article: 30.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
This review provides an overview of recent developments in "chemical virology." Viruses, as materials, provide unique nanoscale scaffolds that have relevance in chemical biology and nanotechnology, with diverse areas of applications. Some fundamental advantages of viruses, compared to synthetically programmed materials, include the highly precise spatial arrangement of their subunits into a diverse array of shapes and sizes and many available avenues for easy and reproducible modification. Here, we will first survey the broad distribution of viruses and various methods for producing virus-based nanoparticles, as well as engineering principles used to impart new functionalities. We will then examine the broad range of applications and implications of virus-based materials, focusing on the medical, biotechnology, and energy sectors. We anticipate that this field will continue to evolve and grow, with exciting new possibilities stemming from advancements in the rational design of virus-based nanomaterials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amy M Wen
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH 44106, USA.
| | - Nicole F Steinmetz
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH 44106, USA. and Department of Radiology, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH 44106, USA and Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH 44106, USA and Department of Macromolecular Science and Engineering, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH 44106, USA and Case Comprehensive Cancer Center, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH 44106, USA
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17
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Chen Z, Li N, Li S, Dharmarwardana M, Schlimme A, Gassensmith JJ. Viral chemistry: the chemical functionalization of viral architectures to create new technology. WILEY INTERDISCIPLINARY REVIEWS-NANOMEDICINE AND NANOBIOTECHNOLOGY 2015; 8:512-34. [DOI: 10.1002/wnan.1379] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2015] [Revised: 08/31/2015] [Accepted: 09/15/2015] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Zhuo Chen
- Department of Chemistry and BiochemistryThe University of Texas at DallasRichardsonTXUSA
| | - Na Li
- Department of Chemistry and BiochemistryThe University of Texas at DallasRichardsonTXUSA
| | - Shaobo Li
- Department of Chemistry and BiochemistryThe University of Texas at DallasRichardsonTXUSA
| | | | - Anna Schlimme
- Department of Chemistry and BiochemistryThe University of Texas at DallasRichardsonTXUSA
| | - Jeremiah J Gassensmith
- Department of Chemistry and BiochemistryThe University of Texas at DallasRichardsonTXUSA
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18
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Vilona D, Di Lorenzo R, Carraro M, Licini G, Trainotti L, Bonchio M. Viral nano-hybrids for innovative energy conversion and storage schemes. J Mater Chem B 2015; 3:6718-6730. [PMID: 32262464 DOI: 10.1039/c5tb00924c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Typical rod-like viruses (the Tobacco Mosaic Virus (TMV) and the Bacteriophage M13) are biological nanostructures that couple a 1D mono-dispersed morphology with a precisely defined topology of surface spaced and orthogonal reactive domains. These biogenic scaffolds offer a unique alternative to synthetic nano-platforms for the assembly of functional molecules and materials. Spatially resolved 1D arrays of inorganic-organic hybrid domains can thus be obtained on viral nano-templates resulting in the functional arrangement of photo-triggers and catalytic sites with applications in light energy conversion and storage. Different synthetic strategies are herein highlighted depending on the building blocks and with a particular emphasis on the molecular design of viral-templated nano-interfaces holding great potential for the dream-goal of artificial photosynthesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- D Vilona
- CNR-ITM and Department of Chemical Sciences, University of Padova, via F. Marzolo 1, 35131 Padova, Italy.
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19
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Adigun OO, Freer AS, Miller JT, Loesch-Fries LS, Kim BS, Harris MT. Mechanistic study of the hydrothermal reduction of palladium on the Tobacco mosaic virus. J Colloid Interface Sci 2015; 450:1-6. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jcis.2015.02.060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2014] [Revised: 02/21/2015] [Accepted: 02/23/2015] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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20
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Moon CH, Zhang M, Myung NV, Haberer ED. Highly sensitive hydrogen sulfide (H₂S) gas sensors from viral-templated nanocrystalline gold nanowires. NANOTECHNOLOGY 2014; 25:135205. [PMID: 24598078 DOI: 10.1088/0957-4484/25/13/135205] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
A facile, site-specific viral-templated assembly method was used to fabricate sensitive hydrogen sulfide (H2S) gas sensors at room temperature. A gold-binding M13 bacteriophage served to organize gold nanoparticles into linear arrays which were used as seeds for subsequent nanowire formation through electroless deposition. Nanowire widths and densities within the sensors were modified by electroless deposition time and phage concentration, respectively, to tune device resistance. Chemiresistive H2S gas sensors with superior room temperature sensing performance were produced with sensitivity of 654%/ppm(v), theoretical lowest detection limit of 2 ppb(v), and 70% recovery within 9 min for 0.025 ppm(v). The role of the viral template and associated gold-binding peptide was elucidated by removing organics using a short O₂ plasma treatment followed by an ethanol dip. The template and gold-binding peptide were crucial to electrical and sensor performance. Without surface organics, the resistance fell by several orders of magnitude, the sensitivity dropped by more than a factor of 100 to 6%/ppm(v), the lower limit of detection increased, and no recovery was detected with dry air flow. Viral templates provide a novel, alternative fabrication route for highly sensitive, nanostructured H2S gas sensors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chung Hee Moon
- Materials Science and Engineering Program, University of California, Riverside, CA 92521, USA
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21
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Wu FC, Zhang H, Zhou Q, Wu M, Ballard Z, Tian Y, Wang JY, Niu ZW, Huang Y. Expanding the genetic code for site-specific labelling of tobacco mosaic virus coat protein and building biotin-functionalized virus-like particles. Chem Commun (Camb) 2014; 50:4007-9. [PMID: 24592400 DOI: 10.1039/c3cc49137d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
A method for site-specific and high yield modification of tobacco mosaic virus coat protein (TMVCP) utilizing a genetic code expanding technology and copper free cycloaddition reaction has been established, and biotin-functionalized virus-like particles were built by the self-assembly of the protein monomers.
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Affiliation(s)
- F C Wu
- Technical Institute of Physics and Chemistry, CAS, Beijing 100190, China.
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22
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Li F, Wang Q. Fabrication of nanoarchitectures templated by virus-based nanoparticles: strategies and applications. SMALL (WEINHEIM AN DER BERGSTRASSE, GERMANY) 2014; 10:230-245. [PMID: 23996911 DOI: 10.1002/smll.201301393] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2013] [Revised: 07/05/2013] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Biomolecular nanostructures in nature are drawing increasing interests in the field of materials sciences. As a typical group of them, virus-based nanoparticles (VNPs), which are nanocages or nanorods assembled from capsid proteins of viruses, have been widely exploited as templates to guide the fabrication of complex nanoarchitectures (NAs), because of their appropriate sizes (ca. 20-200 nm), homogeneity, addressable functionalization, facile modification via chemical and genetic routes, and convenient preparation. Foreign materials can be positioned in the inner cavity or on the outer surface of VNPs, through either direct synthesis or assembling preformed nanomaterials. Simultaneous use of the inner and outer space of VNPs facilitates integration of multiple functionalities in a single NA. This review briefly summarizes the strategies for fabrication of NAs templated by VNPs and wide applications of these NAs in fields of catalysis, energy, biomedicine, and nanophotonics, etc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Feng Li
- Suzhou Key Laboratory of Nanobiomedical Characterization, Division of Nanobiomedicine and i-Lab, Suzhou Institute of Nano-Tech and Nano-Bionics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Suzhou, 215123, China
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23
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Bruckman MA, Steinmetz NF. Chemical modification of the inner and outer surfaces of Tobacco Mosaic Virus (TMV). Methods Mol Biol 2014; 1108:173-85. [PMID: 24243249 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-62703-751-8_13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/05/2022]
Abstract
Viral nanoparticles derived from tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) find applications in various fields. We report the purification and chemical modification of TMV which is a hollow rod-shaped plant viral nanoparticle with modifiable interior and exterior surfaces. We describe methods to isolate TMV from its tobacco plant host for spatially controlled interior and exterior chemical modification and to characterize the resulting TMV hybrid materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael A Bruckman
- Departments of Biomedical Engineering, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, USA
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24
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Biodistribution, pharmacokinetics, and blood compatibility of native and PEGylated tobacco mosaic virus nano-rods and -spheres in mice. Virology 2013; 449:163-73. [PMID: 24418549 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2013.10.035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 141] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2013] [Revised: 09/18/2013] [Accepted: 10/26/2013] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
Understanding the pharmacokinetics, blood compatibility, biodistribution and clearance properties of nanoparticles is of great importance to their translation to clinical application. In this paper we report the biodistribution and pharmacokinetic properties of tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) in the forms of 300×18nm(2) rods and 54nm-sized spheres. The availability of rods and spheres made of the same protein provides a unique scaffold to study the effect of nanoparticle shape on in vivo fate. For enhanced biocompatibility, we also considered a PEGylated formulation. Overall, the versions of nanoparticles exhibited comparable in vivo profiles; a few differences were noted: data indicate that rods circulate longer than spheres, illustrating the effect that shape plays on circulation. Also, PEGylation increased circulation times. We found that macrophages in the liver and spleen cleared the TMV rods and spheres from circulation. In the spleen, the viral nanoparticles trafficked through the marginal zone before eventually co-localizing in B-cell follicles. TMV rods and spheres were cleared from the liver and spleen within days with no apparent changes in histology, it was noted that spheres are more rapidly cleared from tissues compared to rods. Further, blood biocompatibility was supported, as none of the formulations induced clotting or hemolysis. This work lays the foundation for further application and tailoring of TMV for biomedical applications.
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26
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Hou C, Luo Q, Liu J, Miao L, Zhang C, Gao Y, Zhang X, Xu J, Dong Z, Liu J. Construction of GPx active centers on natural protein nanodisk/nanotube: a new way to develop artificial nanoenzyme. ACS NANO 2012; 6:8692-8701. [PMID: 22992167 DOI: 10.1021/nn302270b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
Construction of catalytic centers on natural protein aggregates is a challenging topic in biomaterial and biomedicine research. Here we report a novel construction of artificial nanoenzyme with glutathione peroxidase (GPx)-like function. By engineering the surface of tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) coat protein, the main catalytic components of GPx were fabricated on TMV protein monomers. Through direct self-assembly of the functionalized viral coat proteins, the multi-GPx centers were installed on these well-defined nanodisks or nanotubes. With the help of muti-selenoenzyme centers, the resulting organized nanoenzyme exhibited remarkable GPx activity, even approaching the level of natural GPx. The antioxidation study on subcell mitochondrial level demonstrated that virus-based nanoenzyme exerted excellent capacity for protecting cell from oxidative damage. This strategy represents a new way to develop artificial nanoenzymes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chunxi Hou
- State Key Laboratory of Supramolecular Structure and Materials, College of Chemistry, Jilin University, 2699 Qianjin Street, Changchun 130012, China
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27
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Donavan KC, Arter JA, Weiss GA, Penner RM. Virus-poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) biocomposite films. LANGMUIR : THE ACS JOURNAL OF SURFACES AND COLLOIDS 2012; 28:12581-7. [PMID: 22856875 PMCID: PMC3683562 DOI: 10.1021/la302473j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
Virus-poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) (virus-PEDOT) biocomposite films are prepared by electropolymerizing 3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene (EDOT) in aqueous electrolytes containing 12 mM LiClO(4) and the bacteriophage M13. The concentration of virus in these solutions, [virus](soln), is varied from 3 to 15 nM. A quartz crystal microbalance is used to directly measure the total mass of the biocomposite film during its electrodeposition. In combination with a measurement of the electrodeposition charge, the mass of the virus incorporated into the film is calculated. These data show that the concentration of the M13 within the electropolymerized film, [virus](film), increases linearly with [virus](soln). The incorporation of virus particles into the PEDOT film from solution is efficient, resulting in a concentration ratio of [virus](film):[virus](soln) ≈ 450. Virus incorporation into the PEDOT causes roughening of the film topography that is observed using scanning electron microscopy and atomic force microscopy (AFM). The electrical conductivity of the virus-PEDOT film, measured perpendicular to the plane of the film using conductive tip AFM, decreases linearly with virus loading, from 270 μS/cm for pure PEDOT films to 50 μS/cm for films containing 100 μM virus. The presence on the virus surface of displayed affinity peptides did not significantly influence the efficiency of incorporation into virus-PEDOT biocomposite films.
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Affiliation(s)
- Keith C. Donavan
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Irvine, California 92697-2025, United States
| | - Jessica A. Arter
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Irvine, California 92697-2025, United States
| | - Gregory A. Weiss
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Irvine, California 92697-2025, United States
| | - Reginald M. Penner
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Irvine, California 92697-2025, United States
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28
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Atanasova P, Rothenstein D, Schneider JJ, Hoffmann RC, Dilfer S, Eiben S, Wege C, Jeske H, Bill J. Virus-templated synthesis of ZnO nanostructures and formation of field-effect transistors. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2011; 23:4918-22. [PMID: 21959928 DOI: 10.1002/adma.201102900] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2011] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Petia Atanasova
- Institut für Materialwissenschaft, Universität Stuttgart, Heisenbergstraße 3, 70569 Stuttgart, Germany.
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29
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Lee LA, Nguyen HG, Wang Q. Altering the landscape of viruses and bionanoparticles. Org Biomol Chem 2011; 9:6189-95. [PMID: 21750835 DOI: 10.1039/c1ob05700f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
In recent years, protein-based nanoparticles or bionanoparticles (BNPs), have been used as primary building blocks to generate ornate nanomaterials for a wide-range of applications. Over the past fifty years, numerous BNPs have been chemically modified or genetically engineered to function as smart drug/gene delivery vehicles, advanced vaccine vehicles, and isolated reaction vessels for inorganic, metallic, and semi-conductive depositions. These studies have contributed invaluable insights to the expansive capabilities of these simple, yet highly robust, nanosized building materials. Here we highlight some of the recent progress in the chemical modifications of BNPs and hopefully inspire the development of many new materials in the near future.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Andrew Lee
- University of South Carolina, Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry and Nanocenter, Columbia, SC 29208, USA
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30
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Musick MA, McConnell KI, Lue JK, Wei F, Chen C, Suh J. Reprogramming Virus Nanoparticles to Bind Metal Ions upon Activation with Heat. Biomacromolecules 2011; 12:2153-8. [DOI: 10.1021/bm200225x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Matthew A. Musick
- Department of Bioengineering, Rice University, Houston, Texas 77005, United States
- Department of Pediatrics, Section of Critical Care, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas 77030, United States
| | - Kellie I. McConnell
- Department of Bioengineering, Rice University, Houston, Texas 77005, United States
| | - Jerry K. Lue
- Department of Bioengineering, Rice University, Houston, Texas 77005, United States
| | - Fang Wei
- Department of Bioengineering, Rice University, Houston, Texas 77005, United States
| | - Clive Chen
- Department of Bioengineering, Rice University, Houston, Texas 77005, United States
| | - Junghae Suh
- Department of Bioengineering, Rice University, Houston, Texas 77005, United States
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