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Österberg M, Henn KA, Farooq M, Valle-Delgado JJ. Biobased Nanomaterials─The Role of Interfacial Interactions for Advanced Materials. Chem Rev 2023; 123:2200-2241. [PMID: 36720130 PMCID: PMC9999428 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.2c00492] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
This review presents recent advances regarding biomass-based nanomaterials, focusing on their surface interactions. Plant biomass-based nanoparticles, like nanocellulose and lignin from industry side streams, hold great potential for the development of lightweight, functional, biodegradable, or recyclable material solutions for a sustainable circular bioeconomy. However, to obtain optimal properties of the nanoparticles and materials made thereof, it is crucial to control the interactions both during particle production and in applications. Herein we focus on the current understanding of these interactions. Solvent interactions during particle formation and production, as well as interactions with water, polymers, cells and other components in applications, are addressed. We concentrate on cellulose and lignin nanomaterials and their combination. We demonstrate how the surface chemistry of the nanomaterials affects these interactions and how excellent performance is only achieved when the interactions are controlled. We furthermore introduce suitable methods for probing interactions with nanomaterials, describe their advantages and challenges, and introduce some less commonly used methods and discuss their possible applications to gain a deeper understanding of the interfacial chemistry of biobased nanomaterials. Finally, some gaps in current understanding and interesting emerging research lines are identified.
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Affiliation(s)
- Monika Österberg
- Department of Bioproducts and Biosystems, School of Chemical Engineering, Aalto University, Vuorimiehentie 1, 02150Espoo, Finland
| | - K Alexander Henn
- Department of Bioproducts and Biosystems, School of Chemical Engineering, Aalto University, Vuorimiehentie 1, 02150Espoo, Finland
| | - Muhammad Farooq
- Department of Bioproducts and Biosystems, School of Chemical Engineering, Aalto University, Vuorimiehentie 1, 02150Espoo, Finland
| | - Juan José Valle-Delgado
- Department of Bioproducts and Biosystems, School of Chemical Engineering, Aalto University, Vuorimiehentie 1, 02150Espoo, Finland
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2
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Wood-inspired strategy to toughen transparent cellulose nanofibril films. Carbohydr Polym 2021; 259:117759. [PMID: 33674013 DOI: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2021.117759] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2020] [Revised: 01/09/2021] [Accepted: 02/01/2021] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The simultaneous attainment of high strength and high toughness of transparent cellulose nanofibril (CNF) film can expedite its uses in advanced applications. In this work, a wood-inspired strategy is proposed to address the conflict between strength and toughness by using natural derived lignosulfonic acid (LA) as a reinforcing additive. Only 1 wt% LA addition can double the toughness (11.0±1.3 MJ/m3) of pure CNF film. Consequently, the as-prepared CNF/LA-1 nanocomposite film not only exhibits superior mechanical properties (23.6±1.3 MJ/m3 toughness, 249±6 MPa strength, and 15.4±1.4 % strain), but also maintains an excellent optical transparency of 91.2 % (550 nm). Furthermore, the mechanism for simultaneously enhancing strength and toughness is essentially attributed to the improved hydrogen bonding between CNF-OH and LA-SO3H and effective energy dissipation system. This work provides a green and effective approach to prepare strong yet tough and transparent biodegradable CNF film for high-end applications.
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3
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Meng Z, Sawada D, Laine C, Ogawa Y, Virtanen T, Nishiyama Y, Tammelin T, Kontturi E. Bottom-up Construction of Xylan Nanocrystals in Dimethyl Sulfoxide. Biomacromolecules 2021; 22:898-906. [PMID: 33410657 DOI: 10.1021/acs.biomac.0c01600] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
A new type of polysaccharide (hemicellulose) nanocrystal, bearing the shape of an anisotropic nanoflake, emerged from a dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) dispersion of wood-based xylan through heat-induced crystallization. The dimensions of these xylan nanocrystals were controlled by the crystallization conditions. Sharp signals in solid-state NMR indicated a well-ordered crystal structure. The unit cell is constituted of two asymmetric xylose residues, and DMSO molecules resided in a host-guest type of arrangement with more than one local environment. This corroborates with the identical 1H NMR relaxation time between DMSO and xylan, indicative of intimate mixing of the two at the tens of nanometer length scale. X-ray and electron diffraction indicated a 2-fold helical helix along the chain in a monoclinic unit cell with an antiparallel arrangement, with chains placed on the 2-fold helix axes: at the corner and at the center. The 2-fold helical structure is unique for xylan for which only a 3-fold helical form has been reported. The DMSO molecules participated in the crystallization, and they were shown to be vital in stabilizing the crystalline structure. The manipulation of temperature, concentration, and incubation time of the xylan/DMSO dispersion provided pathways for the crystallization to form size-adjustable nanocrystals. As 20-30% of biomass consists of hemicelluloses, this work will serve as a starting point to understand the controlled assembly of hemicelluloses to discover their full application potential.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhuojun Meng
- Department of Bioproducts and Biosystems, Aalto University, Espoo, Finland
| | - Daisuke Sawada
- Department of Bioproducts and Biosystems, Aalto University, Espoo, Finland
| | | | - Yu Ogawa
- Université Grenoble Alpes, CNRS, CERMAV, 38000 Grenoble, France
| | - Tommi Virtanen
- VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland, Espoo, Finland
| | | | - Tekla Tammelin
- VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland, Espoo, Finland
| | - Eero Kontturi
- Department of Bioproducts and Biosystems, Aalto University, Espoo, Finland
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Zhu C, Monti S, Mathew AP. Evaluation of nanocellulose interaction with water pollutants using nanocellulose colloidal probes and molecular dynamic simulations. Carbohydr Polym 2020; 229:115510. [DOI: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2019.115510] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2019] [Revised: 09/22/2019] [Accepted: 10/19/2019] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
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Liamas E, Connell SD, Ramakrishna SN, Sarkar A. Probing the frictional properties of soft materials at the nanoscale. NANOSCALE 2020; 12:2292-2308. [PMID: 31951242 DOI: 10.1039/c9nr07084b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
The understanding of friction in soft materials is of increasing importance due to the demands of industries such as healthcare, biomedical, food and personal care, the incorporation of soft materials into technology, and in the study of interacting biological interfaces. Many of these processes occur at the nanoscale, but even at micrometer length scales there are fundamental aspects of tribology that remain poorly understood. With the advent of Friction Force Microscopy (FFM), there have been many fundamental insights into tribological phenomena at the atomic scale, such as 'stick-slip' and 'super-lubricity'. This review examines the growing field of soft tribology, the experimental aspects of FFM and its underlying theory. Moving to the nanoscale changes the contact mechanics which govern adhesive forces, which in turn play a pivotal role in friction, along with the deformation of the soft interface and dissipative phenomena. We examine recent progress and future prospects in soft nanotribology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Evangelos Liamas
- Food Colloids and Bioprocessing Group, School of Food Science and Nutrition, University of Leeds, UK.
| | - Simon D Connell
- Molecular and Nanoscale Physics Group, School of Physics and Astronomy, University of Leeds, UK
| | | | - Anwesha Sarkar
- Food Colloids and Bioprocessing Group, School of Food Science and Nutrition, University of Leeds, UK.
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6
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Understanding hemicellulose-cellulose interactions in cellulose nanofibril-based composites. J Colloid Interface Sci 2019; 555:104-114. [PMID: 31377636 DOI: 10.1016/j.jcis.2019.07.053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2019] [Revised: 07/16/2019] [Accepted: 07/20/2019] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Plant-based polysaccharides (cellulose and hemicellulose) are a very interesting option for the preparation of sustainable composite materials to replace fossil plastics, but the optimum bonding mechanism between the hard and soft components is still not well known. In this work, composite films made of cellulose nanofibrils (CNF) and various modified and unmodified polysaccharides (galactoglucomannan, GGM; hydrolyzed and oxidized guar gum, GGhydHox; and guar gum grafted with polyethylene glycol, GG-g-PEG) were characterized from the nano- to macroscopic level to better understand how the interactions between the composite components at nano/microscale affect macroscopic mechanical properties, like toughness and strength. All the polysaccharides studied adsorbed well on CNF, although with different adsorption rates, as measured by quartz crystal microbalance with dissipation monitoring (QCM-D). Direct surface and friction force experiments using the colloidal probe technique revealed that the adsorbed polysaccharides provided repulsive forces-well described by a polyelectrolyte brush model - and a moderate reduction in friction between cellulose surfaces, which may prevent CNF aggregates during composite formation and, consequently, enhance the strength of dry films. High affinity for cellulose and moderate hydration were found to be important requirements for polysaccharides to improve the mechanical properties of CNF-based composites in wet conditions. The results of this work provide fundamental information on hemicellulose-cellulose interactions and can support the development of polysaccharide-based materials for different packaging and medical applications.
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Farooq M, Zou T, Riviere G, Sipponen MH, Österberg M. Strong, Ductile, and Waterproof Cellulose Nanofibril Composite Films with Colloidal Lignin Particles. Biomacromolecules 2018; 20:693-704. [PMID: 30358992 DOI: 10.1021/acs.biomac.8b01364] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Brittleness has hindered commercialization of cellulose nanofibril (CNF) films. The use of synthetic polymers and plasticizers is a known detour that impairs biodegradability and carbon footprint of the product. Herein, we utilize a variety of softwood Kraft lignin morphologies to obtain strong and ductile CNF nanocomposite films. An optimum 10 wt % content of colloidal lignin particles (CLPs) produced films with nearly double the toughness compared to a CNF film without lignin. CLPs rendered the films waterproof, provided antioxidant activity and UV-shielding with better visible light transmittance than obtained with irregular lignin aggregates. We conclude based on electron microscopy, dynamic water sorption analysis, and tp-DSC that homogeneously distributed CLPs act as ball bearing lubricating and stress transferring agents in the CNF matrix. Overall, our results open new avenues for the utilization of lignin nanoparticles in biopolymer composites equipped with versatile functionalities for applications in food packaging, water purification, and biomedicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muhammad Farooq
- Aalto University, School of Chemical Engineering , Department of Bioproducts and Biosystems , Vuorimiehentie 1 , 02150 Espoo , Finland
| | - Tao Zou
- Aalto University, School of Chemical Engineering , Department of Bioproducts and Biosystems , Vuorimiehentie 1 , 02150 Espoo , Finland
| | - Guillaume Riviere
- Aalto University, School of Chemical Engineering , Department of Bioproducts and Biosystems , Vuorimiehentie 1 , 02150 Espoo , Finland
| | - Mika H Sipponen
- Aalto University, School of Chemical Engineering , Department of Bioproducts and Biosystems , Vuorimiehentie 1 , 02150 Espoo , Finland
| | - Monika Österberg
- Aalto University, School of Chemical Engineering , Department of Bioproducts and Biosystems , Vuorimiehentie 1 , 02150 Espoo , Finland
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8
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Kontturi E, Laaksonen P, Linder MB, Gröschel AH, Rojas OJ, Ikkala O. Advanced Materials through Assembly of Nanocelluloses. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2018; 30:e1703779. [PMID: 29504161 DOI: 10.1002/adma.201703779] [Citation(s) in RCA: 337] [Impact Index Per Article: 56.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2017] [Revised: 09/06/2017] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
There is an emerging quest for lightweight materials with excellent mechanical properties and economic production, while still being sustainable and functionalizable. They could form the basis of the future bioeconomy for energy and material efficiency. Cellulose has long been recognized as an abundant polymer. Modified celluloses were, in fact, among the first polymers used in technical applications; however, they were later replaced by petroleum-based synthetic polymers. Currently, there is a resurgence of interest to utilize renewable resources, where cellulose is foreseen to make again a major impact, this time in the development of advanced materials. This is because of its availability and properties, as well as economic and sustainable production. Among cellulose-based structures, cellulose nanofibrils and nanocrystals display nanoscale lateral dimensions and lengths ranging from nanometers to micrometers. Their excellent mechanical properties are, in part, due to their crystalline assembly via hydrogen bonds. Owing to their abundant surface hydroxyl groups, they can be easily modified with nanoparticles, (bio)polymers, inorganics, or nanocarbons to form functional fibers, films, bulk matter, and porous aerogels and foams. Here, some of the recent progress in the development of advanced materials within this rapidly growing field is reviewed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eero Kontturi
- Department of Bioproducts and Biosystems, Aalto University, Espoo, FI-00076, Finland
| | - Päivi Laaksonen
- Department of Bioproducts and Biosystems, Aalto University, Espoo, FI-00076, Finland
- Center of Excellence Molecular Engineering of Biosynthetic Hybrid Materials Research, Aalto University and VTT, Espoo, FI-00076, Finland
| | - Markus B Linder
- Department of Bioproducts and Biosystems, Aalto University, Espoo, FI-00076, Finland
- Center of Excellence Molecular Engineering of Biosynthetic Hybrid Materials Research, Aalto University and VTT, Espoo, FI-00076, Finland
| | - André H Gröschel
- Physical Chemistry and Centre for Nanointegration (CENIDE), University of Duisburg-Essen, DE-45127, Essen, Germany
| | - Orlando J Rojas
- Department of Bioproducts and Biosystems, Aalto University, Espoo, FI-00076, Finland
- Center of Excellence Molecular Engineering of Biosynthetic Hybrid Materials Research, Aalto University and VTT, Espoo, FI-00076, Finland
- Department of Applied Physics, Aalto University, Espoo, FI-00076, Finland
| | - Olli Ikkala
- Department of Bioproducts and Biosystems, Aalto University, Espoo, FI-00076, Finland
- Center of Excellence Molecular Engineering of Biosynthetic Hybrid Materials Research, Aalto University and VTT, Espoo, FI-00076, Finland
- Department of Applied Physics, Aalto University, Espoo, FI-00076, Finland
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9
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Bendaoud A, Kehrbusch R, Baranov A, Duchemin B, Maigret JE, Falourd X, Staiger MP, Cathala B, Lourdin D, Leroy E. Nanostructured cellulose-xyloglucan blends via ionic liquid/water processing. Carbohydr Polym 2017; 168:163-172. [PMID: 28457437 DOI: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2017.03.080] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2016] [Revised: 03/17/2017] [Accepted: 03/23/2017] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
In this work, the properties of cellulose (CE)/xyloglucan (XG) biopolymer blends are investigated, taking inspiration from the outstanding mechanical properties of plant cell walls. CE and XG were first co-solubilized in an ionic liquid, 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium acetate, in order to blend these biopolymers with a varying CE:XG ratio. The biopolymers were then regenerated together using water to produce solid blends in the form of films. Water-soluble XG persisted in the films following regeneration in water, indicating an attractive interaction between the CE and XG. The final CE:XG ratio of the blends was close to the initial value in solutions, further suggesting that intimate mixing takes place between CE and XG. The resulting CE/XG films were found to be free of ionic liquid, transparent and with no evidence of phase separation at the micron scale. The mechanical properties of the blend with a CE:XG ratio close to one revealed a synergistic effect for which a maximum in the elongation and stress at break was observed in combination with a high elastic modulus. Atomic force microscopy indicates a co-continuous nanostructure for this composition. It is proposed that the non-monotonous variation of the mechanical performance of the films with XG content is due to this observed nanostructuration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amine Bendaoud
- UR1268 Biopolymères Interactions Assemblages, INRA, F-44300 Nantes, France
| | - Rene Kehrbusch
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Canterbury, Private Bag 4800, Christchurch 8140, New Zealand
| | - Anton Baranov
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Canterbury, Private Bag 4800, Christchurch 8140, New Zealand
| | | | - Jean Eudes Maigret
- UR1268 Biopolymères Interactions Assemblages, INRA, F-44300 Nantes, France
| | - Xavier Falourd
- UR1268 Biopolymères Interactions Assemblages, INRA, F-44300 Nantes, France
| | - Mark P Staiger
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Canterbury, Private Bag 4800, Christchurch 8140, New Zealand
| | - Bernard Cathala
- UR1268 Biopolymères Interactions Assemblages, INRA, F-44300 Nantes, France
| | - Denis Lourdin
- UR1268 Biopolymères Interactions Assemblages, INRA, F-44300 Nantes, France
| | - Eric Leroy
- LUNAM Université, CNRS, GEPEA, UMR 6144, CRTT, 37, Boulevard de l'Université, 44606 St. Nazaire Cedex, France.
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10
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11
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Tanaka R, Saito T, Hänninen T, Ono Y, Hakalahti M, Tammelin T, Isogai A. Viscoelastic Properties of Core–Shell-Structured, Hemicellulose-Rich Nanofibrillated Cellulose in Dispersion and Wet-Film States. Biomacromolecules 2016; 17:2104-11. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.biomac.6b00316] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Reina Tanaka
- Department
of Biomaterials Science, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life
Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo 113-8657, Japan
| | - Tsuguyuki Saito
- Department
of Biomaterials Science, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life
Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo 113-8657, Japan
| | - Tuomas Hänninen
- Department
of Forest Products Technology, School of Chemical Technology, Aalto University, FI-00076 Aalto, Finland
| | - Yuko Ono
- Department
of Biomaterials Science, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life
Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo 113-8657, Japan
| | - Minna Hakalahti
- High
Performance Fibre Products, VTT Technical Research Center of Finland Ltd, FI-02044 VTT, Espoo, Finland
| | - Tekla Tammelin
- High
Performance Fibre Products, VTT Technical Research Center of Finland Ltd, FI-02044 VTT, Espoo, Finland
| | - Akira Isogai
- Department
of Biomaterials Science, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life
Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo 113-8657, Japan
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12
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Valle-Delgado JJ, Johansson LS, Österberg M. Bioinspired lubricating films of cellulose nanofibrils and hyaluronic acid. Colloids Surf B Biointerfaces 2016; 138:86-93. [DOI: 10.1016/j.colsurfb.2015.11.047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2015] [Revised: 11/24/2015] [Accepted: 11/25/2015] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
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13
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Hatton FL, Malmström E, Carlmark A. Tailor-made copolymers for the adsorption to cellulosic surfaces. Eur Polym J 2015. [DOI: 10.1016/j.eurpolymj.2015.01.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
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14
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Tang H, Butchosa N, Zhou Q. A transparent, hazy, and strong macroscopic ribbon of oriented cellulose nanofibrils bearing poly(ethylene glycol). ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2015; 27:2070-2076. [PMID: 25665182 DOI: 10.1002/adma.201404565] [Citation(s) in RCA: 102] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2014] [Revised: 01/14/2015] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
A macroscopic ribbon of oriented cellulose nanofibrils bearing polyethylene glycol is fabricated by stretching the cellulose nanofibrils network structure in the hydrogel state. The covalently grafted polyethylene glycol on the nanofibril surface facilitates the alignment and compartmentalization of individual nanofibrils in the ribbon. The ribbon has ultrahigh tensile strength (576 ± 54 MPa), modulus (32.3 ± 5.7 GPa), high transparency, and haze.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hu Tang
- School of Biotechnology, Royal Institute of Technology (KTH), AlbaNova University Centre, 106 91, Stockholm, Sweden
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15
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Prakobna K, Galland S, Berglund LA. High-Performance and Moisture-Stable Cellulose–Starch Nanocomposites Based on Bioinspired Core–Shell Nanofibers. Biomacromolecules 2015; 16:904-12. [DOI: 10.1021/bm5018194] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Kasinee Prakobna
- Department of Fibre and Polymer Technology and ‡Wallenberg Wood
Science Centre, KTH Royal Institute of Technology, SE-10044 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Sylvain Galland
- Department of Fibre and Polymer Technology and ‡Wallenberg Wood
Science Centre, KTH Royal Institute of Technology, SE-10044 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Lars A. Berglund
- Department of Fibre and Polymer Technology and ‡Wallenberg Wood
Science Centre, KTH Royal Institute of Technology, SE-10044 Stockholm, Sweden
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17
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Shimizu M, Saito T, Fukuzumi H, Isogai A. Hydrophobic, Ductile, and Transparent Nanocellulose Films with Quaternary Alkylammonium Carboxylates on Nanofibril Surfaces. Biomacromolecules 2014; 15:4320-5. [DOI: 10.1021/bm501329v] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Michiko Shimizu
- Department
of Biomaterials Science, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life
Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo 113-8657, Japan
| | - Tsuguyuki Saito
- Department
of Biomaterials Science, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life
Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo 113-8657, Japan
| | - Hayaka Fukuzumi
- Department
of Chemistry and Material Science, Graduate School of Science and
Engineering, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Tokyo 152-8550, Japan
| | - Akira Isogai
- Department
of Biomaterials Science, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life
Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo 113-8657, Japan
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