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Salerno G, Bettucci O, Manfredi N, Stendardo L, Veronese E, Metrangolo P, Abbotto A. Tailored Metal-Porphyrin Based Molecular Electrocatalysts for Enhanced Artificial Nitrogen Fixation to Green Ammonia. GLOBAL CHALLENGES (HOBOKEN, NJ) 2024; 8:2300345. [PMID: 39006055 PMCID: PMC11237181 DOI: 10.1002/gch2.202300345] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2023] [Revised: 04/15/2024] [Indexed: 07/16/2024]
Abstract
Electrochemical nitrogen reduction (E-NRR) is one of the most promising approaches to generate green NH3. However, scarce ammonia yields and Faradaic efficiencies (FE) still limit their use on a large scale. Thus, efforts are focusing on different E-NRR catalyst structures and formulations. Among present strategies, molecular electrocatalysts such as metal-porphyrins emerge as an encouraging option due to their planar structures which favor the interaction involving the metal center, responsible for adsorption and activation of nitrogen. Nevertheless, the high hydrophobicity of porphyrins limits the aqueous electrolyte-catalyst interaction lowering yields. This work introduces a new class of metal-porphyrin based catalysts, bearing hydrophilic tris(ethyleneglycol) monomethyl ether chains (metal = Cu(II) and CoII)). Experimental results show that the presence of hydrophilic chains significantly increases ammonia yields and FE, supporting the relevance of fruitful catalyst-electrolyte interactions. This study also investigates the use of hydrophobic branched alkyl chains for comparison, resulting in similar performances with respect to the unsubstituted metal-porphyrin, taken as a reference, further confirming that the appropriate design of electrocatalysts carrying peripheral hydrophilic substituents is able to improve device performances in the generation of green ammonia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giorgia Salerno
- Department of Materials Science and Milano‐Bicocca Solar Energy Research Center (MIB‐SOLAR)University of Milano‐BicoccaVia Cozzi 55MilanoI‐20125Italy
- Department of Information and Electrical Engineering and Applied Mathematics (DIEM)University of SalernoInvariante 12/B, Via Giovanni Paolo II, 132Fisciano (SA)I‐84084Italy
| | - Ottavia Bettucci
- Department of Materials Science and Milano‐Bicocca Solar Energy Research Center (MIB‐SOLAR)University of Milano‐BicoccaVia Cozzi 55MilanoI‐20125Italy
| | - Norberto Manfredi
- Department of Materials Science and Milano‐Bicocca Solar Energy Research Center (MIB‐SOLAR)University of Milano‐BicoccaVia Cozzi 55MilanoI‐20125Italy
| | - Luca Stendardo
- Department of Materials Science and Milano‐Bicocca Solar Energy Research Center (MIB‐SOLAR)University of Milano‐BicoccaVia Cozzi 55MilanoI‐20125Italy
| | - Eleonora Veronese
- Department of Chemistry, Materials, and Chemical Engineering “Giulio Natta”Politecnico di MilanoVia L. MancinelliMilano20131Italy
| | - Pierangelo Metrangolo
- Department of Chemistry, Materials, and Chemical Engineering “Giulio Natta”Politecnico di MilanoVia L. MancinelliMilano20131Italy
| | - Alessandro Abbotto
- Department of Materials Science and Milano‐Bicocca Solar Energy Research Center (MIB‐SOLAR)University of Milano‐BicoccaVia Cozzi 55MilanoI‐20125Italy
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2
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Hu Z, Kuang J, Fu W, Hu L, Lai H, Zhang H, Liu X. Impact of the bromination of carbazole-based D-π-A organic dyes on their optical and electrochemical properties and visible-light-driven hydrogen evolution. RSC Adv 2023; 13:20031-20039. [PMID: 37409028 PMCID: PMC10318484 DOI: 10.1039/d3ra02785f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2023] [Accepted: 06/14/2023] [Indexed: 07/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Brominated dyes, 2C-n (n = 1-5), 3C-4 and 4C-4, were prepared through bromination of three carbazole-based D-π-A dyes, 2C, 3C and 4C with N-bromosuccinimide (NBS). The detailed structures of the brominated dyes were confirmed by 1H NMR spectroscopy and mass spectrometry (MS). The introduction of the Br atom on the 1,8-positon of carbazole moieties led to blueshifted UV-vis and photoluminescence (PL) spectra, increased initial oxidation potentials and enlarged dihedral angles, indicating bromination enhanced non-planarity of the dye molecules. In the hydrogen production experiments, with the increase of the Br content in brominated dyes, the photocatalytic activity increased continuously (except 2C-1). The dye-sensitized Pt/TiO2, 2C-4@T, 3C-4@T and 4C-4@T, exhibited high hydrogen production efficiencies of 655.4, 877.9 and 905.6 μmol h-1 g-1, respectively, which were 4-6-fold higher than those of 2C@T, 3C@T and 4C@T. The enhanced performance of photocatalytic hydrogen evolution was attributed to decreased dye aggregation resulting from the highly non-planar molecular structures of the brominated dyes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhangli Hu
- College of Chemistry Materials, Hengyang Normal University Hengyang 421008 China
| | - Jiamin Kuang
- College of Chemistry Materials, Hengyang Normal University Hengyang 421008 China
| | - Wenmo Fu
- College of Chemistry Materials, Hengyang Normal University Hengyang 421008 China
| | - Longxin Hu
- College of Chemistry Materials, Hengyang Normal University Hengyang 421008 China
| | - Hua Lai
- College of Chemistry Materials, Hengyang Normal University Hengyang 421008 China
- Hunan Provincial Key Laboratory of Functional Metal-Organic Compounds Hengyang 421008 China
| | - Huanian Zhang
- College of Chemistry, Xiangtan University Xiangtan 411105 China
| | - Xing Liu
- College of Chemistry Materials, Hengyang Normal University Hengyang 421008 China
- Hunan Provincial Key Laboratory of Functional Metal-Organic Compounds Hengyang 421008 China
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3
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Jiao Y, Xiang W, Xia Y, Xie Q, Yu Y, Yang Z. The Side-chain design of rhodamine dye and the performance research of photocatalytic hydrogen production system by the first principles. Chem Phys 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chemphys.2022.111802] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
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4
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Decavoli C, Boldrini CL, Faroldi F, Baldini L, Sansone F, Ranaudo A, Greco C, Cosentino U, Moro G, Manfredi N, Abbotto A. Calix[4]arene‐Based Sensitizers for Host‐Guest Supramolecular Dyads for Solar Energy Conversion in Photoelectrochemical Cells. European J Org Chem 2022. [DOI: 10.1002/ejoc.202200649] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Cristina Decavoli
- Department of Materials Science and Milano-Bicocca Solar Energy Research Center – MIB-Solar University of Milano-Bicocca Via Cozzi 55 20125 Milano Italy
| | - Chiara L. Boldrini
- Department of Materials Science and Milano-Bicocca Solar Energy Research Center – MIB-Solar University of Milano-Bicocca Via Cozzi 55 20125 Milano Italy
| | - Federica Faroldi
- Dipartimento di Scienze Chimiche della Vita e della Sostenibilità Ambientale University of Parma Parco Area delle Scienze 17/A 43124 Parma Italy
| | - Laura Baldini
- Dipartimento di Scienze Chimiche della Vita e della Sostenibilità Ambientale University of Parma Parco Area delle Scienze 17/A 43124 Parma Italy
| | - Francesco Sansone
- Dipartimento di Scienze Chimiche della Vita e della Sostenibilità Ambientale University of Parma Parco Area delle Scienze 17/A 43124 Parma Italy
| | - Anna Ranaudo
- Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences University of Milano-Bicocca Piazza della Scienza 1 20126 Milano Italy
| | - Claudio Greco
- Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences University of Milano-Bicocca Piazza della Scienza 1 20126 Milano Italy
| | - Ugo Cosentino
- Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences University of Milano-Bicocca Piazza della Scienza 1 20126 Milano Italy
| | - Giorgio Moro
- Department of Biotechnology and Biosciences University of Milano-Bicocca Piazza della Scienza 2 20126 Milano Italy
| | - Norberto Manfredi
- Department of Materials Science and Milano-Bicocca Solar Energy Research Center – MIB-Solar University of Milano-Bicocca Via Cozzi 55 20125 Milano Italy
| | - Alessandro Abbotto
- Department of Materials Science and Milano-Bicocca Solar Energy Research Center – MIB-Solar University of Milano-Bicocca Via Cozzi 55 20125 Milano Italy
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5
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Watanabe M, Ono Y, Ishihara T, Chang YJ, Shibahara M. [2.2]‐ and [3.3]Paracyclophane as Bridging Units in Organic Dyads for Visible‐Light‐Driven Dye‐Sensitized Hydrogen Production. Chemistry 2022; 28:e202200790. [DOI: 10.1002/chem.202200790] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2022] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Motonori Watanabe
- Advanced Energy Conversion Systems Thrust International Institute for Carbon-Neutral Energy Research (WPI-I2CNER) Kyushu University 744 Motooka, Nishi-ku Fukuoka 819-0395 Japan
- Department of Automotive Science Graduate School of Integrated Frontier Sciences Kyushu University 744 Motooka, Nishi-ku Fukuoka 819-0395 Japan
- Department of Applied Chemistry Faculty of Engineering Kyushu University 744 Motooka, Nishi-ku Fukuoka 819-0395 Japan
| | - Yuka Ono
- Department of Automotive Science Graduate School of Integrated Frontier Sciences Kyushu University 744 Motooka, Nishi-ku Fukuoka 819-0395 Japan
| | - Tatsumi Ishihara
- Advanced Energy Conversion Systems Thrust International Institute for Carbon-Neutral Energy Research (WPI-I2CNER) Kyushu University 744 Motooka, Nishi-ku Fukuoka 819-0395 Japan
- Department of Automotive Science Graduate School of Integrated Frontier Sciences Kyushu University 744 Motooka, Nishi-ku Fukuoka 819-0395 Japan
- Department of Applied Chemistry Faculty of Engineering Kyushu University 744 Motooka, Nishi-ku Fukuoka 819-0395 Japan
| | - Yuan Jay Chang
- Department of Chemistry Tunghai University No. 1727, Sec. 4, Taiwan Boulevard, Xitun District Taichung City 407224 Taiwan R.O.C
| | - Masahiko Shibahara
- Division of Natural Sciences Faculty of Science and Technology Oita University 700 Dannoharu Oita 870-1192 Japan
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Yang H, Dai K, Zhang J, Dawson G. Inorganic-organic hybrid photocatalysts: Syntheses, mechanisms, and applications. CHINESE JOURNAL OF CATALYSIS 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/s1872-2067(22)64096-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
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7
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Solvent-Free Visible Light Photocatalytic Oxidation Processes Mediated by Transparent Films of an Imine-Based Organic Polymer. Catalysts 2021. [DOI: 10.3390/catal11121426] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Reaction between concentrated solutions of phenotiazine containing trialdehyde building block 4,4′,4″-(10-phenothiazine-3,7,10-triyl)tribenzaldehyde and (1R,2R)-cyclohexane-1,2-diamine results in the formation of a yellow transparent film. Exhaustive characterization of this material indicates that it is the result of the assembly of a linear polymer resulting from the linking of imine-based macrocycles. Phenotiazine units confer to this plastic the optical properties characteristic of photocatalytic materials. The transparency of the obtained material enabled the performance of solvent-free photocatalytic processes. This concept is illustrated by the oxidation of liquid organic sulfides, which can be performed in a recyclable manner. According to selective quenching experiments, such processes are the result of the energy transfer to oxygen molecule, generating singlet oxygen that is able to activate the sulfide molecules directly.
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Mavridi-Printezi A, Menichetti A, Guernelli M, Montalti M. Extending photocatalysis to the visible and NIR: the molecular strategy. NANOSCALE 2021; 13:9147-9159. [PMID: 33978040 DOI: 10.1039/d1nr01401c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Photocatalysis exploits light to perform important processes as solar fuel production by water splitting, and CO2 reduction or water and air decontamination. Therefore, photocatalysis contributes to the satisfaction of the increasing needs for clean energy, environmental remediation and, most recently, sanification. Most of the efficient semiconductor nanoparticles (NP), developed as photocatalysts, work in the ultraviolet (UV) spectral region and they are not able to exploit either visible (Vis) or near infrared (NIR) radiation. This limitation makes them unable to fully exploit the broad band solar radiaton or to be applied in indoor conditions. Recently, different approaches have been developed to extend the spectral activity of semiconductor NP, like for example band-gap engineering, integration with upconversion NP and plasmonic enhancement involving also hot-electron injection. Nevertheless, the use of organic molecules and metal complexes, for enhancing the photoactivity in the Vis and NIR, was one of the first strategies proposed for sensitization and it is still one of the most efficient. In this minireview we highlight and critically discuss the most recent and relevant achievements in the field of photocatalysis obtained by exploiting dye sensitization either via dynamic or static quenching.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Arianna Menichetti
- Department of Chemistry "Giacomo Ciamician", Via Selmi 2, 40126, Bologna, Italy.
| | - Moreno Guernelli
- Department of Chemistry "Giacomo Ciamician", Via Selmi 2, 40126, Bologna, Italy.
| | - Marco Montalti
- Department of Chemistry "Giacomo Ciamician", Via Selmi 2, 40126, Bologna, Italy.
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Photophysical characteristics and photosensitizing abilities of thieno[3,2-b]thiophene-Based photosensitizers for photovoltaic and photocatalytic applications. J Photochem Photobiol A Chem 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jphotochem.2020.112979] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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10
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Manfredi N, Decavoli C, Boldrini CL, Dolla TH, Faroldi F, Sansone F, Montini T, Baldini L, Fornasiero P, Abbotto A. Multibranched Calix[4]arene‐Based Sensitizers for Efficient Photocatalytic Hydrogen Production. European J Org Chem 2020. [DOI: 10.1002/ejoc.202001296] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Norberto Manfredi
- Department of Materials Science and Solar Energy Research Center MIB-SOLAR University of Milano-Bicocca INSTM Milano-Bicocca Research Unit Via Cozzi 55 20125 Milano Italy
| | - Cristina Decavoli
- Department of Materials Science and Solar Energy Research Center MIB-SOLAR University of Milano-Bicocca INSTM Milano-Bicocca Research Unit Via Cozzi 55 20125 Milano Italy
| | - Chiara Liliana Boldrini
- Department of Materials Science and Solar Energy Research Center MIB-SOLAR University of Milano-Bicocca INSTM Milano-Bicocca Research Unit Via Cozzi 55 20125 Milano Italy
| | - Tarekegn Heliso Dolla
- Department of Chemical and Pharmaceutical Sciences INSTM Trieste Research Unit and ICCOM-CNR Trieste Research Unit University of Trieste Via L. Giorgieri 1 34127 Trieste Italy
| | - Federica Faroldi
- Dipartimento di Scienze Chimiche, della Vita e della Sostenibilità Ambientale Università di Parma Parco Area delle Scienze 17/A 43124 Parma Italy
| | - Francesco Sansone
- Dipartimento di Scienze Chimiche, della Vita e della Sostenibilità Ambientale Università di Parma Parco Area delle Scienze 17/A 43124 Parma Italy
| | - Tiziano Montini
- Department of Chemical and Pharmaceutical Sciences INSTM Trieste Research Unit and ICCOM-CNR Trieste Research Unit University of Trieste Via L. Giorgieri 1 34127 Trieste Italy
| | - Laura Baldini
- Dipartimento di Scienze Chimiche, della Vita e della Sostenibilità Ambientale Università di Parma Parco Area delle Scienze 17/A 43124 Parma Italy
| | - Paolo Fornasiero
- Department of Chemical and Pharmaceutical Sciences INSTM Trieste Research Unit and ICCOM-CNR Trieste Research Unit University of Trieste Via L. Giorgieri 1 34127 Trieste Italy
| | - Alessandro Abbotto
- Department of Materials Science and Solar Energy Research Center MIB-SOLAR University of Milano-Bicocca INSTM Milano-Bicocca Research Unit Via Cozzi 55 20125 Milano Italy
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11
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Huang JF, Lei Y, Luo T, Liu JM. Photocatalytic H 2 Production from Water by Metal-free Dye-sensitized TiO 2 Semiconductors: The Role and Development Process of Organic Sensitizers. CHEMSUSCHEM 2020; 13:5863-5895. [PMID: 32897637 DOI: 10.1002/cssc.202001646] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2020] [Revised: 08/28/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
The utilization of solar energy to produce hydrogen from water is showing increased importance and desirability in the field of artificial photosynthesis to produce clean and sustainable fuels. In a typical three-component dye-sensitized semiconductor system for photocatalysis, the dye sensitizer plays an essential role of energy antenna for harvesting visible light and promoting the reduction reaction to generate hydrogen. In recent decades, a lot of attention has focused on metal-free organic sensitizers, which have the advantages of low cost, high molar extinction coefficient, good modifiability and, most importantly, ability to avoid the use of noble metal ions. This Review enumerates the design strategies, specific properties and photocatalytic performances of metal-free sensitizers in the past 30 years and concludes their evolution process. The advantages of different types of metal-free sensitizers are highlighted and the instructively enlightening experiences are systematic summarized.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jian-Feng Huang
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Sun Yat-sen University, 510275, Guangzhou, P.R. China
| | - Yang Lei
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Sun Yat-sen University, 510275, Guangzhou, P.R. China
| | - Teng Luo
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Sun Yat-sen University, 510275, Guangzhou, P.R. China
| | - Jun-Min Liu
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Sun Yat-sen University, 510275, Guangzhou, P.R. China
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12
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Boldrini CL, Manfredi N, Perna FM, Capriati V, Abbotto A. Eco‐Friendly Sugar‐Based Natural Deep Eutectic Solvents as Effective Electrolyte Solutions for Dye‐Sensitized Solar Cells. ChemElectroChem 2020. [DOI: 10.1002/celc.202000376] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Chiara Liliana Boldrini
- Department of Materials Science and Solar Energy Research Center MIB-SOLAR University of Milano-Bicocca, and INSTM Milano-Bicocca Research Unit Via Cozzi 55 I-20125 Milano Italy
| | - Norberto Manfredi
- Department of Materials Science and Solar Energy Research Center MIB-SOLAR University of Milano-Bicocca, and INSTM Milano-Bicocca Research Unit Via Cozzi 55 I-20125 Milano Italy
| | - Filippo Maria Perna
- Dipartimento di Farmacia-Scienze del Farmaco Università di Bari “Aldo Moro”, Consorzio C.I.N.M.P.I.S Via E. Orabona 4 I-70125 Bari Italy
| | - Vito Capriati
- Dipartimento di Farmacia-Scienze del Farmaco Università di Bari “Aldo Moro”, Consorzio C.I.N.M.P.I.S Via E. Orabona 4 I-70125 Bari Italy
- Dipartimento di Chimica Istituto di Chimica dei Composti Organometallici (ICCOM) – CNR Via E. Orabona 4 I-70125 Bari Italy
| | - Alessandro Abbotto
- Department of Materials Science and Solar Energy Research Center MIB-SOLAR University of Milano-Bicocca, and INSTM Milano-Bicocca Research Unit Via Cozzi 55 I-20125 Milano Italy
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13
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Decavoli C, Boldrini CL, Manfredi N, Abbotto A. Molecular Organic Sensitizers for Photoelectrochemical Water Splitting. Eur J Inorg Chem 2020. [DOI: 10.1002/ejic.202000026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Cristina Decavoli
- Department of Materials Science and INSTM Unit University of Milano‐Bicocca Via R. Cozzi 55 20125 Milano Italy
| | - Chiara Liliana Boldrini
- Department of Materials Science and INSTM Unit University of Milano‐Bicocca Via R. Cozzi 55 20125 Milano Italy
| | - Norberto Manfredi
- Department of Materials Science and INSTM Unit University of Milano‐Bicocca Via R. Cozzi 55 20125 Milano Italy
| | - Alessandro Abbotto
- Department of Materials Science and INSTM Unit University of Milano‐Bicocca Via R. Cozzi 55 20125 Milano Italy
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14
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Huang JF, Lei Y, Xiao LM, Chen XL, Zhong YH, Qin S, Liu JM. Photocatalysts for H 2 Generation from Starburst Triphenylamine/Carbazole Donor-Based Metal-Free Dyes and Porous Anatase TiO 2 Cube. CHEMSUSCHEM 2020; 13:1037-1043. [PMID: 31885192 DOI: 10.1002/cssc.201902742] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2019] [Revised: 12/27/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
A series of novel triphenylamine/carbazole-based D-D-π-π-A dyes DH1-4 and a mesoporous anatase cubic "microcage" TiO2 material (denoted as MC-TiO2 ) were synthesized and combined to obtain dye-sensitized photocatalysts (denoted as DHn/Pt/MC-TiO2 , n=1-4). These catalysts showed better performances in visible-light-driven H2 evolution from water than DHn/Pt/P25-TiO2 catalysts based on commercial P25-TiO2 bulk semiconductor under similar conditions. Compared with P25-TiO2 particles, the porous MC-TiO2 had a large Brunauer-Emmett-Teller surface area, porosity, and exposed {0 0 1} crystal plane, which greatly contributed to the photocatalytic activity. The optimized DH2/Pt/MC-TiO2 photocatalyst exhibited an attractive H2 production rate (16.28 mmol g-1 h-1 based on catalyst mass), and the optimized DH4/Pt/MC-TiO2 photocatalyst showed good stability [turnover number (TON) of 16 699 in 105 h based on dye number], which represents one of the best performances among all reported visible-light-driven heterogeneous catalytic systems. Compared with the other dyes in this series, the high H2 production rate of DH2 on Pt/MC-TiO2 can be attributed to its size-matching effect and thus high dye loading amount, whereas the high TON and durability of DH4/Pt/MC-TiO2 are probably related to the rapid regeneration kinetics of DH4.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jian-Feng Huang
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Sun Yat-sen University, 510275, Guangzhou, P.R. China
| | - Yang Lei
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Sun Yat-sen University, 510275, Guangzhou, P.R. China
| | - Li-Min Xiao
- School of Computer Science and Engineering, Beihang University, 100191, Beijing, P.R. China
| | - Xin-Lun Chen
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Sun Yat-sen University, 510275, Guangzhou, P.R. China
| | - Yu-Hui Zhong
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Sun Yat-sen University, 510275, Guangzhou, P.R. China
| | - Su Qin
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Sun Yat-sen University, 510275, Guangzhou, P.R. China
| | - Jun-Min Liu
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Sun Yat-sen University, 510275, Guangzhou, P.R. China
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15
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Lai H, Liu X, Zeng F, Peng G, Li J, Yi Z. Multicarbazole-Based D-π-A Dyes Sensitized Hydrogen Evolution under Visible Light Irradiation. ACS OMEGA 2020; 5:2027-2033. [PMID: 32039340 PMCID: PMC7003503 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.9b04135] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2019] [Accepted: 01/13/2020] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Donor-π bridge-acceptor (D-π-A) organic dyes, well studied in dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSCs), are found to possess great potential in light-inducing hydrogen evolution due to their distinguished light-harvesting ability and suitable electron energy level. In this work, multicarbazole-based organic dyes (2C, 3C, 4C) were used as photosensitizers of Pt/TiO2 for photocatalytic hydrogen evolution (PHE) from water under visible light irradiation. 3C-Pt/TiO2 shows the best photocatalytic activity among the three dye-sensitized photocatalysts, with a hydrogen evolution rate of 24.7 μmol h-1 and a turnover number of 247 h-1. The activity of 3C-Pt/TiO2 declines significantly after 3 h irradiation. The deactivation was caused by the partial degradation of the electron acceptor, cyanoacrylate moiety, during the photocatalytic process, which was evidenced by UV-vis, Fourier transform infrared spectra (FT-IR), NMR, and mass spectra. This work is expected to contribute toward the understanding of stability issues of organic dyes and the development of more efficient and steady dyes for hydrogen evolution from water splitting.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hua Lai
- College
of Chemistry Materials, Hengyang Normal
University, Hengyang 421008, China
- Key
Laboratory of Functional Metal-Organic Compounds of Hunan Province
& Key Laboratory of Functional Organometallic Materials of College
of Hunan Province, Hengyang Normal University, Hengyang 421008, China
| | - Xing Liu
- College
of Chemistry Materials, Hengyang Normal
University, Hengyang 421008, China
- Key
Laboratory of Functional Metal-Organic Compounds of Hunan Province
& Key Laboratory of Functional Organometallic Materials of College
of Hunan Province, Hengyang Normal University, Hengyang 421008, China
| | - Fanyan Zeng
- College
of Chemistry Materials, Hengyang Normal
University, Hengyang 421008, China
| | - Gang Peng
- College
of Chemistry Materials, Hengyang Normal
University, Hengyang 421008, China
- Key
Laboratory of Functional Metal-Organic Compounds of Hunan Province
& Key Laboratory of Functional Organometallic Materials of College
of Hunan Province, Hengyang Normal University, Hengyang 421008, China
| | - Junhua Li
- College
of Chemistry Materials, Hengyang Normal
University, Hengyang 421008, China
- Key
Laboratory of Functional Metal-Organic Compounds of Hunan Province
& Key Laboratory of Functional Organometallic Materials of College
of Hunan Province, Hengyang Normal University, Hengyang 421008, China
| | - Zhengji Yi
- College
of Chemistry Materials, Hengyang Normal
University, Hengyang 421008, China
- Key
Laboratory of Functional Metal-Organic Compounds of Hunan Province
& Key Laboratory of Functional Organometallic Materials of College
of Hunan Province, Hengyang Normal University, Hengyang 421008, China
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16
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Hao X, Guo Q, Li M, Jin Z, Wang Y. TiO2 as an interfacial-charge-transfer-bridge to construct eosin Y-mediated direct Z-scheme electron transfer over a Co9S8 quantum dot/TiO2 photocatalyst. Catal Sci Technol 2020. [DOI: 10.1039/d0cy00893a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
A novel eosin Y-mediated Z-scheme Co9S8 QDs/TiO2 photocatalytic system was constructed and a high AQE of 37.4% is obtained at 470 nm for 20%Co9S8/TiO2 heterojunction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xuqiang Hao
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering
- Ningxia Key Laboratory of Solar Chemical Conversion Technology
- Key Laboratory for Chemical Engineering and Technology
- State Ethnic Affairs Commission
- North Minzu University
| | - Qingjie Guo
- State Key Laboratory of High-efficiency Utilization of Coal and Green Chemical Engineering
- Ningxia University
- Yinchuan
- PR China
| | - Mei Li
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering
- Ningxia Key Laboratory of Solar Chemical Conversion Technology
- Key Laboratory for Chemical Engineering and Technology
- State Ethnic Affairs Commission
- North Minzu University
| | - Zhiliang Jin
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering
- Ningxia Key Laboratory of Solar Chemical Conversion Technology
- Key Laboratory for Chemical Engineering and Technology
- State Ethnic Affairs Commission
- North Minzu University
| | - Ying Wang
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering
- Eco-materials and Renewable Energy Research Center (ERERC)
- National Laboratory of Solid State Microstructures
- Kunshan Innovation Institute of Nanjing University
- Nanjing University
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17
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Reginato G, Zani L, Calamante M, Mordini A, Dessì A. Dye‐Sensitized Heterogeneous Photocatalysts for Green Redox Reactions. Eur J Inorg Chem 2019. [DOI: 10.1002/ejic.201901174] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Gianna Reginato
- Institute of Chemistry of Organometallic Compounds (CNR‐ICCOM) Via Madonna del Piano 10 50019 Sesto Fiorentino Italy
| | - Lorenzo Zani
- Institute of Chemistry of Organometallic Compounds (CNR‐ICCOM) Via Madonna del Piano 10 50019 Sesto Fiorentino Italy
| | - Massimo Calamante
- Institute of Chemistry of Organometallic Compounds (CNR‐ICCOM) Via Madonna del Piano 10 50019 Sesto Fiorentino Italy
- Department of Chemistry “U. Schiff” University of Florence Via della Lastruccia 13 50019 Sesto Fiorentino Italy
| | - Alessandro Mordini
- Institute of Chemistry of Organometallic Compounds (CNR‐ICCOM) Via Madonna del Piano 10 50019 Sesto Fiorentino Italy
- Department of Chemistry “U. Schiff” University of Florence Via della Lastruccia 13 50019 Sesto Fiorentino Italy
| | - Alessio Dessì
- Institute of Chemistry of Organometallic Compounds (CNR‐ICCOM) Via Madonna del Piano 10 50019 Sesto Fiorentino Italy
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18
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Park C, Park J, Park J, Heo I, Kim W, Kim J. Role of phosphate in ruthenium-complex-sensitized TiO2 system for hydrogen production: Mechanism and kinetics. Catal Today 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cattod.2018.11.048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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19
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Scandura G, Rodríguez J, Palmisano G. Hydrogen and Propane Production From Butyric Acid Photoreforming Over Pt-TiO 2. Front Chem 2019; 7:563. [PMID: 31440501 PMCID: PMC6692698 DOI: 10.3389/fchem.2019.00563] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2019] [Accepted: 07/23/2019] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Photocatalysis is a promising technology from economic, energetic, and ecological points of view because it takes advantage of solar light. Hence, it is one of the investigated green routes to produce hydrogen from renewable energy resources. Butyric acid (BA) is largely present in wastewater and as an intermediate product in anaerobic digestion and therefore it is an inexpensive resource, which can be converted to valuable chemicals. In this work, photoreforming of butyric acid (BAPR) under UV light in aqueous suspensions of platinum-modified titanium dioxide-based catalysts is reported for the first time. Titania nanotubes (TNT) synthesized and calcined at different temperatures (300, 400, 500°C) and commercial TiO2 (P25), decorated with platinum nanoparticles, have been tested and characterized through different techniques including X-ray powder diffraction, UV-vis diffuse reflectance and photoluminescence spectroscopy, transmission electron microscopy, BET and porosimetry analysis. The main identified products of the BAPR were H2, propane, CO2 and several organic acids (e.g., pentanoic and 3-methylhexanoic acid). It has been found that the morphology and crystallinity of the photocatalysts affected dramatically their optical properties and, consequently, the reaction rate and the product distribution. Specifically, the highest conversion of BA (XBA) and selectivity toward H2 (SH2) was recorded with P25-Pt (XBA = 26.9%, SH2 = 47.2% after 8 h of irradiation). TNT-400-Pt showed the highest selectivity toward propane (SC3H8 = 16.1%) with XBA = 23.4% and SH2 = 36.2%. The activity results in conjunction with the characterization of the catalysts highlighted that the main factor affecting the activity in terms of XBA and generation of H2 was the crystallinity, and in particular the presence of rutile phase in TiO2, whereas SC3H8 appears to increase when the electron-holes recombination is lower.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabriele Scandura
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Masdar Institute Campus, Khalifa University, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates.,Research and Innovation Center on CO2 and H2 (RICH), Khalifa University, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
| | - Jorge Rodríguez
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Masdar Institute Campus, Khalifa University, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
| | - Giovanni Palmisano
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Masdar Institute Campus, Khalifa University, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates.,Research and Innovation Center on CO2 and H2 (RICH), Khalifa University, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
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20
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Wang Q, Domen K. Particulate Photocatalysts for Light-Driven Water Splitting: Mechanisms, Challenges, and Design Strategies. Chem Rev 2019; 120:919-985. [PMID: 31393702 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.9b00201] [Citation(s) in RCA: 724] [Impact Index Per Article: 144.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Solar-driven water splitting provides a leading approach to store the abundant yet intermittent solar energy and produce hydrogen as a clean and sustainable energy carrier. A straightforward route to light-driven water splitting is to apply self-supported particulate photocatalysts, which is expected to allow solar hydrogen to be competitive with fossil-fuel-derived hydrogen on a levelized cost basis. More importantly, the powder-based systems can lend themselves to making functional panels on a large scale while retaining the intrinsic activity of the photocatalyst. However, all attempts to generate hydrogen via powder-based solar water-splitting systems to date have unfortunately fallen short of the efficiency values required for practical applications. Photocatalysis on photocatalyst particles involves three sequential steps: (i) absorption of photons with higher energies than the bandgap of the photocatalysts, leading to the excitation of electron-hole pairs in the particles, (ii) charge separation and migration of these photoexcited carriers, and (iii) surface chemical reactions based on these carriers. In this review, we focus on the challenges of each step and summarize material design strategies to overcome the obstacles and limitations. This review illustrates that it is possible to employ the fundamental principles underlying photosynthesis and the tools of chemical and materials science to design and prepare photocatalysts for overall water splitting.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qian Wang
- Department of Chemical System Engineering, School of Engineering , The University of Tokyo , 7-3-1 Hongo , Bunkyo-ku , Tokyo 113-8656 , Japan
| | - Kazunari Domen
- Department of Chemical System Engineering, School of Engineering , The University of Tokyo , 7-3-1 Hongo , Bunkyo-ku , Tokyo 113-8656 , Japan.,Center for Energy & Environmental Science , Shinshu University , 4-17-1 Wakasato , Nagano-shi , Nagano 380-8553 , Japan
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21
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Dye-sensitized photocatalytic and photoelectrochemical hydrogen production through water splitting. RENDICONTI LINCEI-SCIENZE FISICHE E NATURALI 2019. [DOI: 10.1007/s12210-019-00824-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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22
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Dessì A, Monai M, Bessi M, Montini T, Calamante M, Mordini A, Reginato G, Trono C, Fornasiero P, Zani L. Towards Sustainable H 2 Production: Rational Design of Hydrophobic Triphenylamine-based Dyes for Sensitized Ethanol Photoreforming. CHEMSUSCHEM 2018; 11:793-805. [PMID: 29227040 DOI: 10.1002/cssc.201701707] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2017] [Revised: 10/06/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Donor-acceptor dyes are a well-established class of photosensitizers, used to enhance visible-light harvesting in solar cells and in direct photocatalytic reactions, such as H2 production by photoreforming of sacrificial electron donors (SEDs). Amines-typically triethanolamine (TEOA)-are commonly employed as SEDs in such reactions. Dye-sensitized photoreforming of more sustainable, biomass-derived alcohols, on the other hand, was only recently reported by using methanol as the electron donor. In this work, several rationally designed donor-acceptor dyes were used as sensitizers in H2 photocatalytic production, comparing the efficiency of TEOA and EtOH as SEDs. In particular, the effect of hydrophobic chains in the spacer and/or the donor unit of the dyes was systematically studied. The H2 production rates were higher when TEOA was used as SED, whereas the activity trends depended on the SED used. The best performance was obtained with TEOA by using a sensitizer with just one bulky hydrophobic moiety, propylenedioxythiophene, placed on the spacer unit. In the case of EtOH, the best-performing sensitizers were the ones featuring a thiazolo[5,4-d]thiazole internal unit, needed for enhancing light harvesting, and carrying alkyl chains on both the donor part and the spacer unit. The results are discussed in terms of reaction mechanism, interaction with the SED, and structural/electrochemical properties of the sensitizers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alessio Dessì
- Institute for the Chemistry of Organometallic Compounds (ICCOM), Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (CNR), Via Madonna del Piano 10, 50019, Sesto Fiorentino, Italy
| | - Matteo Monai
- Department of Chemical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, ICCOM-CNR Trieste Research Unit and INSTM Research Unit, University of Trieste, via L. Giorgieri 1, 34127, Trieste, Italy
| | - Matteo Bessi
- Institute for the Chemistry of Organometallic Compounds (ICCOM), Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (CNR), Via Madonna del Piano 10, 50019, Sesto Fiorentino, Italy
- Department of Biotechnology, Chemistry and Pharmacy, University of Siena, Via A. Moro 2, 53100, Siena, Italy
| | - Tiziano Montini
- Department of Chemical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, ICCOM-CNR Trieste Research Unit and INSTM Research Unit, University of Trieste, via L. Giorgieri 1, 34127, Trieste, Italy
| | - Massimo Calamante
- Institute for the Chemistry of Organometallic Compounds (ICCOM), Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (CNR), Via Madonna del Piano 10, 50019, Sesto Fiorentino, Italy
| | - Alessandro Mordini
- Institute for the Chemistry of Organometallic Compounds (ICCOM), Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (CNR), Via Madonna del Piano 10, 50019, Sesto Fiorentino, Italy
| | - Gianna Reginato
- Institute for the Chemistry of Organometallic Compounds (ICCOM), Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (CNR), Via Madonna del Piano 10, 50019, Sesto Fiorentino, Italy
| | - Cosimo Trono
- Institute of Applied Physics "Nello Carrara" (IFAC-CNR), Via Madonna del Piano 10, 50019, Sesto Fiorentino, Italy
| | - Paolo Fornasiero
- Department of Chemical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, ICCOM-CNR Trieste Research Unit and INSTM Research Unit, University of Trieste, via L. Giorgieri 1, 34127, Trieste, Italy
| | - Lorenzo Zani
- Institute for the Chemistry of Organometallic Compounds (ICCOM), Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (CNR), Via Madonna del Piano 10, 50019, Sesto Fiorentino, Italy
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23
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24
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Watanabe M. Dye-sensitized photocatalyst for effective water splitting catalyst. SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF ADVANCED MATERIALS 2017; 18:705-723. [PMID: 29057025 PMCID: PMC5642822 DOI: 10.1080/14686996.2017.1375376] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2017] [Revised: 08/30/2017] [Accepted: 08/31/2017] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
Renewable hydrogen production is a sustainable method for the development of next-generation energy technologies. Utilising solar energy and photocatalysts to split water is an ideal method to produce hydrogen. In this review, the fundamental principles and recent progress of hydrogen production by artificial photosynthesis are reviewed, focusing on hydrogen production from photocatalytic water splitting using organic-inorganic composite-based photocatalysts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Motonori Watanabe
- International Institute for Carbon-Neutral Energy Research (I2CNER), Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan
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25
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Christoforidis KC, Fornasiero P. Photocatalytic Hydrogen Production: A Rift into the Future Energy Supply. ChemCatChem 2017. [DOI: 10.1002/cctc.201601659] [Citation(s) in RCA: 307] [Impact Index Per Article: 43.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Konstantinos C. Christoforidis
- Department of Chemical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, ICCOM-CNR and INSTMUniversity of Trieste viaL.Giorgieri 1 34127 Trieste Italy
- Department of Chemical EngineeringImperial College London South Kensington Campus London SW7 2AZ UK
| | - Paolo Fornasiero
- Department of Chemical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, ICCOM-CNR and INSTMUniversity of Trieste viaL.Giorgieri 1 34127 Trieste Italy
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26
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Morishita K, Murayama S, Araki T, Aoki I, Karasawa S. Thermal- and pH-Dependent Size Variable Radical Nanoparticles and Its Water Proton Relaxivity for Metal-Free MRI Functional Contrast Agents. J Org Chem 2016; 81:8351-62. [PMID: 27541011 DOI: 10.1021/acs.joc.6b01509] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
For development of the metal-free MRI contrast agents, we prepared the supra-molecular organic radical, TEMPO-UBD, carrying TEMPO radical, as well as the urea, alkyl group, and phenyl ring, which demonstrate self-assembly behaviors using noncovalent bonds in an aqueous solution. In addition, TEMPO-UBD has the tertiary amine and the oligoethylene glycol chains (OEGs) for the function of pH and thermal responsiveness. By dynamic light scattering and transmission electron microscopy imaging, the resulting self-assembly was seen to form the spherical nanoparticles 10-150 nm in size. On heating, interestingly, the nanoparticles showed a lower critical solution temperature (LCST) behavior having two-step variation. This double-LCST behavior is the first such example among the supra-molecules. To evaluate of the ability as MRI contrast agents, the values of proton ((1)H) longitudinal relaxivity (r1) were determined using MRI apparatus. In conditions below and above CAC at pH 7.0, the distinguishable r1 values were estimated to be 0.17 and 0.21 mM(-1) s(1), indicating the suppression of fast tumbling motion of TEMPO moiety in a nanoparticle. Furthermore, r1 values became larger in the order of pH 7.0 > 9.0 > 5.0. Those thermal and pH dependencies indicated the possibility of metal-fee MRI functional contrast agents in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kosuke Morishita
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kyushu University , 3-1-1 Maidashi, Higashi-Ku, Fukuoka, 812-8582, Japan
| | - Shuhei Murayama
- Department of Molecular Imaging and Theranostics, National Institute of Radiological Sciences (NIRS), QST , Anagawa 4-9-1, Inage, Chiba-city 263-8555, Japan
| | - Takeru Araki
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kyushu University , 3-1-1 Maidashi, Higashi-Ku, Fukuoka, 812-8582, Japan
| | - Ichio Aoki
- Department of Molecular Imaging and Theranostics, National Institute of Radiological Sciences (NIRS), QST , Anagawa 4-9-1, Inage, Chiba-city 263-8555, Japan
| | - Satoru Karasawa
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kyushu University , 3-1-1 Maidashi, Higashi-Ku, Fukuoka, 812-8582, Japan.,PRESTO, Japan Science and Technology Agency , Kawaguchi 332-0012, Japan
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27
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Cecconi B, Manfredi N, Montini T, Fornasiero P, Abbotto A. Dye-Sensitized Solar Hydrogen Production: The Emerging Role of Metal-Free Organic Sensitizers. European J Org Chem 2016. [DOI: 10.1002/ejoc.201600653] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Bianca Cecconi
- Department of Materials Science; Solar Energy Research Center MIB-SOLAR and INSTM Milano-Bicocca Research Unit; University of Milano-Bicocca; Via Cozzi 55 20125 Milano Italy
| | - Norberto Manfredi
- Department of Materials Science; Solar Energy Research Center MIB-SOLAR and INSTM Milano-Bicocca Research Unit; University of Milano-Bicocca; Via Cozzi 55 20125 Milano Italy
| | - Tiziano Montini
- Department of Chemical and Pharmaceutical Sciences; ICCOM-CNR Trieste Research Unit and INSTM Trieste Research Unit; University of Trieste; Via L. Giorgieri 1 34127 Trieste Italy
| | - Paolo Fornasiero
- Department of Chemical and Pharmaceutical Sciences; ICCOM-CNR Trieste Research Unit and INSTM Trieste Research Unit; University of Trieste; Via L. Giorgieri 1 34127 Trieste Italy
| | - Alessandro Abbotto
- Department of Materials Science; Solar Energy Research Center MIB-SOLAR and INSTM Milano-Bicocca Research Unit; University of Milano-Bicocca; Via Cozzi 55 20125 Milano Italy
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