1
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Chong WH, Chan DJC, Liu CZ, Lim J. Navigating the microenvironment with flip and turn under quadrupole magnetophoretic steering control: Nanosphere- and nanorod-coated microbead. Electrophoresis 2024; 45:357-368. [PMID: 38044267 DOI: 10.1002/elps.202300042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2023] [Revised: 10/07/2023] [Accepted: 11/20/2023] [Indexed: 12/05/2023]
Abstract
The spatiotemporal accuracy of microscale magnetophoresis has improved significantly over the course of several decades of development. However, most of the studies so far were using magnetic microbead composed of nanosphere particle for magnetophoretic actuation purpose. Here, we developed an in-house method for magnetic sample analysis called quadrupole magnetic steering control (QMSC). QMSC was used to study the magnetophoretic behavior of polystyrene microbeads decorated with iron oxide nanospheres-coated polystyrene microbeads (IONSs-PS) and iron oxide nanorods-coated polystyrene microbeads (IONRs-PS) under the influence of a quadrupole low field gradient. During a 4-s QMSC experiment, the IONSs-PS and IONRs-PS were navigated to perform 180° flip and 90° turn formations, and their kinematic results (2 s before and 2 s after the flip/turn) were measured and compared. The results showed that the IONRs-PS suffered from significant kinematic disproportion, translating a highly uneven amount of kinetic energy from the same magnitude of magnetic control. Combining the kinematic analysis, transmission electron microscopy micrographs, and vibrating sample magnetometry measurements, it was found that the IONRs-PS experienced higher fluid drag force and had lower consistency than the IONSs-PS due to its extensive open fractal nanorod structure on the bead surface and uneven magnetization, which was attributed to its ferrimagnetic nature.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wai Hong Chong
- School of Chemical Engineering, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Nibong Tebal, Penang, Malaysia
| | - Derek Juinn Chieh Chan
- School of Chemical Engineering, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Nibong Tebal, Penang, Malaysia
| | - Chun-Zhao Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Biochemical Engineering & Key Laboratory of Green Process and Engineering, Institute of Process Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, P. R. China
- State Key Laboratory of Bio-fibers and Eco-textiles, Institute of Biochemical Engineering, Affiliated Qingdao Central Hospital, College of Materials Science and Engineering, Qingdao University, Qingdao, P. R. China
| | - JitKang Lim
- School of Chemical Engineering, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Nibong Tebal, Penang, Malaysia
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2
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Bader LPE, Klok HA. Chemical Approaches for the Preparation of Bacteria - Nano/Microparticle Hybrid Systems. Macromol Biosci 2023; 23:e2200440. [PMID: 36454518 DOI: 10.1002/mabi.202200440] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2022] [Revised: 11/24/2022] [Indexed: 12/05/2022]
Abstract
Bacteria represent a class of living cells that are very attractive carriers for the transport and delivery of nano- and microsized particles. The use of cell-based carriers, such as for example bacteria, may allow to precisely direct nano- or microsized cargo to a desired site, which would greatly enhance the selectivity of drug delivery and allow to mitigate side effects. One key step towards the use of such nano-/microparticle - bacteria hybrids is the immobilization of the cargo on the bacterial cell surface. To fabricate bacteria - nano-/microparticle biohybrid microsystems, a wide range of chemical approaches are available that can be used to immobilize the particle payload on the bacterial cell surface. This article presents an overview of the various covalent and noncovalent chemistries that are available for the preparation of bacteria - nano-/microparticle hybrids. For each of the different chemical approaches, an overview will be presented that lists the bacterial strains that have been modified, the type and size of nanoparticles that have been immobilized, as well as the methods that have been used to characterize the nanoparticle-modified bacteria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisa Patricia Elisabeth Bader
- École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Institut des Matériaux and Institut des Sciences et Ingénierie Chimiques, Laboratoire des Polymères, Bâtiment MXD, Station 12, Lausanne, CH-1015, Switzerland
| | - Harm-Anton Klok
- École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Institut des Matériaux and Institut des Sciences et Ingénierie Chimiques, Laboratoire des Polymères, Bâtiment MXD, Station 12, Lausanne, CH-1015, Switzerland
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3
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Yang Y, Yang Y, Liu D, Wang Y, Lu M, Zhang Q, Huang J, Li Y, Ma T, Yan F, Zheng H. In-vivo programmable acoustic manipulation of genetically engineered bacteria. Nat Commun 2023; 14:3297. [PMID: 37280199 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-38814-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2022] [Accepted: 05/15/2023] [Indexed: 06/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Acoustic tweezers can control target movement through the momentum interaction between an acoustic wave and an object. This technology has advantages over optical tweezers for in-vivo cell manipulation due to its high tissue penetrability and strong acoustic radiation force. However, normal cells are difficult to acoustically manipulate because of their small size and the similarity between their acoustic impedance and that of the medium. In this study, we use the heterologous expression of gene clusters to generate genetically engineered bacteria that can produce numerous sub-micron gas vesicles in the bacterial cytoplasm. We show that the presence of the gas vesicles significantly enhances the acoustic sensitivity of the engineering bacteria, which can be manipulated by ultrasound. We find that by employing phased-array-based acoustic tweezers, the engineering bacteria can be trapped into clusters and manipulated in vitro and in vivo via electronically steered acoustic beams, enabling the counter flow or on-demand flow of these bacteria in the vasculature of live mice. Furthermore, we demonstrate that the aggregation efficiency of engineering bacteria in a tumour is improved by utilizing this technology. This study provides a platform for the in-vivo manipulation of live cells, which will promote the progress of cell-based biomedical applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ye Yang
- Shenzhen Institutes of Advanced Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 518055, Shenzhen, China
- Shenzhen College of Advanced Technology, University of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, 100049, Beijing, China
| | - Yaozhang Yang
- Shenzhen Institutes of Advanced Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 518055, Shenzhen, China
- Shenzhen Bay Laboratory, 518132, Shenzhen, China
| | - Dingyuan Liu
- Shenzhen Institutes of Advanced Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 518055, Shenzhen, China
| | - Yuanyuan Wang
- Shenzhen Institutes of Advanced Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 518055, Shenzhen, China
| | - Minqiao Lu
- Shenzhen Institutes of Advanced Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 518055, Shenzhen, China
| | - Qi Zhang
- Shenzhen Institutes of Advanced Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 518055, Shenzhen, China
| | - Jiqing Huang
- Shenzhen Institutes of Advanced Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 518055, Shenzhen, China
| | - Yongchuan Li
- Shenzhen Institutes of Advanced Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 518055, Shenzhen, China
| | - Teng Ma
- Shenzhen Institutes of Advanced Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 518055, Shenzhen, China.
- Shenzhen College of Advanced Technology, University of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, 100049, Beijing, China.
| | - Fei Yan
- Shenzhen Institutes of Advanced Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 518055, Shenzhen, China.
- Shenzhen College of Advanced Technology, University of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, 100049, Beijing, China.
| | - Hairong Zheng
- Shenzhen Institutes of Advanced Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 518055, Shenzhen, China.
- Shenzhen College of Advanced Technology, University of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, 100049, Beijing, China.
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4
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Sheikhshoaei A, Rajabi M. Utilizing passive elements to break time reversibility at low Reynolds number: a swimmer with one activated element. THE EUROPEAN PHYSICAL JOURNAL. E, SOFT MATTER 2023; 46:15. [PMID: 36929245 DOI: 10.1140/epje/s10189-023-00273-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2022] [Accepted: 02/27/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
In the realm of low Reynolds number, the shape-changing biological and artificial matters need to break time reversibility in the course of their strokes to achieve motility. This necessity is well described in the so-called scallop theorem. In this work, considering low Reynolds number, a novel and versatile swimmer is proposed as an example of a new scheme to break time reversibility kinematically and, in turn, produce net motion. The swimmer consists of one sphere as a cargo or carried body, joined by one activated link with time-varying length, to another perpendicular rigid link, as the support of two passively flapping disks, at its end. The disks are free to rotate between their fixed minimum and maximum angles. The system's motion in two dimensions is simulated, and the maneuverability of the swimmer is discussed. The minimal operating parameters for steering of the swimmer are studied, and the limits of the swimmer are identified. The introduced swimming mechanism can be employed as a simple model system for biological living matters as well as artificial microswimmers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amir Sheikhshoaei
- School of Mechanical Engineering, Iran University of Science and Technology, Narmak, Tehran, Iran.
| | - Majid Rajabi
- School of Mechanical Engineering, Iran University of Science and Technology, Narmak, Tehran, Iran
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5
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Singh AK, Awasthi R, Malviya R. Bioinspired microrobots: Opportunities and challenges in targeted cancer therapy. J Control Release 2023; 354:439-452. [PMID: 36669531 DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2023.01.042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2022] [Revised: 01/15/2023] [Accepted: 01/15/2023] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
Chemotherapy is still the most effective technique to treat many forms of cancer. However, it also carries a high risk of side effects. Numerous nanomedicines have been developed to avoid unintended consequences and significant negative effects of conventional therapies. Achieving targeted drug delivery also has several challenges. In this context, the development of microrobots is receiving considerable attention of formulation scientists and clinicians to overcome such challenges. Due to their mobility, microrobots can infiltrate tissues and reach tumor sites more quickly. Different types of microrobots, like custom-made moving bacteria, microengines powered by small bubbles, and hybrid spermbots, can be designed with complex features that are best for precise targeting of a wide range of cancers. In this review, we mainly focus on the idea of how microrobots can quickly target cancer cells and discuss specific advantages of microrobots. A brief summary of the microrobots' drug loading and release behavior is provided in this manuscript. This manuscript will assist clinicians and other medical professionals in diagnosing and treating cancer without surgery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arun Kumar Singh
- Department of Pharmacy, School of Medical and Allied Sciences, Galgotias University, Greater Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - Rajendra Awasthi
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Health Sciences & Technology, University of Petroleum and Energy Studies (UPES), Energy Acres, P.O. Bidholi, Via-Prem Nagar, Dehradun 248 007, Uttarakhand, India
| | - Rishabha Malviya
- Department of Pharmacy, School of Medical and Allied Sciences, Galgotias University, Greater Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India.
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6
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Zhang S, Ke X, Jiang Q, Chai Z, Wu Z, Ding H. Fabrication and Functionality Integration Technologies for Small-Scale Soft Robots. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2022; 34:e2200671. [PMID: 35732070 DOI: 10.1002/adma.202200671] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2022] [Revised: 06/12/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Small-scale soft robots are attracting increasing interest for visible and potential applications owing to their safety and tolerance resulting from their intrinsic soft bodies or compliant structures. However, it is not sufficient that the soft bodies merely provide support or system protection. More importantly, to meet the increasing demands of controllable operation and real-time feedback in unstructured/complicated scenarios, these robots are required to perform simplex and multimodal functionalities for sensing, communicating, and interacting with external environments during large or dynamic deformation with the risk of mismatch or delamination. Challenges are encountered during fabrication and integration, including the selection and fabrication of composite/materials and structures, integration of active/passive functional modules with robust interfaces, particularly with highly deformable soft/stretchable bodies. Here, methods and strategies of fabricating structural soft bodies and integrating them with functional modules for developing small-scale soft robots are investigated. Utilizing templating, 3D printing, transfer printing, and swelling, small-scale soft robots can be endowed with several perceptual capabilities corresponding to diverse stimulus, such as light, heat, magnetism, and force. The integration of sensing and functionalities effectively enhances the agility, adaptability, and universality of soft robots when applied in various fields, including smart manufacturing, medical surgery, biomimetics, and other interdisciplinary sciences.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuo Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Digital Manufacturing Equipment and Technology, School of Mechanical Science and Engineering, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430074, P. R. China
| | - Xingxing Ke
- State Key Laboratory of Digital Manufacturing Equipment and Technology, School of Mechanical Science and Engineering, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430074, P. R. China
| | - Qin Jiang
- State Key Laboratory of Digital Manufacturing Equipment and Technology, School of Mechanical Science and Engineering, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430074, P. R. China
| | - Zhiping Chai
- State Key Laboratory of Digital Manufacturing Equipment and Technology, School of Mechanical Science and Engineering, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430074, P. R. China
| | - Zhigang Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Digital Manufacturing Equipment and Technology, School of Mechanical Science and Engineering, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430074, P. R. China
| | - Han Ding
- State Key Laboratory of Digital Manufacturing Equipment and Technology, School of Mechanical Science and Engineering, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430074, P. R. China
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7
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G K, Kandasubramanian B. Exertions of Magnetic Polymer Composites Fabricated via 3D Printing. Ind Eng Chem Res 2022. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.iecr.2c02299] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Krishnaja G
- CIPET: Institute of Petrochemicals Technology (IPT), HIL Colony, Edayar Road, Pathalam, Eloor, Udyogamandal P.O., Kochi683501, India
| | - Balasubramanian Kandasubramanian
- Rapid Prototyping Laboratory, Department of Metallurgical and Materials Engineering, DIAT (DU), Ministry of Defence, Girinagar, Pune, 411025Maharashtra, India
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8
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Webster-Wood VA, Guix M, Xu NW, Behkam B, Sato H, Sarkar D, Sanchez S, Shimizu M, Parker KK. Biohybrid robots: recent progress, challenges, and perspectives. BIOINSPIRATION & BIOMIMETICS 2022; 18:015001. [PMID: 36265472 DOI: 10.1088/1748-3190/ac9c3b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2022] [Accepted: 10/20/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
The past ten years have seen the rapid expansion of the field of biohybrid robotics. By combining engineered, synthetic components with living biological materials, new robotics solutions have been developed that harness the adaptability of living muscles, the sensitivity of living sensory cells, and even the computational abilities of living neurons. Biohybrid robotics has taken the popular and scientific media by storm with advances in the field, moving biohybrid robotics out of science fiction and into real science and engineering. So how did we get here, and where should the field of biohybrid robotics go next? In this perspective, we first provide the historical context of crucial subareas of biohybrid robotics by reviewing the past 10+ years of advances in microorganism-bots and sperm-bots, cyborgs, and tissue-based robots. We then present critical challenges facing the field and provide our perspectives on the vital future steps toward creating autonomous living machines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Victoria A Webster-Wood
- Mechanical Engineering, Biomedical Engineering (by courtesy), McGowan Institute of Regenerative Medicine, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA 15116, United States of America
| | - Maria Guix
- Institute for Bioengineering of Catalonia (IBEC), Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology (BIST), Baldiri-Reixac 10-12, 08028 Barcelona, Spain
- Departament de Ciència dels Materials i Química Física, Institut de Química Teòrica i Computacional Barcelona, Universitat de Barcelona, 08028 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Nicole W Xu
- Laboratories for Computational Physics and Fluid Dynamics, U.S. Naval Research Laboratory, Code 6041, Washington, DC, United States of America
| | - Bahareh Behkam
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Institute for Critical Technology and Applied Science, Blacksburg, VA 24061, United States of America
| | - Hirotaka Sato
- School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, 65 Nanyang Drive, Singapore, 637460, Singapore
| | - Deblina Sarkar
- MIT Media Lab, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States of America
| | - Samuel Sanchez
- Institute for Bioengineering of Catalonia (IBEC), Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology (BIST), Baldiri-Reixac 10-12, 08028 Barcelona, Spain
- Catalan Institute for Research and Advanced Studies (ICREA), Avda. Lluis Companys 23, 08010 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Masahiro Shimizu
- Department of Systems Innovation, Graduate School of Engineering Science, Osaka University, 1-3 Machikaneyama-machi, Toyonaka, Osaka, Japan
| | - Kevin Kit Parker
- Disease Biophysics Group, Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering and School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, United States of America
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9
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Gwisai T, Mirkhani N, Christiansen MG, Nguyen TT, Ling V, Schuerle S. Magnetic torque–driven living microrobots for increased tumor infiltration. Sci Robot 2022; 7:eabo0665. [DOI: 10.1126/scirobotics.abo0665] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
Biohybrid bacteria–based microrobots are increasingly recognized as promising externally controllable vehicles for targeted cancer therapy. Magnetic fields in particular have been used as a safe means to transfer energy and direct their motion. Thus far, the magnetic control strategies used in this context rely on poorly scalable magnetic field gradients, require active position feedback, or are ill-suited to diffuse distributions within the body. Here, we present a magnetic torque–driven control scheme for enhanced transport through biological barriers that complements the innate taxis toward tumor cores exhibited by a range of bacteria, shown for
Magnetospirillum magneticum
as a magnetically responsive model organism. This hybrid control strategy is readily scalable, independent of position feedback, and applicable to bacterial microrobots dispersed by the circulatory system. We observed a fourfold increase in translocation of magnetically responsive bacteria across a model of the vascular endothelium and found that the primary mechanism driving increased transport is torque-driven surface exploration at the cell interface. Using spheroids as a three-dimensional tumor model, fluorescently labeled bacteria colonized their core regions with up to 21-fold higher signal in samples exposed to rotating magnetic fields. In addition to enhanced transport, we demonstrated that our control scheme offers further advantages, including the possibility for closed-loop optimization based on inductive detection, as well as spatially selective actuation to reduce off-target effects. Last, after systemic intravenous injection in mice, we showed significantly increased bacterial tumor accumulation, supporting the feasibility of deploying this control scheme clinically for magnetically responsive biohybrid microrobots.
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Affiliation(s)
- T. Gwisai
- Department of Health Sciences and Technology, Institute for Translational Medicine, ETH Zürich, 8092 Zürich, Switzerland
| | - N. Mirkhani
- Department of Health Sciences and Technology, Institute for Translational Medicine, ETH Zürich, 8092 Zürich, Switzerland
| | - M. G. Christiansen
- Department of Health Sciences and Technology, Institute for Translational Medicine, ETH Zürich, 8092 Zürich, Switzerland
| | - T. T. Nguyen
- Department of Health Sciences and Technology, Institute for Translational Medicine, ETH Zürich, 8092 Zürich, Switzerland
| | - V. Ling
- Takeda Pharmaceuticals, 40 Landsdowne St., Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - S. Schuerle
- Department of Health Sciences and Technology, Institute for Translational Medicine, ETH Zürich, 8092 Zürich, Switzerland
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Gas generation due to photocatalysis as a method to reduce the resistance force in the process of motors motion at the air-liquid interface. J Colloid Interface Sci 2022; 627:774-782. [PMID: 35901558 DOI: 10.1016/j.jcis.2022.07.073] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2022] [Revised: 07/07/2022] [Accepted: 07/12/2022] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
HYPOTHESIS The problem of the development of miniature motors able to move on the air-liquid interface at low Reynolds numbers is a crucial challenge due to dominating role of viscous force. To solve this problem the chemical generation of gas can be used. Generated gas pushes liquid out from the surfer surface, so the resistance force is reduced. EXPERIMENTS Surfer composed of TiO2 nanoparticles and ferromagnetic cobalt microparticles moves at the interface of an aqueous solution of hydrogen peroxide under the action of magnetic force. After irradiation with UV or visible light, the gas cavern is formed at the surfer surface due to photo-catalytic decomposition of hydrogen peroxide. As a result, the area of surfer contact with liquid is reduced. FINDINGS The resistance force acting on the surfer is reduced due to the liquid pushing out from the surfer surface. This effect is strengthened with the increase in the intensity of gas generation. The resistance force is increased when increasing the liquid viscosity or using a surfactant. The proposed method allows control of the velocity of the motors in a rather wide range by changing the gradient of the magnetic field and parameters of light.
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11
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Quashie D, Benhal P, Chen Z, Wang Z, Mu X, Song X, Jiang T, Zhong Y, Cheang UK, Ali J. Magnetic bio-hybrid micro actuators. NANOSCALE 2022; 14:4364-4379. [PMID: 35262134 DOI: 10.1039/d2nr00152g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Over the past two decades, there has been a growing body of work on wireless devices that can operate on the length scales of biological cells and even smaller. A class of these devices receiving increasing attention are referred to as bio-hybrid actuators: tools that integrate biological cells or subcellular parts with synthetic or inorganic components. These devices are commonly controlled through magnetic manipulation as magnetic fields and gradients can be generated with a high level of control. Recent work has demonstrated that magnetic bio-hybrid actuators can address common challenges in small scale fabrication, control, and localization. Additionally, it is becoming apparent that these magnetically driven bio-hybrid devices can display high efficiency and, in many cases, have the potential for self-repair and even self-replication. Combining these properties with magnetically driven forces and torques, which can be transmitted over significant distances, can be highly controlled, and are biologically safe, gives magnetic bio-hybrid actuators significant advantages over other classes of small scale actuators. In this review, we describe the theory and mechanisms required for magnetic actuation, classify bio-hybrid actuators by their diverse organic components, and discuss their current limitations. Insights into the future of coupling cells and cell-derived components with magnetic materials to fabricate multi-functional actuators are also provided.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Quashie
- Department of Chemical and Biomedical Engineering, FAMU-FSU College of Engineering, Tallahassee, Florida, USA, 32310.
- National High Magnetic Field Laboratory, Tallahassee, Florida, USA, 32310
| | - Prateek Benhal
- Department of Chemical and Biomedical Engineering, FAMU-FSU College of Engineering, Tallahassee, Florida, USA, 32310.
- National High Magnetic Field Laboratory, Tallahassee, Florida, USA, 32310
| | - Zhi Chen
- Department of Mechanical and Energy Engineering, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen, China, 518055
| | - Zihan Wang
- Department of Mechanical and Energy Engineering, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen, China, 518055
| | - Xueliang Mu
- Department of Mechanical and Energy Engineering, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen, China, 518055
| | - Xiaoxia Song
- Department of Mechanical and Energy Engineering, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen, China, 518055
| | - Teng Jiang
- Department of Mechanical and Energy Engineering, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen, China, 518055
| | - Yukun Zhong
- Department of Mechanical and Energy Engineering, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen, China, 518055
| | - U Kei Cheang
- Department of Mechanical and Energy Engineering, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen, China, 518055
| | - Jamel Ali
- Department of Chemical and Biomedical Engineering, FAMU-FSU College of Engineering, Tallahassee, Florida, USA, 32310.
- National High Magnetic Field Laboratory, Tallahassee, Florida, USA, 32310
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12
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Filippi M, Garello F, Yasa O, Kasamkattil J, Scherberich A, Katzschmann RK. Engineered Magnetic Nanocomposites to Modulate Cellular Function. SMALL (WEINHEIM AN DER BERGSTRASSE, GERMANY) 2022; 18:e2104079. [PMID: 34741417 DOI: 10.1002/smll.202104079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2021] [Revised: 09/13/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) have various applications in biomedicine, including imaging, drug delivery and release, genetic modification, cell guidance, and patterning. By combining MNPs with polymers, magnetic nanocomposites (MNCs) with diverse morphologies (core-shell particles, matrix-dispersed particles, microspheres, etc.) can be generated. These MNCs retain the ability of MNPs to be controlled remotely using external magnetic fields. While the effects of these biomaterials on the cell biology are still poorly understood, such information can help the biophysical modulation of various cellular functions, including proliferation, adhesion, and differentiation. After recalling the basic properties of MNPs and polymers, and describing their coassembly into nanocomposites, this review focuses on how polymeric MNCs can be used in several ways to affect cell behavior. A special emphasis is given to 3D cell culture models and transplantable grafts, which are used for regenerative medicine, underlining the impact of MNCs in regulating stem cell differentiation and engineering living tissues. Recent advances in the use of MNCs for tissue regeneration are critically discussed, particularly with regard to their prospective involvement in human therapy and in the construction of advanced functional materials such as magnetically operated biomedical robots.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miriam Filippi
- Soft Robotics Laboratory, ETH Zurich, Tannenstrasse 3, Zurich, 8092, Switzerland
| | - Francesca Garello
- Department of Molecular Biotechnology and Health Sciences, University of Torino, Via Nizza 52, Torino, 10126, Italy
| | - Oncay Yasa
- Soft Robotics Laboratory, ETH Zurich, Tannenstrasse 3, Zurich, 8092, Switzerland
| | - Jesil Kasamkattil
- Department of Biomedicine, University Hospital Basel, Hebelstrasse 20, Basel, 4031, Switzerland
| | - Arnaud Scherberich
- Department of Biomedicine, University Hospital Basel, Hebelstrasse 20, Basel, 4031, Switzerland
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Basel, Gewerbestrasse 14, Allschwil, 4123, Switzerland
| | - Robert K Katzschmann
- Soft Robotics Laboratory, ETH Zurich, Tannenstrasse 3, Zurich, 8092, Switzerland
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13
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Ahmad B, Gauthier M, Laurent GJ, Bolopion A. Mobile Microrobots for In Vitro Biomedical Applications: A Survey. IEEE T ROBOT 2022. [DOI: 10.1109/tro.2021.3085245] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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14
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Analysis and Comparison of Electromagnetic Microrobotic Platforms for Biomedical Applications. APPLIED SCIENCES-BASEL 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/app12010456] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Magnetic microrobotics is a promising technology for improving minimally invasive surgery (MIS) with the ambition of enhancing patient care and comfort. The potential benefits include limited incisions, less hemorrhaging and postoperative pain, and faster recovery time. To achieve this, a key issue relies on the design of a proper electromagnetic actuation (EMA) setup which is based on the use of magnetic sources. The magnetic field and its gradient generated by the EMA platform is then used to induce magnetic torque and force for microrobot manipulations inside the human body. Like any control systems, the EMA system must be adapted to the given controlled microrobot and customized for the application. With great research efforts on magnetic manipulating of microrobots, the EMA systems are approaching commercial applications, and their configurations are becoming more suitable to be employed in real medical surgeries. However, most of the proposed designs have not followed any specific rule allowing to take into account the biomedical applications constraints. Through reviewing the different proposed EMA systems in the literature, their various specifications and configurations are comprehensively discussed and analyzed. This study focus on EMA platforms that use electromagnets. From this review and based on the biomedical application specifications, the appropriate EMA system can be determined efficiently.
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15
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García-Álvarez R, Vallet-Regí M. Bacteria and cells as alternative nano-carriers for biomedical applications. Expert Opin Drug Deliv 2022; 19:103-118. [PMID: 35076351 PMCID: PMC8802895 DOI: 10.1080/17425247.2022.2029844] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2021] [Accepted: 01/12/2022] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Nano-based systems have received a lot of attention owing to their particular properties and, hence, have been proposed for a wide variety of biomedical applications. These nanosystems could be potentially employed for diagnosis and therapy of different medical issues. Although these nanomaterials are designed for specific tasks, interactions, and transformations when administered to the human body affect their performance and behavior. In this regard, bacteria and other cells have been presented as alternative nanocarriers. These microorganisms can be genetically modified and customized for a more specific therapeutic action and, in combination with nanomaterials, can lead to bio-hybrids with a unique potential for biomedical purposes. AREAS COVERED Literature regarding bacteria and cells employed in combination with nanomaterials for biomedical applications is revised and discussed in this review. The potential as well as the limitations of these novel bio-hybrid systems are evaluated. Several examples are presented to show the performance of these alternative nanocarriers. EXPERT OPINION Bio-hybrid systems have shown their potential as alternative nanocarriers as they contribute to better performance than traditional nano-based systems. Nevertheless, their limitations must be studied, and advantages and drawbacks assessed before their application to medicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rafaela García-Álvarez
- Departamento de Química En Ciencias Farmacéuticas, Unidad de Química Inorgánica Y Bioinorgánica, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Hospital 12 de Octubre I+12, Madrid, Spain
- Ciber de Bioingeniería, Biomateriales Y Nanomedicina, Madrid, Spain
| | - María Vallet-Regí
- Departamento de Química En Ciencias Farmacéuticas, Unidad de Química Inorgánica Y Bioinorgánica, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Hospital 12 de Octubre I+12, Madrid, Spain
- Ciber de Bioingeniería, Biomateriales Y Nanomedicina, Madrid, Spain
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Chen H, Zhang H, Xu T, Yu J. An Overview of Micronanoswarms for Biomedical Applications. ACS NANO 2021; 15:15625-15644. [PMID: 34647455 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.1c07363] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Micronanoswarms have attracted extensive attention worldwide due to their great promise in biomedical applications. The collective behaviors among thousands, or even millions, of tiny active agents indicate immense potential for benefiting the progress of clinical therapeutic and diagnostic methods. In recent years, with the development of smart materials, remote actuation modalities, and automatic control strategies, the motion dexterity, environmental adaptability, and functionality versatility of micronanoswarms are improved. Swarms can thus be designed as dexterous platforms inside living bodies to perform a multitude of tasks related to healthcare. Existing surveys summarize the design, functionalization, and biomedical applications of micronanorobots and the actuation and motion control strategies of micronanoswarms. This review presents the recent progress of micronanoswarms, aiming for biomedical applications. The recent advances on structural design of artificial, living, and hybrid micronanoswarms are summarized, and the biomedical applications that could be tackled using micronanoswarms are introduced, such as targeted drug delivery, hyperthermia, imaging and sensing, and thrombolysis. Moreover, potential challenges and promising trends of future developments are discussed. It is envisioned that the future success of these promising tools will have a significant impact on clinical treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hui Chen
- School of Science and Engineering, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shenzhen 518172, China
- Shenzhen Institute of Artificial Intelligence and Robotics for Society (AIRS), Shenzhen 518129, China
| | - Huimin Zhang
- School of Science and Engineering, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shenzhen 518172, China
| | - Tiantian Xu
- Shenzhen Institute of Artificial Intelligence and Robotics for Society (AIRS), Shenzhen 518129, China
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Robotics and Intelligent System, Shenzhen Institutes of Advanced Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenzhen 518126, China
| | - Jiangfan Yu
- School of Science and Engineering, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shenzhen 518172, China
- Shenzhen Institute of Artificial Intelligence and Robotics for Society (AIRS), Shenzhen 518129, China
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17
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Tay ZW, Chandrasekharan P, Fellows BD, Arrizabalaga IR, Yu E, Olivo M, Conolly SM. Magnetic Particle Imaging: An Emerging Modality with Prospects in Diagnosis, Targeting and Therapy of Cancer. Cancers (Basel) 2021; 13:5285. [PMID: 34771448 PMCID: PMC8582440 DOI: 10.3390/cancers13215285] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2021] [Revised: 10/15/2021] [Accepted: 10/19/2021] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Magnetic Particle Imaging (MPI) is an emerging imaging modality for quantitative direct imaging of superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (SPION or SPIO). With different physics from MRI, MPI benefits from ideal image contrast with zero background tissue signal. This enables clear visualization of cancer with image characteristics similar to PET or SPECT, but using radiation-free magnetic nanoparticles instead, with infinite-duration reporter persistence in vivo. MPI for cancer imaging: demonstrated months of quantitative imaging of the cancer-related immune response with in situ SPION-labelling of immune cells (e.g., neutrophils, CAR T-cells). Because MPI suffers absolutely no susceptibility artifacts in the lung, immuno-MPI could soon provide completely noninvasive early-stage diagnosis and treatment monitoring of lung cancers. MPI for magnetic steering: MPI gradients are ~150 × stronger than MRI, enabling remote magnetic steering of magneto-aerosol, nanoparticles, and catheter tips, enhancing therapeutic delivery by magnetic means. MPI for precision therapy: gradients enable focusing of magnetic hyperthermia and magnetic-actuated drug release with up to 2 mm precision. The extent of drug release from the magnetic nanocarrier can be quantitatively monitored by MPI of SPION's MPS spectral changes within the nanocarrier. CONCLUSION MPI is a promising new magnetic modality spanning cancer imaging to guided-therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhi Wei Tay
- Institute of Bioengineering and Bioimaging, Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR), 11 Biopolis Way, #02-02 Helios Building, Singapore 138667, Singapore;
| | - Prashant Chandrasekharan
- Department of Bioengineering, 340 Hearst Memorial Mining Building, University of California Berkeley, Berkeley, CA 94720-1762, USA; (P.C.); (B.D.F.); (I.R.A.); (E.Y.); (S.M.C.)
| | - Benjamin D. Fellows
- Department of Bioengineering, 340 Hearst Memorial Mining Building, University of California Berkeley, Berkeley, CA 94720-1762, USA; (P.C.); (B.D.F.); (I.R.A.); (E.Y.); (S.M.C.)
| | - Irati Rodrigo Arrizabalaga
- Department of Bioengineering, 340 Hearst Memorial Mining Building, University of California Berkeley, Berkeley, CA 94720-1762, USA; (P.C.); (B.D.F.); (I.R.A.); (E.Y.); (S.M.C.)
| | - Elaine Yu
- Department of Bioengineering, 340 Hearst Memorial Mining Building, University of California Berkeley, Berkeley, CA 94720-1762, USA; (P.C.); (B.D.F.); (I.R.A.); (E.Y.); (S.M.C.)
| | - Malini Olivo
- Institute of Bioengineering and Bioimaging, Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR), 11 Biopolis Way, #02-02 Helios Building, Singapore 138667, Singapore;
| | - Steven M. Conolly
- Department of Bioengineering, 340 Hearst Memorial Mining Building, University of California Berkeley, Berkeley, CA 94720-1762, USA; (P.C.); (B.D.F.); (I.R.A.); (E.Y.); (S.M.C.)
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Abstract
Abstract
In the past few decades, robotics research has witnessed an increasingly high interest in miniaturized, intelligent, and integrated robots. The imperative component of a robot is the actuator that determines its performance. Although traditional rigid drives such as motors and gas engines have shown great prevalence in most macroscale circumstances, the reduction of these drives to the millimeter or even lower scale results in a significant increase in manufacturing difficulty accompanied by a remarkable performance decline. Biohybrid robots driven by living cells can be a potential solution to overcome these drawbacks by benefiting from the intrinsic microscale self-assembly of living tissues and high energy efficiency, which, among other unprecedented properties, also feature flexibility, self-repair, and even multiple degrees of freedom. This paper systematically reviews the development of biohybrid robots. First, the development of biological flexible drivers is introduced while emphasizing on their advantages over traditional drivers. Second, up-to-date works regarding biohybrid robots are reviewed in detail from three aspects: biological driving sources, actuator materials, and structures with associated control methodologies. Finally, the potential future applications and major challenges of biohybrid robots are explored.
Graphic abstract
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19
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Targeted polymer-based antibiotic delivery system: A promising option for treating bacterial infections via macromolecular approaches. Prog Polym Sci 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.progpolymsci.2021.101389] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
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20
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Xie S, Qin L, Li G, Jiao N. Robotized algal cells and their multiple functions. SOFT MATTER 2021; 17:3047-3054. [PMID: 33725085 DOI: 10.1039/d0sm02096f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
From an engineering perspective, algal cells with the abilities of perception and driving can be considered as microrobots. Site-specific, quantitative assembly of algal robots and the manipulated objects and collaborative task performance by algal robots would benefit biomedicine, environmental monitoring, and micro-nano manufacturing. Herein, site-specific, quantitative assembly and drive of algal cells are investigated. The mechanism of cell movement is analyzed, and cell motility is evaluated with or without light control. To robotize algal cells, an algae-guiding system is built, through which a swarm of algal cells is controlled to follow trajectories. By the cell adhesion method, adhesion and release between algal cells and microstructures are achieved. Algal cells successfully transport microspheres and release them at a destination. The cells are continuously operated for 60 min while carrying microspheres and they travel up to 270 mm. An optical guiding method is then developed for controlled assembly of algal robots onto fabricated micro-objects. The rotational movement of the microstructures is realized through cooperative driving by algal cells. This research provides a new biological driving method based on algal cells, which swim and behave as microrobots and are expected to benefit microassembly, microcargo traverse/delivery, and biological collaboration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuangxi Xie
- State Key Laboratory of Robotics, Shenyang Institute of Automation, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenyang, 10016, China.
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21
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Liang S, Miao Y, Zhu X, Wei J, Zhan QF, Huang X, Zhang L. Magnetic Actuation of Hollow Swarming Spheres for Dynamic Catalysis. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2021; 13:11424-11432. [PMID: 33647201 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.0c21021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Untethered robots with smart human-machine interactions can execute complex activities such as target cargo delivery or assembly of functional scaffolds. However, it remains challenging for fabricating microscale hollow hydrogel robots that can go with autonomous transformation of their geometric formations to adapt to unstructured environments. We herein report hydrogel-based microscopic hollow swarming spheres (HSSs) with anisotropic/isotropic alignments of Fe3O4 particles in the porous wall that can navigate under complex topography conditions by altering their geometric formation, including passing around or jumping over obstacles, assembling into various formation patterns, and swimming in a high-viscosity system. We introduce HSSs into a catalytic reaction model, in which HSSs as a catalyst can shift between water and oil phases to initiate or terminate the decomposition reaction of H2O2. This dynamic catalysis is expected to construct free-radical "living" polymerization for controlling the reaction rate and polymer dispersity index in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shumin Liang
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering, East China Normal University, Shanghai 200241, People's Republic of China
| | - Yan Miao
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering, East China Normal University, Shanghai 200241, People's Republic of China
| | - Xiaoyan Zhu
- State Key Laboratory of Precision Spectroscopy, School of Physics and Materials Science, East China Normal University, Shanghai 200241, People's Republic of China
| | - Jiang Wei
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering, East China Normal University, Shanghai 200241, People's Republic of China
| | - Qing-Feng Zhan
- State Key Laboratory of Precision Spectroscopy, School of Physics and Materials Science, East China Normal University, Shanghai 200241, People's Republic of China
| | - Xinhua Huang
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Anhui University of Science and Technology, Huainan, Anhui 232001, People's Republic of China
| | - Lidong Zhang
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering, East China Normal University, Shanghai 200241, People's Republic of China
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22
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Alapan Y, Yasa O, Schauer O, Giltinan J, Tabak AF, Sourjik V, Sitti M. Soft erythrocyte-based bacterial microswimmers for cargo delivery. Sci Robot 2021; 3:3/17/eaar4423. [PMID: 33141741 DOI: 10.1126/scirobotics.aar4423] [Citation(s) in RCA: 192] [Impact Index Per Article: 64.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2017] [Accepted: 03/30/2018] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Bacteria-propelled biohybrid microswimmers have recently shown to be able to actively transport and deliver cargos encapsulated into their synthetic constructs to specific regions locally. However, usage of synthetic materials as cargo carriers can result in inferior performance in load-carrying efficiency, biocompatibility, and biodegradability, impeding clinical translation of biohybrid microswimmers. Here, we report construction and external guidance of bacteria-driven microswimmers using red blood cells (RBCs; erythrocytes) as autologous cargo carriers for active and guided drug delivery. Multifunctional biohybrid microswimmers were fabricated by attachment of RBCs [loaded with anticancer doxorubicin drug molecules and superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (SPIONs)] to bioengineered motile bacteria, Escherichia coli MG1655, via biotin-avidin-biotin binding complex. Autonomous and on-board propulsion of biohybrid microswimmers was provided by bacteria, and their external magnetic guidance was enabled by SPIONs loaded into the RBCs. Furthermore, bacteria-driven RBC microswimmers displayed preserved deformability and attachment stability even after squeezing in microchannels smaller than their sizes, as in the case of bare RBCs. In addition, an on-demand light-activated hyperthermia termination switch was engineered for RBC microswimmers to control bacteria population after operations. RBCs, as biological and autologous cargo carriers in the biohybrid microswimmers, offer notable advantages in stability, deformability, biocompatibility, and biodegradability over synthetic cargo-carrier materials. The biohybrid microswimmer design presented here transforms RBCs from passive cargo carriers into active and guidable cargo carriers toward targeted drug and other cargo delivery applications in medicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yunus Alapan
- Physical Intelligence Department, Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems, 70569 Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Oncay Yasa
- Physical Intelligence Department, Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems, 70569 Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Oliver Schauer
- Systems and Synthetic Microbiology Department, Max Planck Institute for Terrestrial Microbiology, 35043 Marburg, Germany
| | - Joshua Giltinan
- Physical Intelligence Department, Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems, 70569 Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Ahmet F Tabak
- Physical Intelligence Department, Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems, 70569 Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Victor Sourjik
- Systems and Synthetic Microbiology Department, Max Planck Institute for Terrestrial Microbiology, 35043 Marburg, Germany
| | - Metin Sitti
- Physical Intelligence Department, Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems, 70569 Stuttgart, Germany.
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24
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Schmidt CK, Medina-Sánchez M, Edmondson RJ, Schmidt OG. Engineering microrobots for targeted cancer therapies from a medical perspective. Nat Commun 2020; 11:5618. [PMID: 33154372 PMCID: PMC7645678 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-020-19322-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 157] [Impact Index Per Article: 39.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2020] [Accepted: 10/09/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Systemic chemotherapy remains the backbone of many cancer treatments. Due to its untargeted nature and the severe side effects it can cause, numerous nanomedicine approaches have been developed to overcome these issues. However, targeted delivery of therapeutics remains challenging. Engineering microrobots is increasingly receiving attention in this regard. Their functionalities, particularly their motility, allow microrobots to penetrate tissues and reach cancers more efficiently. Here, we highlight how different microrobots, ranging from tailor-made motile bacteria and tiny bubble-propelled microengines to hybrid spermbots, can be engineered to integrate sophisticated features optimised for precision-targeting of a wide range of cancers. Towards this, we highlight the importance of integrating clinicians, the public and cancer patients early on in the development of these novel technologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christine K Schmidt
- Manchester Cancer Research Centre, Division of Cancer Sciences, School of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, University of Manchester, 555 Wilmslow Road, Manchester, M20 4GJ, UK.
| | - Mariana Medina-Sánchez
- Institute for Integrative Nanosciences, Leibniz IFW Dresden, Helmholtzstraße 20, 01069, Dresden, Germany.
| | - Richard J Edmondson
- Gynaecological Oncology, Division of Cancer Sciences, School of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, Manchester Academic Health Science Centre, University of Manchester, Manchester, UK
- St. Mary's Hospital, Central Manchester NHS Foundation Trust, Manchester Academic Health Science Centre, Level 5, Research Floor, Oxford Road, Manchester, M13 9WL, UK
| | - Oliver G Schmidt
- Institute for Integrative Nanosciences, Leibniz IFW Dresden, Helmholtzstraße 20, 01069, Dresden, Germany.
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Agrahari V, Agrahari V, Chou ML, Chew CH, Noll J, Burnouf T. Intelligent micro-/nanorobots as drug and cell carrier devices for biomedical therapeutic advancement: Promising development opportunities and translational challenges. Biomaterials 2020; 260:120163. [DOI: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2020.120163] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2019] [Revised: 04/01/2020] [Accepted: 05/29/2020] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
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26
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Bilateral control simulations for a pair of magnetically-coupled robotic arm and bacterium for in vivo applications. JOURNAL OF MICRO-BIO ROBOTICS 2020. [DOI: 10.1007/s12213-020-00138-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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27
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Akolpoglu MB, Dogan NO, Bozuyuk U, Ceylan H, Kizilel S, Sitti M. High-Yield Production of Biohybrid Microalgae for On-Demand Cargo Delivery. ADVANCED SCIENCE (WEINHEIM, BADEN-WURTTEMBERG, GERMANY) 2020; 7:2001256. [PMID: 32832367 PMCID: PMC7435244 DOI: 10.1002/advs.202001256] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2020] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
Biohybrid microswimmers exploit the swimming and navigation of a motile microorganism to target and deliver cargo molecules in a wide range of biomedical applications. Medical biohybrid microswimmers suffer from low manufacturing yields, which would significantly limit their potential applications. In the present study, a biohybrid design strategy is reported, where a thin and soft uniform coating layer is noncovalently assembled around a motile microorganism. Chlamydomonas reinhardtii (a single-cell green alga) is used in the design as a biological model microorganism along with polymer-nanoparticle matrix as the synthetic component, reaching a manufacturing efficiency of ≈90%. Natural biopolymer chitosan is used as a binder to efficiently coat the cell wall of the microalgae with nanoparticles. The soft surface coating does not impair the viability and phototactic ability of the microalgae, and allows further engineering to accommodate biomedical cargo molecules. Furthermore, by conjugating the nanoparticles embedded in the thin coating with chemotherapeutic doxorubicin by a photocleavable linker, on-demand delivery of drugs to tumor cells is reported as a proof-of-concept biomedical demonstration. The high-throughput strategy can pave the way for the next-generation generation microrobotic swarms for future medical active cargo delivery tasks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mukrime Birgul Akolpoglu
- Physical Intelligence DepartmentMax Planck Institute for Intelligent SystemsStuttgart70569Germany
| | - Nihal Olcay Dogan
- Physical Intelligence DepartmentMax Planck Institute for Intelligent SystemsStuttgart70569Germany
- Chemical and Biological Engineering DepartmentKoç UniversityIstanbul34450Turkey
| | - Ugur Bozuyuk
- Physical Intelligence DepartmentMax Planck Institute for Intelligent SystemsStuttgart70569Germany
| | - Hakan Ceylan
- Physical Intelligence DepartmentMax Planck Institute for Intelligent SystemsStuttgart70569Germany
| | - Seda Kizilel
- Chemical and Biological Engineering DepartmentKoç UniversityIstanbul34450Turkey
| | - Metin Sitti
- Physical Intelligence DepartmentMax Planck Institute for Intelligent SystemsStuttgart70569Germany
- School of Medicine and School of EngineeringKoç UniversityIstanbul34450Turkey
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Xu D, Wang Y, Liang C, You Y, Sanchez S, Ma X. Self-Propelled Micro/Nanomotors for On-Demand Biomedical Cargo Transportation. SMALL (WEINHEIM AN DER BERGSTRASSE, GERMANY) 2020; 16:e1902464. [PMID: 31464072 DOI: 10.1002/smll.201902464] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2019] [Revised: 07/25/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Micro/nanomotors (MNMs) are miniaturized machines that can perform assigned tasks at the micro/nanoscale. Over the past decade, significant progress has been made in the design, preparation, and applications of MNMs that are powered by converting different sources of energy into mechanical force, to realize active movement and fulfill on-demand tasks. MNMs can be navigated to desired locations with precise controllability based on different guidance mechanisms. A considerable research effort has gone into demonstrating that MNMs possess the potential of biomedical cargo loading, transportation, and targeted release to achieve therapeutic functions. Herein, the recent advances of self-propelled MNMs for on-demand biomedical cargo transportation, including their self-propulsion mechanisms, guidance strategies, as well as proof-of-concept studies for biological applications are presented. In addition, some of the major challenges and possible opportunities of MNMs are identified for future biomedical applications in the hope that it may inspire future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dandan Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Advanced Welding and Joining, Flexible Printed Electronic Technology Center, Harbin Institute of Technology (Shenzhen), Shenzhen, 518055, China
| | - Yong Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Advanced Welding and Joining, Flexible Printed Electronic Technology Center, Harbin Institute of Technology (Shenzhen), Shenzhen, 518055, China
| | - Chunyan Liang
- State Key Laboratory of Advanced Welding and Joining, Flexible Printed Electronic Technology Center, Harbin Institute of Technology (Shenzhen), Shenzhen, 518055, China
| | - Yongqiang You
- State Key Laboratory of Advanced Welding and Joining, Flexible Printed Electronic Technology Center, Harbin Institute of Technology (Shenzhen), Shenzhen, 518055, China
| | - Samuel Sanchez
- Institució Catalana de Recerca i Estudis Avançats (ICREA), Pg. Lluís Companys 23, Barcelona, 08010, Spain
- Institute for Bioengineering of Catalonia (IBEC), The Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology, Baldiri Reixac 10-12, Barcelona, 08028, Spain
| | - Xing Ma
- State Key Laboratory of Advanced Welding and Joining, Flexible Printed Electronic Technology Center, Harbin Institute of Technology (Shenzhen), Shenzhen, 518055, China
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29
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Gorochowski TE, Hauert S, Kreft JU, Marucci L, Stillman NR, Tang TYD, Bandiera L, Bartoli V, Dixon DOR, Fedorec AJH, Fellermann H, Fletcher AG, Foster T, Giuggioli L, Matyjaszkiewicz A, McCormick S, Montes Olivas S, Naylor J, Rubio Denniss A, Ward D. Toward Engineering Biosystems With Emergent Collective Functions. Front Bioeng Biotechnol 2020; 8:705. [PMID: 32671054 PMCID: PMC7332988 DOI: 10.3389/fbioe.2020.00705] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2020] [Accepted: 06/05/2020] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Many complex behaviors in biological systems emerge from large populations of interacting molecules or cells, generating functions that go beyond the capabilities of the individual parts. Such collective phenomena are of great interest to bioengineers due to their robustness and scalability. However, engineering emergent collective functions is difficult because they arise as a consequence of complex multi-level feedback, which often spans many length-scales. Here, we present a perspective on how some of these challenges could be overcome by using multi-agent modeling as a design framework within synthetic biology. Using case studies covering the construction of synthetic ecologies to biological computation and synthetic cellularity, we show how multi-agent modeling can capture the core features of complex multi-scale systems and provide novel insights into the underlying mechanisms which guide emergent functionalities across scales. The ability to unravel design rules underpinning these behaviors offers a means to take synthetic biology beyond single molecules or cells and toward the creation of systems with functions that can only emerge from collectives at multiple scales.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Sabine Hauert
- Department of Engineering Mathematics, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom
| | - Jan-Ulrich Kreft
- School of Biosciences and Institute of Microbiology and Infection and Centre for Computational Biology, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, United Kingdom
| | - Lucia Marucci
- Department of Engineering Mathematics, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom
| | - Namid R. Stillman
- Department of Engineering Mathematics, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom
| | - T.-Y. Dora Tang
- Max Plank Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Dresden, Germany
- Physics of Life, Cluster of Excellence, Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Lucia Bandiera
- School of Engineering, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Vittorio Bartoli
- Department of Engineering Mathematics, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom
| | | | - Alex J. H. Fedorec
- Division of Biosciences, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Harold Fellermann
- School of Computing, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom
| | - Alexander G. Fletcher
- Bateson Centre and School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, United Kingdom
| | - Tim Foster
- School of Biosciences and Institute of Microbiology and Infection and Centre for Computational Biology, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, United Kingdom
| | - Luca Giuggioli
- Department of Engineering Mathematics, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom
| | | | - Scott McCormick
- Department of Engineering Mathematics, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom
| | - Sandra Montes Olivas
- Department of Engineering Mathematics, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom
| | - Jonathan Naylor
- School of Computing, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom
| | - Ana Rubio Denniss
- Department of Engineering Mathematics, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom
| | - Daniel Ward
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom
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30
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Wang X, Law J, Luo M, Gong Z, Yu J, Tang W, Zhang Z, Mei X, Huang Z, You L, Sun Y. Magnetic Measurement and Stimulation of Cellular and Intracellular Structures. ACS NANO 2020; 14:3805-3821. [PMID: 32223274 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.0c00959] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
From single-pole magnetic tweezers to robotic magnetic-field generation systems, the development of magnetic micromanipulation systems, using electromagnets or permanent magnets, has enabled a multitude of applications for cellular and intracellular measurement and stimulation. Controlled by different configurations of magnetic-field generation systems, magnetic particles have been actuated by an external magnetic field to exert forces/torques and perform mechanical measurements on the cell membrane, cytoplasm, cytoskeleton, nucleus, intracellular motors, etc. The particles have also been controlled to generate aggregations to trigger cell signaling pathways and produce heat to cause cancer cell apoptosis for hyperthermia treatment. Magnetic micromanipulation has become an important tool in the repertoire of toolsets for cell measurement and stimulation and will continue to be used widely for further explorations of cellular/intracellular structures and their functions. Existing review papers in the literature focus on fabrication and position control of magnetic particles/structures (often termed micronanorobots) and the synthesis and functionalization of magnetic particles. Differently, this paper reviews the principles and systems of magnetic micromanipulation specifically for cellular and intracellular measurement and stimulation. Discoveries enabled by magnetic measurement and stimulation of cellular and intracellular structures are also summarized. This paper ends with discussions on future opportunities and challenges of magnetic micromanipulation in the exploration of cellular biophysics, mechanotransduction, and disease therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xian Wang
- Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3G8, Canada
- Institute of Biomaterials and Biomedical Engineering, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3G9, Canada
| | - Junhui Law
- Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3G8, Canada
| | - Mengxi Luo
- Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3G8, Canada
| | - Zheyuan Gong
- Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3G8, Canada
| | - Jiangfan Yu
- Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3G8, Canada
| | - Wentian Tang
- Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3G8, Canada
| | - Zhuoran Zhang
- Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3G8, Canada
| | - Xueting Mei
- Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3G8, Canada
- Institute of Biomaterials and Biomedical Engineering, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3G9, Canada
| | - Zongjie Huang
- Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3G8, Canada
| | - Lidan You
- Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3G8, Canada
- Institute of Biomaterials and Biomedical Engineering, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3G9, Canada
| | - Yu Sun
- Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3G8, Canada
- Institute of Biomaterials and Biomedical Engineering, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3G9, Canada
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3G4, Canada
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31
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Ahmad B, Maeda H, Kawahara T. Dynamic Response of Swimming Paramecium Induced by Local Stimulation Using a Threadlike-Microtool. IEEE Robot Autom Lett 2020. [DOI: 10.1109/lra.2020.2972848] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
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32
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Leaman EJ, Sahari A, Traore MA, Geuther BQ, Morrow CM, Behkam B. Data-driven statistical modeling of the emergent behavior of biohybrid microrobots. APL Bioeng 2020; 4:016104. [PMID: 32128471 PMCID: PMC7049295 DOI: 10.1063/1.5134926] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2019] [Accepted: 02/10/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Multi-agent biohybrid microrobotic systems, owing to their small size and distributed nature, offer powerful solutions to challenges in biomedicine, bioremediation, and biosensing. Synthetic biology enables programmed emergent behaviors in the biotic component of biohybrid machines, expounding vast potential benefits for building biohybrid swarms with sophisticated control schemes. The design of synthetic genetic circuits tailored toward specific performance characteristics is an iterative process that relies on experimental characterization of spatially homogeneous engineered cell suspensions. However, biohybrid systems often distribute heterogeneously in complex environments, which will alter circuit performance. Thus, there is a critically unmet need for simple predictive models that describe emergent behaviors of biohybrid systems to inform synthetic gene circuit design. Here, we report a data-driven statistical model for computationally efficient recapitulation of the motility dynamics of two types of Escherichia coli bacteria-based biohybrid swarms-NanoBEADS and BacteriaBots. The statistical model was coupled with a computational model of cooperative gene expression, known as quorum sensing (QS). We determined differences in timescales for programmed emergent behavior in BacteriaBots and NanoBEADS swarms, using bacteria as a comparative baseline. We show that agent localization and genetic circuit sensitivity strongly influence the timeframe and the robustness of the emergent behavior in both systems. Finally, we use our model to design a QS-based decentralized control scheme wherein agents make independent decisions based on their interaction with other agents and the local environment. We show that synergistic integration of synthetic biology and predictive modeling is requisite for the efficient development of biohybrid systems with robust emergent behaviors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric J. Leaman
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia 24061, USA
| | - Ali Sahari
- School of Biomedical Engineering and Sciences, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia 24061, USA
| | - Mahama A. Traore
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia 24061, USA
| | - Brian Q. Geuther
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia 24061, USA
| | - Carmen M. Morrow
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia 24061, USA
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Sun L, Yu Y, Chen Z, Bian F, Ye F, Sun L, Zhao Y. Biohybrid robotics with living cell actuation. Chem Soc Rev 2020; 49:4043-4069. [DOI: 10.1039/d0cs00120a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
This review comprehensively discusses recent advances in the basic components, controlling methods and especially in the applications of biohybrid robots.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lingyu Sun
- Department of Rheumatology and Immunology
- The Affiliated Drum Tower Hospital of Nanjing University Medical School
- 210008 Nanjing
- China
- Department of Rheumatology and Immunology
| | - Yunru Yu
- State Key Laboratory of Bioelectronics
- School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering
- Southeast University
- 210096 Nanjing
- China
| | - Zhuoyue Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Bioelectronics
- School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering
- Southeast University
- 210096 Nanjing
- China
| | - Feika Bian
- State Key Laboratory of Bioelectronics
- School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering
- Southeast University
- 210096 Nanjing
- China
| | - Fangfu Ye
- Wenzhou Institute
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences
- Wenzhou
- China
- Beijing National Laboratory for Condensed Matter Physics
| | - Lingyun Sun
- Department of Rheumatology and Immunology
- The Affiliated Drum Tower Hospital of Nanjing University Medical School
- 210008 Nanjing
- China
- Department of Rheumatology and Immunology
| | - Yuanjin Zhao
- Department of Rheumatology and Immunology
- The Affiliated Drum Tower Hospital of Nanjing University Medical School
- 210008 Nanjing
- China
- Department of Rheumatology and Immunology
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34
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Wu S, Ze Q, Zhang R, Hu N, Cheng Y, Yang F, Zhao R. Symmetry-Breaking Actuation Mechanism for Soft Robotics and Active Metamaterials. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2019; 11:41649-41658. [PMID: 31578851 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.9b13840] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Magnetic-responsive composites that consist of a soft matrix embedded with hard-magnetic particles have recently been demonstrated as robust soft active materials for fast-transforming actuation. However, the deformation of the functional components commonly attains only a single actuation mode under external stimuli, which limits their capability of achieving tunable properties. To greatly enhance the versatility of soft active materials, we exploit a new class of programmable magnetic-responsive composites incorporated with a multifunctional joint design that allows asymmetric multimodal actuation under an external stimulation. We demonstrate that the proposed asymmetric multimodal actuation enables a plethora of novel applications ranging from the basic one-dimensional/two-dimensional (2D) active structures with asymmetric shape-shifting to biomimetic crawling robots, swimming robots with efficient dynamic performance, and 2D metamaterials with tunable properties. This new asymmetric multimodal actuation mechanism will open up new avenues for the design of next-generation multifunctional soft robots, biomedical devices, and acoustic metamaterials.
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Esparza López C, Théry A, Lauga E. A stochastic model for bacteria-driven micro-swimmers. SOFT MATTER 2019; 15:2605-2616. [PMID: 30821805 DOI: 10.1039/c8sm02157k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Experiments have recently shown the feasibility of utilising bacteria as micro-scale robotic devices, with special attention paid to the development of bacteria-driven micro-swimmers taking advantage of built-in actuation and sensing mechanisms of cells. Here we propose a stochastic fluid dynamic model to describe analytically and computationally the dynamics of microscopic particles driven by the motion of surface-attached bacteria undergoing run-and-tumble motion. We compute analytical expressions for the rotational diffusion coefficient, the swimming speed and the effective diffusion coefficient. At short times, the mean squared displacement (MSD) is proportional to the square of the swimming speed, which is independent of the particle size (for fixed density of attached bacteria) and scales linearly with the number of attached bacteria; in contrast, at long times the MSD scales quadratically with the size of the swimmer and is independent of the number of bacteria. We then extend our result to the situation where the surface-attached bacteria undergo chemotaxis within the linear response regime. We demonstrate that bacteria-driven particles are capable of performing artificial chemotaxis, with a chemotactic drift velocity linear in the chemical concentration gradient and independent of the size of the particle. Our results are validated against numerical simulations in the Brownian dynamics limit and will be relevant to the optimal design of micro-swimmers for biomedical applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian Esparza López
- Department of Applied Mathematics and Theoretical Physics, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB3 0WA, UK.
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36
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Akay A, Hess H. Deep Learning: Current and Emerging Applications in Medicine and Technology. IEEE J Biomed Health Inform 2019; 23:906-920. [PMID: 30676989 DOI: 10.1109/jbhi.2019.2894713] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
Machine learning is enabling researchers to analyze and understand increasingly complex physical and biological phenomena in traditional fields such as biology, medicine, and engineering and emerging fields like synthetic biology, automated chemical synthesis, and biomanufacturing. These fields require new paradigms toward understanding increasingly complex data and converting such data into medical products and services for patients. The move toward deep learning and complex modeling is an attempt to bridge the gap between acquiring massive quantities of complex data, and converting such data into practical insights. Here, we provide an overview of the field of machine learning, its current applications and needs in traditional and emerging fields, and discuss an illustrative attempt at using deep learning to understand swarm behavior of molecular shuttles.
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Yasa O, Erkoc P, Alapan Y, Sitti M. Microalga-Powered Microswimmers toward Active Cargo Delivery. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2018; 30:e1804130. [PMID: 30252963 DOI: 10.1002/adma.201804130] [Citation(s) in RCA: 96] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2018] [Revised: 08/27/2018] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
Nature presents intriguing biological swimmers with innate energy harvesting abilities from their local environments. Use of natural swimmers as cargo delivery agents presents an alternative strategy to transport therapeutics inside the body to locations otherwise difficult to access by traditional delivery strategies. Herein, a biocompatible biohybrid microswimmer powered by a unicellular freshwater green microalga, Chlamydomonas reinhardtii, is reported. Polyelectrolyte-functionalized magnetic spherical cargoes (1 µm in diameter) are attached to surface of the microalgae via noncovalent interactions without the requirement for any chemical reaction. The 3D swimming motility of the constructed biohybrid algal microswimmers is characterized in the presence and absence of a uniform magnetic fields. In addition, motility of both microalgae and biohybrid algal microswimmers is investigated in various physiologically relevant conditions, including cell culture medium, human tubal fluid, plasma, and blood. Furthermore, it is demonstrated that the algal microswimmers are cytocompatible when co-cultured with healthy and cancerous cells. Finally, fluorescent isothiocyanate-dextran (a water-soluble polysaccharide) molecules are effectively delivered to mammalian cells using the biohybrid algal microswimmers as a proof-of-concept active cargo delivery demonstration. The microswimmer design described here presents a new class of biohybrid microswimmers with greater biocompatibility and motility for targeted delivery applications in medicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oncay Yasa
- Physical Intelligence Department, Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems, 70569, Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Pelin Erkoc
- Physical Intelligence Department, Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems, 70569, Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Yunus Alapan
- Physical Intelligence Department, Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems, 70569, Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Metin Sitti
- Physical Intelligence Department, Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems, 70569, Stuttgart, Germany
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38
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Bozuyuk U, Yasa O, Yasa IC, Ceylan H, Kizilel S, Sitti M. Light-Triggered Drug Release from 3D-Printed Magnetic Chitosan Microswimmers. ACS NANO 2018; 12:9617-9625. [PMID: 30203963 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.8b05997] [Citation(s) in RCA: 175] [Impact Index Per Article: 29.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
Advances in design and fabrication of functional micro/nanomaterials have sparked growing interest in creating new mobile microswimmers for various healthcare applications, including local drug and other cargo ( e. g., gene, stem cell, and imaging agent) delivery. Such microswimmer-based cargo delivery is typically passive by diffusion of the cargo material from the swimmer body; however, controlled active release of the cargo material is essential for on-demand, precise, and effective delivery. Here, we propose a magnetically powered, double-helical microswimmer of 6 μm diameter and 20 μm length that can on-demand actively release a chemotherapeutic drug, doxorubicin, using an external light stimulus. We fabricate the microswimmers by two-photon-based 3D printing of a natural polymer derivative of chitosan in the form of a magnetic polymer nanocomposite. Amino groups presented on the microswimmers are modified with doxorubicin by means of a photocleavable linker. Chitosan imparts the microswimmers with biocompatibility and biodegradability for use in a biological setting. Controlled steerability of the microswimmers is shown under a 10 mT rotating magnetic field. With light induction at 365 nm wavelength and 3.4 × 10-1 W/cm2 intensity, 60% of doxorubicin is released from the microswimmers within 5 min. Drug release is ceased by controlled patterns of light induction, so as to adjust the desired release doses in the temporal domain. Under physiologically relevant conditions, substantial degradation of the microswimmers is shown in 204 h to nontoxic degradation products. This study presents the combination of light-triggered drug delivery with magnetically powered microswimmer mobility. This approach could be extended to similar systems where multiple control schemes are needed for on-demand medical tasks with high precision and efficiency.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ugur Bozuyuk
- Chemical & Biological Engineering Department , Koç University , 34450 Istanbul , Turkey
| | - Oncay Yasa
- Physical Intelligence Department , Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems , 70569 Stuttgart , Germany
| | - I Ceren Yasa
- Physical Intelligence Department , Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems , 70569 Stuttgart , Germany
| | - Hakan Ceylan
- Physical Intelligence Department , Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems , 70569 Stuttgart , Germany
| | - Seda Kizilel
- Chemical & Biological Engineering Department , Koç University , 34450 Istanbul , Turkey
| | - Metin Sitti
- Physical Intelligence Department , Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems , 70569 Stuttgart , Germany
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39
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Santomauro G, Singh AV, Park B, Mohammadrahimi M, Erkoc P, Goering E, Schütz G, Sitti M, Bill J. Incorporation of Terbium into a Microalga Leads to Magnetotactic Swimmers. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2018. [DOI: 10.1002/adbi.201800039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Giulia Santomauro
- Institute for Materials ScienceUniversity of Stuttgart 70569 Stuttgart Germany
| | - Ajay Vikram Singh
- Physical Intelligence DepartmentMax Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems 70569 Stuttgart Germany
| | - Byung‐Wook Park
- Department of Civil/Environmental & Chemical EngineeringYoungstown State University Youngstown OH 44555 USA
| | | | - Pelin Erkoc
- Physical Intelligence DepartmentMax Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems 70569 Stuttgart Germany
| | - Eberhard Goering
- Modern Magnetic Systems DepartmentMax Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems 70569 Stuttgart Germany
| | - Gisela Schütz
- Modern Magnetic Systems DepartmentMax Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems 70569 Stuttgart Germany
| | - Metin Sitti
- Physical Intelligence DepartmentMax Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems 70569 Stuttgart Germany
| | - Joachim Bill
- Institute for Materials ScienceUniversity of Stuttgart 70569 Stuttgart Germany
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40
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Du Nguyen V, Le VH, Zheng S, Han J, Park JO. Preparation of tumor targeting cell-based microrobots carrying NIR light sensitive therapeutics manipulated by electromagnetic actuating system and Chemotaxis. JOURNAL OF MICRO-BIO ROBOTICS 2018. [DOI: 10.1007/s12213-018-0110-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
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41
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Bastos-Arrieta J, Revilla-Guarinos A, Uspal WE, Simmchen J. Bacterial Biohybrid Microswimmers. Front Robot AI 2018; 5:97. [PMID: 33500976 PMCID: PMC7805739 DOI: 10.3389/frobt.2018.00097] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2018] [Accepted: 07/30/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Over millions of years, Nature has optimized the motion of biological systems at the micro and nanoscales. Motor proteins to motile single cells have managed to overcome Brownian motion and solve several challenges that arise at low Reynolds numbers. In this review, we will briefly describe naturally motile systems and their strategies to move, starting with a general introduction that surveys a broad range of developments, followed by an overview about the physical laws and parameters that govern and limit motion at the microscale. We characterize some of the classes of biological microswimmers that have arisen in the course of evolution, as well as the hybrid structures that have been constructed based on these, ranging from Montemagno's ATPase motor to the SpermBot. Thereafter, we maintain our focus on bacteria and their biohybrids. We introduce the inherent properties of bacteria as a natural microswimmer and explain the different principles bacteria use for their motion. We then elucidate different strategies that have been employed for the coupling of a variety of artificial microobjects to the bacterial surface, and evaluate the different effects the coupled objects have on the motion of the "biohybrid." Concluding, we give a short overview and a realistic evaluation of proposed applications in the field.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Ainhoa Revilla-Guarinos
- Department of General Microbiology, Institute of Microbiology, Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - William E Uspal
- Department of Theory of Inhomogeneous Condensed Matter, Max-Planck-Institut für Intelligente Systeme, Stuttgart, Germany.,IV. Institut für Theoretische Physik, Universität Stuttgart, Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Juliane Simmchen
- Physikalische Chemie, Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany
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42
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Ng WM, Che HX, Guo C, Liu C, Low SC, Chieh Chan DJ, Mohamud R, Lim J. Artificial Magnetotaxis of Microbot: Magnetophoresis versus Self-Swimming. LANGMUIR : THE ACS JOURNAL OF SURFACES AND COLLOIDS 2018; 34:7971-7980. [PMID: 29882671 DOI: 10.1021/acs.langmuir.8b01210] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
An artificial magnetotactic microbot was created by integrating the microalgal cell with magnetic microbead for its potential application as biomotor in microscale environment. Here, we demonstrate the remote magnetotactic control of the microbot under a low gradient magnetic field (<100 T/m). We characterize the kinematic behavior of the microbots carrying magnetic microbeads of two different sizes, with diameter of 2 and 4.5 μm, in the absence and presence of magnetic field. In the absence of magnetic field, we observed the microbot showed a helical motion as a result of the misalignment between the thrust force and the symmetry axis after the attachment. The microbot bound with a larger magnetic microbead moved with higher translational velocity but rotated slower about its axis of rotation. The viscous force was balanced by the thrust force of the microbot, resulting in a randomized swimming behavior of the microbot at its terminal velocity. Meanwhile, under the influence of a low gradient magnetic field, we demonstrated that the directional control of the microbot was based on following principles: (1) magnetophoretic force was insignificant on influencing its perpendicular motion and (2) its parallel motion was dependent on both self-swimming and magnetophoresis, in which this cooperative effect was a function of separation distance from the magnet. As the microbot approached the magnet, the magnetophoretic force suppressed its self-swimming behavior, leading to a positive magnetotaxis of the microbot toward the source of magnetic field. Our experimental results and kinematic analysis revealed the contribution of mass density variation of particle-and-cell system on influencing its dynamical behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Ming Ng
- School of Chemical Engineering , Universiti Sains Malaysia , 14300 Nibong Tebal , Penang , Malaysia
| | - Hui Xin Che
- School of Chemical Engineering , Universiti Sains Malaysia , 14300 Nibong Tebal , Penang , Malaysia
| | - Chen Guo
- State Key Laboratory of Biochemical Engineering and Key Laboratory of Green Process and Engineering, Institute of Process Engineering , Chinese Academy of Sciences , Beijing 100190 , People's Republic of China
| | - Chunzhao Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Biochemical Engineering and Key Laboratory of Green Process and Engineering, Institute of Process Engineering , Chinese Academy of Sciences , Beijing 100190 , People's Republic of China
| | - Siew Chun Low
- School of Chemical Engineering , Universiti Sains Malaysia , 14300 Nibong Tebal , Penang , Malaysia
| | - Derek Juinn Chieh Chan
- School of Chemical Engineering , Universiti Sains Malaysia , 14300 Nibong Tebal , Penang , Malaysia
| | - Rohimah Mohamud
- Department of Immunology, School of Medical Sciences , Universiti Sains Malaysia , 16150 Kubang Kerian , Kelantan , Malaysia
| | - JitKang Lim
- School of Chemical Engineering , Universiti Sains Malaysia , 14300 Nibong Tebal , Penang , Malaysia
- Department of Physics , Carnegie Mellon University , Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania 15213 , United States
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43
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Bente K, Codutti A, Bachmann F, Faivre D. Biohybrid and Bioinspired Magnetic Microswimmers. SMALL (WEINHEIM AN DER BERGSTRASSE, GERMANY) 2018; 14:e1704374. [PMID: 29855143 DOI: 10.1002/smll.201704374] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2017] [Revised: 03/02/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Many motile microorganisms swim and navigate in chemically and mechanically complex environments. These organisms can be functionalized and directly used for applications (biohybrid approach), but also inspire designs for fully synthetic microbots. The most promising designs of biohybrids and bioinspired microswimmers include one or several magnetic components, which lead to sustainable propulsion mechanisms and external controllability. This Review addresses such magnetic microswimmers, which are often studied in view of certain applications, mostly in the biomedical area, but also in the environmental field. First, propulsion systems at the microscale are reviewed and the magnetism of microswimmers is introduced. The review of the magnetic biohybrids and bioinspired microswimmers is structured gradually from mostly biological systems toward purely synthetic approaches. Finally, currently less explored parts of this field ranging from in situ imaging to swarm control are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Klaas Bente
- Department of Biomaterials, Max Planck Institute of Colloids and Interfaces, Science Park Golm, 14424, Potsdam, Germany
| | - Agnese Codutti
- Department of Biomaterials, Max Planck Institute of Colloids and Interfaces, Science Park Golm, 14424, Potsdam, Germany
- Department of Theory & Bio-Systems, Max Planck Institute of Colloids and Interfaces, Science Park Golm, 14424, Potsdam, Germany
| | - Felix Bachmann
- Department of Biomaterials, Max Planck Institute of Colloids and Interfaces, Science Park Golm, 14424, Potsdam, Germany
| | - Damien Faivre
- Department of Biomaterials, Max Planck Institute of Colloids and Interfaces, Science Park Golm, 14424, Potsdam, Germany
- Laboratoire de Bioénergétique Cellulaire, UMR7265 Institut de Biosciences et Biotechnologies, CEA/CNRS/Aix-Marseille Université, 13108, Saint Paul lez Durance, France
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45
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Nguyen PQ, Courchesne NMD, Duraj-Thatte A, Praveschotinunt P, Joshi NS. Engineered Living Materials: Prospects and Challenges for Using Biological Systems to Direct the Assembly of Smart Materials. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2018; 30:e1704847. [PMID: 29430725 PMCID: PMC6309613 DOI: 10.1002/adma.201704847] [Citation(s) in RCA: 200] [Impact Index Per Article: 33.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2017] [Revised: 10/25/2017] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Vast potential exists for the development of novel, engineered platforms that manipulate biology for the production of programmed advanced materials. Such systems would possess the autonomous, adaptive, and self-healing characteristics of living organisms, but would be engineered with the goal of assembling bulk materials with designer physicochemical or mechanical properties, across multiple length scales. Early efforts toward such engineered living materials (ELMs) are reviewed here, with an emphasis on engineered bacterial systems, living composite materials which integrate inorganic components, successful examples of large-scale implementation, and production methods. In addition, a conceptual exploration of the fundamental criteria of ELM technology and its future challenges is presented. Cradled within the rich intersection of synthetic biology and self-assembling materials, the development of ELM technologies allows the power of biology to be leveraged to grow complex structures and objects using a palette of bio-nanomaterials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter Q. Nguyen
- School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA
| | - Noémie-Manuelle Dorval Courchesne
- School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA
| | - Anna Duraj-Thatte
- School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA
| | - Pichet Praveschotinunt
- School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA
| | - Neel S. Joshi
- School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA
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Zhou C, Yin J, Wu C, Du L, Wang Y. Efficient target capture and transport by fuel-free micromotors in a multichannel microchip. SOFT MATTER 2017; 13:8064-8069. [PMID: 29099529 DOI: 10.1039/c7sm01905j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
Efficient capture and transport of biological targets by functionalized micromotors in microfluidic chips have emerged as to be promising for bioanalysis and detection of targets. However, the crucial step-target capture-is still inefficient due to the low utilization of active spots on the functionalized motor surfaces. Herein, we designed a multichannel microchip for integrating confined space with the oscillatory movement of micromotors to increase the capture efficiency. Acoustically driven, magnetically guided Au/Ni/Au micromotors were employed as the target carriers, while E. coli bacteria were chosen as the targets. Under optimized conditions, a capture efficiency of 96% and an average loading number of 3-4 (targets per single motor) could be achieved. The possibility of simple separation of targets from micromotors has also been demonstrated. This microfluidic system could facilitate the integration of multiple steps for bioanalysis and detection of targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caijin Zhou
- The State Key Laboratory of Chemical Resource Engineering, Beijing Key Laboratory of Membrane Science and Technology, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, Beijing 100029, P. R. China.
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Singh AV, Hosseinidoust Z, Park BW, Yasa O, Sitti M. Microemulsion-Based Soft Bacteria-Driven Microswimmers for Active Cargo Delivery. ACS NANO 2017; 11:9759-9769. [PMID: 28858477 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.7b02082] [Citation(s) in RCA: 108] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
Biohybrid cell-driven microsystems offer unparalleled possibilities for realization of soft microrobots at the micron scale. Here, we introduce a bacteria-driven microswimmer that combines the active locomotion and sensing capabilities of bacteria with the desirable encapsulation and viscoelastic properties of a soft double-micelle microemulsion for active transport and delivery of cargo (e.g., imaging agents, genes, and drugs) to living cells. Quasi-monodisperse double emulsions were synthesized with an aqueous core that encapsulated the fluorescence imaging agents, as a proof-of-concept cargo in this study, and an outer oil shell that was functionalized with streptavidin for specific and stable attachment of biotin-conjugated Escherichia coli. Motile bacteria effectively propelled the soft microswimmers across a Transwell membrane, actively delivering imaging agents (i.e., dyes) encapsulated inside of the micelles to a monolayer of cultured MCF7 breast cancer and J744A.1 macrophage cells, which enabled real-time, live-cell imaging of cell organelles, namely mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, and Golgi body. This in vitro model demonstrates the proof-of-concept feasibility of the proposed soft microswimmers and offers promise for potential biomedical applications in active and/or targeted transport and delivery of imaging agents, drugs, stem cells, siRNA, and therapeutic genes to live tissue in in vitro disease models (e.g., organ-on-a-chip devices) and stagnant or low-flow-velocity fluidic regions of the human body.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ajay Vikram Singh
- Physical Intelligence Department, Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems , Stuttgart 70569, Germany
| | - Zeinab Hosseinidoust
- Physical Intelligence Department, Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems , Stuttgart 70569, Germany
| | - Byung-Wook Park
- Physical Intelligence Department, Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems , Stuttgart 70569, Germany
| | - Oncay Yasa
- Physical Intelligence Department, Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems , Stuttgart 70569, Germany
| | - Metin Sitti
- Physical Intelligence Department, Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems , Stuttgart 70569, Germany
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Yu J, Xu T, Lu Z, Vong CI, Zhang L. On-Demand Disassembly of Paramagnetic Nanoparticle Chains for Microrobotic Cargo Delivery. IEEE T ROBOT 2017. [DOI: 10.1109/tro.2017.2693999] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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49
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Pushing Bacterial Biohybrids to In Vivo Applications. Trends Biotechnol 2017; 35:910-913. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tibtech.2017.04.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2017] [Revised: 04/18/2017] [Accepted: 04/20/2017] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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Ahmad B, Maeda H, Kawahara T, Arai F. Microrobotic Platform for Single Motile Microorganism Investigation. MICROMACHINES 2017; 8:E295. [PMID: 30400484 PMCID: PMC6189944 DOI: 10.3390/mi8100295] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2017] [Revised: 09/28/2017] [Accepted: 09/28/2017] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
We propose a microrobotic platform for single motile microorganism observation and investigation. The platform utilizes a high-speed online vision sensor to realize real-time observation of a microorganism under a microscopic environment with a relatively high magnification ratio. A microfluidic chip was used to limit the vertical movement of the microorganism and reduce the tracking system complexity. We introduce a simple image processing method, which utilizes high-speed online vision characteristics and shows robustness against image noise to increase the overall tracking performance with low computational time consumption. The design also considers the future integration of a stimulation system using microtools. Successful long-time tracking of a freely swimming microorganism inside of a microfluidic chip for more than 30 min was achieved notwithstanding the presence of noises in the environment of the cell. The specific design of the platform, particularly the tracking system, is described, and the performance is evaluated and confirmed through basic experiments. The potential of the platform to apply mechanical stimulation to a freely swimming microorganism is demonstrated by using a 50-µm-thick microtool. The proposed platform can be used for long-term observation and to achieve different kinds of stimulations, which can induce new behavior of the cells and lead to unprecedented discoveries in biological fields.
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Affiliation(s)
- Belal Ahmad
- Graduate School of Life Science and Systems Engineering, Kyushu Institute of Technology, Kitakyushu 808-0196, Japan.
| | - Hironobu Maeda
- School of Engineering, Kyushu Institute of Technology, Kitakyushu 804-8550, Japan.
| | - Tomohiro Kawahara
- Graduate School of Life Science and Systems Engineering, Kyushu Institute of Technology, Kitakyushu 808-0196, Japan.
| | - Fumihito Arai
- Graduate School of Engineering, Nagoya University, Nagoya 464-8603, Japan.
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