Minoxidil Nanosuspension-Loaded Dissolved Microneedles for Hair Regrowth

Minoxidil (MIN) is used topically to treat alopecia. However, its low absorption limits its use, warranting a new strategy to enhance its delivery into skin layers. The objective of this study was to evaluate the dermal delivery of MIN by utilizing dissolved microneedles (MNs) loaded with MIN nanosuspension (MIN-NS) for hair regrowth. MIN-NS was prepared by the solvent-antisolvent precipitation technique. The particle size of MIN-NS was 226.7 ± 9.3 nm with a polydispersity index of 0.29 ± 0.17 and a zeta potential of -29.97 ± 1.23 mV. An optimized formulation of MIN-NS was selected, freeze-dried, and loaded into MNs fabricated with sodium carboxymethyl cellulose (Na CMC) polymeric solutions (MIN-NS-loaded MNs). MNs were evaluated for morphology, dissolution rate, skin insertion, drug content, mechanical properties, ex vivo permeation, in vivo, and stability studies. MNs, prepared with 14% Na CMC, were able to withstand a compression force of 32 N for 30 s, penetrate Parafilm M® sheet at a depth of 374-504 µm, and dissolve completely in the skin within 30 min with MIN %recovery of 95.1 ± 6.5%. The release of MIN from MIN-NS-loaded MNs was controlled for 24 h. MIN-NS-loaded MNs were able to maintain their mechanical properties and chemical stability for 4 weeks, when kept at different storage conditions. The in vivo study of the freeze-dried MIN-NS and MIN-NS-loaded MNs proved hair regrowth on rat skin after 11 and 7 days, respectively. These results showed that MIN-NS-loaded MNs could potentially improve the dermal delivery of MIN through the skin to treat alopecia.

Aging process does not necessarily enhance the toxicity of polystyrene microplastics to Microcystis aeruginosa

Microplastic (MP) pollution in aquatic systems has attracted increasing attention in recent years. MPs will inevitably encounter aging process in the environment. However, research on the effects of aged MPs on freshwater ecosystems remains limited. This study compared the properties of pristine and aged polystyrene (PS) MPs of different sizes (20 nm, 200 nm, 2000 nm) and determined the effects of aging on the toxicity of PS MPs to typical freshwater cyanobacteria, Microcystis aeruginosa. Aging process induced significant changes to the properties of the MPs, especially their microstructures and surface functional groups. Aging process also influenced zeta potential, which could further affect stability and toxicity of PS MPs. After 96 h exposure, increase of algal growth and photosynthetic activity was observed in the treatment of pristine 200 nm, aged 20 nm and aged 200 nm PS MPs. In addition, pristine 20 nm, pristine 200 nm, pristine 2000 nm, aged 20 nm and aged 200 nm PS MPs were adsorbed on algal cell surface, which could influence the cell permeability. Pristine PS MPs promoted microcystin synthesis and release, which could do harm to drinking water safety and freshwater ecosystems. However, there was no significant increase in aged PS MPs treatments. Furthermore, the increased ¹³C content of algal cells in all pristine PS MPs treatments indicated that M. aeruginosa assimilated more CO₂ and generate more energy to resist the stress of pristine PS MPs when compared with aged PS MPs. These results indicate that aging process did not necessarily enhance the toxicity and biological risk of PS MPs to freshwater ecosystems. Findings of this study fill the knowledge gap in understanding the effects and risks of aged MPs on freshwater ecosystems.

Biorelevant Dissolution Method Considerations for the Appropriate Evaluation of Amorphous Solid Dispersions: are Two Stages Necessary?

Biorelevant dissolution testing has been widely used to better understand a drug or formulation's behavior in the human gastrointestinal (GI) tract. The successful evaluation of biorelevant dissolution behavior requires recognizing the importance of utilizing suitable biorelevant media in conjunction with an appropriate dissolution method, especially for supersaturating drug delivery systems, such as amorphous solid dispersions (ASDs). However, most conventional biorelevant dissolution testing methods are not able to accurately reflect the dissolution, supersaturation, and precipitation tendencies of a drug or formulation, which could misinform ASD formulation screening and optimization. In this study, we developed a single compartment 2-stage pH-shift dissolution testing method to simulate the changes in pH, media composition, and transit time in the GI tract, and results were compared against the conventional single compartment 1-stage dissolution method. Nine model drugs were selected based on their ionization properties (i.e. acid, base or neutral) and precipitation tendency (i.e. moderate or slow crystallizer). The dissolution results confirmed that 2-stage pH-shift dissolution is the preferred biorelevant dissolution method to assess non-ionized weak base (nifedipine) and neutral (griseofulvin) compounds exhibiting a moderate precipitation rate from solution when formulated as ASDs. Finally, we designed a flowchart guidance for the appropriate biorelevant dissolution performance characterization of different categories of ASD formulations.

Celecoxib Nanoformulations with Enhanced Solubility, Dissolution Rate, and Oral Bioavailability: Experimental Approaches over In Vitro/In Vivo Evaluation

Celecoxib (CXB) is a Biopharmaceutical Classification System (BCS) Class II molecule with high permeability that is practically insoluble in water. Because of the poor water solubility, there is a wide range of absorption and limited bioavailability following oral administration. These unfavorable properties can be improved using dry co-milling technology, which is an industrial applicable technology. The purpose of this study was to develop and optimize CXB nanoformulations prepared by dry co-milling technology, with a quality by design approach to maintain enhanced solubility, dissolution rate, and oral bioavailability. The resulting co-milled CXB composition using povidone (PVP), mannitol (MAN) and sodium lauryl sulfate (SLS) showed the maximum solubility and dissolution rate in physiologically relevant media. Potential risk factors were determined with an Ishikawa diagram, important risk factors were selected with Plackett-Burman experimental design, and CXB compositions were optimized with Central Composite design (CCD) and Bayesian optimization (BO). Physical characterization, intrinsic dissolution rate, solubility, and stability experiments were used to evaluate the optimized co-milled CXB compositions. Dissolution and permeability studies were carried out for the resulting CXB nanoformulation. Oral pharmacokinetic studies of the CXB nanoformulation and reference product were performed in rats. The results of in vitro and in vivo studies show that the CXB nanoformulations have enhanced solubility (over 4.8-fold (8.6 ± 1.06 µg/mL vs. 1.8 ± 0.33 µg/mL) in water when compared with celecoxib pure powder), and dissolution rate (at least 85% of celecoxib is dissolved in 20 min), and improved oral pharmacokinetic profile (the relative bioavailability was 145.2%, compared to that of Celebrex^®, and faster t_max 3.80 ± 2.28 h vs. 6.00 ± 3.67 h, indicating a more rapid absorption rate).

Nanosuspension: A Formulation Technology for Tackling the Poor Aqueous Solubility and Bioavailability of Poorly Soluble Drugs

The poor water solubility of numerous novel drug candidates presents significant challenges, particularly in terms of oral administration. This limitation can result in various undesirable clinical implications, such as inter-patient variability, poor bioavailability, difficulties in achieving a safe therapeutic index, increased costs, and potential risks of toxicity or inefficacy. Biopharmaceutics Classification System (BCS) class II drugs face particular hurdles due to their limited solubility in the aqueous media of the gastrointestinal tract. In such cases, parenteral administration is often employed as an alternative strategy. To address these challenges, nanosuspension techniques offer a promising solution for enhancing drug solubility and overcoming oral delivery obstacles. This technique has the potential to bridge the gap between drug discovery and preclinical use by resolving problematic solubility. This literature review has delved into contemporary nanosuspension preparation technologies and the incorporation of stabilizing ingredients within the formulation. Furthermore, the manuscript explores nanosuspension strategies for both oral and parenteral/other delivery routes, and separate discussions have been presented to establish a suitable flow that addresses the challenges and strategies relevant to each administration method.

Pharmacokinetics and Anti-Diabetic Studies of Gliclazide Nanosuspension

Gliclazide (GCZ), an antidiabetic medication, has poor solubility and limited oral bioavailability due to substantial first-pass metabolism. Thus, the purpose of the current study was to optimize and formulate a GCZ nanosuspension (NS) employing the antisolvent precipitation technique. A three-factor, three-level Box–Behnken design (BBD) was used to examine the impact of the primary formulation factors (drug concentration, stabilizer, and surfactant %) on particle size. The optimized NS contains 29.6 mg/mL drug, 0.739% lecithin, and 0.216% sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS). Under scanning microscopy, the topography of NS revealed spherical particles. Furthermore, NS had a much better saturation solubility than the pure material, which resulted in a rapid dissolving rate, which was attributed to the amorphous structure and smaller particle size of the NS particles. Studies on intestinal permeability using the in vitro noneverted intestinal sac gut method (duodenum, jejunum, and ileum) and single-pass intestinal permeability (SPIP) techniques showed that the effective permeability was also increased by more than 3 fold. In the pharmacokinetic study, the C_max and AUC_0–t values of NS were approximately 3.35- and 1.9-fold higher than those of the raw medication and marketed formulation (MF). When compared to plain drug and commercial formulations, the antidiabetic efficacy of NS demonstrated that it had a significant impact on lowering glucose levels.

Design of Montelukast Nanocrystalline Suspension for Parenteral Prolonged Delivery

Background

Montelukast (MTK), a representative leukotriene receptor antagonist, is currently being investigated as a potential candidate for treating Alzheimer’s disease. For potent and effective dosing in elderly patients, a parenteral prolonged delivery system is favored, with improved medication adherence with reduced dosage frequency.

Purpose

This study aimed to design a nanocrystalline suspension (NS)-based MTK prolonged delivery system and evaluate its pharmacokinetics profile and local tolerability following subcutaneous administration.

Methods

To decelerate the dissolution rate, the amorphous MTK raw material was transformed into a crystalline state using a solvent-mediated transformation method and subsequently formulated into NS using a bead-milling technique. The MTK NSs were characterized by morphology, particle size, crystallinity, and in vitro dissolution profiles. The pharmacokinetic profile and local tolerability at the injection site following subcutaneous injection of MTK suspension were evaluated in rats.

Results

Microscopic and physical characterization revealed that the amorphous MTK powder was lucratively transformed into a crystalline form in acidic media (pH 4). MTK crystalline suspensions with different diameters (200 nm, 500 nm, and 3 μm) were uniformly prepared using bead-milling technology, employing polysorbate 80 as suspending agent. Prepared crystalline suspensions exhibited analogous crystallinity (melting point, 150°C) and size-dependent in vitro dissolution profiles. MTK NSs with particle sizes of 200 nm and 500 nm provided a protracted pharmacokinetic profile for up to 4 weeks in rats, with a higher maximum drug concentration in plasma than the 3 μm-sized injectable suspensions. Histopathological examination revealed that MTK NS caused chronic granulomatous inflammation at the injection site, which resolved after 4 weeks.

Conclusion

The MTK parenteral NS delivery system is expected to be a valuable tool for treating Alzheimer’s disease with extended dose intervals.

Evaluation and optimization of nanosuspensions of Chrysanthemum coronarium and Azadirachta indica using Response Surface Methodology for pest management

The rapidly emerging field of nanotechnology is considered an important achievement in the agriculture sector to increase the pest mortality rate and improve the crop production. The present study evaluates the novel pesticidal and anti-microbial activities of Chrysanthemum coronarium and Azadirachta indica in the nano-suspensions form. The anti-solvent precipitation method was used to formulate nano-suspensions proposed by Response Surface Methodology (RSM). Physicochemical nature of plant extracts and nano-suspensions was characterized through analysis of Zeta-sizer, FT-IR, and HPLC. Characterization results revealed a minimum particle size of 121.1 and 170.1 nm for Chrysanthemum coronarium and Azadirachta indica, respectively. The pesticidal activity of nano-suspension was performed against red flour beetle (RFB) and lesser grain borer (LGB) pests, which showed the maximum mortality rate of 100% with 100% concentration of plant extracts and nano-suspensions of Chrysanthemum coronarium and Azadirachta indica against both insects. In comparison, the combination of these both plant extracts revealed the maximum 100% mortality with a 50% concentration of nano-suspensions (mixing ratio 1:1) after 72 h. The antibacterial activity showed the maximum zone inhibition of 9.96 ± 0.17 and 14.17 ± 0.50 mm against S.aureus and E. coli with nano-suspension of Chrysanthemum coronarium, and 12.09 ± 0.11 and 14.10 ± 0.49 mm with nano-suspension of Azadirachta indica, respectively. It is concluded that individual nano-suspensions showed better pesticidal as well as antimicrobial activities than combinations. However, the constructed nanosuspension can be applied to control the plant pests and diseases simultaneously.

Advancement of nanomedicines in chronic inflammatory disorders

Chronic diseases, as stated by the WHO, are a threat to human health which kill 3 out of every 5 people worldwide. Therapeutics for such illnesses can be developed using traditional medicine. However, it is not an easy path from natural products to Western pharmacological and pharmaceutical methods. For several decades, chronic inflammatory disorders, especially in Westernized countries, have increased incidence and prevalence. Several NSAIDs are used to decrease inflammation and pain; however, there are numerous negative consequences of these anti-inflammatory medications, whereas plant-based natural products have anti-inflammatory therapeutic benefits that have little or no adverse effects. Nanoparticles are a new type of drug delivery device that may be designed to provide excellent target selectivity for certain cells and tissues while also having a high drug loading capacity, resulting in better pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics (PKPD), and therapeutic bioavailability. The size and polarity of phytochemical compounds make it hard to pass the blood–brain barrier (BBB), blood-vessel endothelial lining, gastrointestinal tract and mucosa. In addition, the gastrointestinal system is enzymatically destroyed. Therefore, nanoparticles or nanocrystals might also be used for encapsulation or conjugation of these chemicals as a method to improve their organic effectiveness through their gastrointestinal stability, absorption rate and dispersion. The therapy of numerous inflammatory illnesses, including arthritis, gastritis, Nephritis, Hepatitis (Type A, B &C), ulcerative colitis, Alzheimer's disease, atherosclerosis, allergic responses (asthma, eczema) or autoimmune disorders, is characterised by nanoparticles. This review paper provides information on the numerous nanosystem described with their probable mechanism to treat chronic inflammatory diseases.

Assessment of Pharmacokinetic Parameters of Daidzein-Containing Nanosuspension and Nanoemulsion Formulations After Oral Administration to Rats

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

Daidzein has several biological effects such as antioxidation, anti-inflammation, chemoprevention, and anticancer effects. The aim of this study was to evaluate the impact of nano-formulations (nanoemulsion-NE and nanosuspension-NS) prepared to increase the oral bioavailability of daidzein, a poorly water-soluble isoflavone, on the pharmacokinetic parameters of daidzein in rats.

METHODS

A high-performance liquid chromatography-ultraviolet (HPLC-UV) method was successfully developed for daidzein analysis in rat plasma. The pharmacokinetics studies of the nano-sized formulations, compared to coarse daidzein suspension, were carried out in the rats by a single oral dose at 10 mg/kg (n = 6/group). Area under the plasma concentration-time curve from time zero to extrapolation to time infinity (AUC_0-∞), maximum plasma concentration (C_max), time to reach maximum plasma concentration (t_max), and elimination half life (t_1/2) values for coarse daidzein suspension, daidzein-NS, and daidzein-NE were estimated by a non-compartmental analysis.

RESULTS

The AUC values of daidzein-NE and daidzein-NS were approximately 2.62 and 2.65 times higher than that of coarse daidzein suspension, respectively (p < 0.05). Relative bioavailability (F_rel) (%) values of daidzein following oral administration of nanosuspension or nanoemulsion formulations were about 265.6% and 262.3%, respectively.

CONCLUSION

It revealed that nanoscale size is an important factor to overcome any dissolution rate barriers to oral bioavailability of the low water-soluble compound. Nanoemulsion and nanosuspension formulations are beneficial dosage forms to increase the oral bioavailability of Biopharmaceutical Classification System (BCS) Class II and Class IV compounds.

A new nanosuspension prepared with wet milling method for oral delivery of highly variable drug Cyclosporine A: Development, optimization and in vivo evaluation

Cyclosporine A (CsA) is a cyclic polypeptide, that has been widely used for immunosuppression. This study aims to develop nanosuspension for oral administration of CsA using the wet milling (WM) method one of the top-down technologies. The WM method was optimized by studying the effects of critical process parameters for WM on the particle size (PS), particle size distribution (PDI), and zeta potential (ZP) of nanosuspensions using the Design of Experiment (DoE) approach. Nanosuspension was developed using hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (HPMC) and sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) and in vitro characterization studies were performed. In vitro dissolution and in vivo pharmacokinetic studies were conducted with biorelevant media (fasted and fed state simulated fluids) and fasted and fed states in rats, respectively. In vivo immunological studies were also performed. PS, PDI, and ZP values for nanosuspension were approximately 600 nm, 0.4, -25 mV, respectively. The solubility of CsA was increased by 4.5-folds by nanosuspensions. Dissolution studies showed that nanosuspension had higher dissolution than the commercial product in the FeSSIF medium. The pharmacokinetic study indicated that AUC_0-24 values of CsA nanosuspension were to be 2.09 and 5.51-fold higher than coarse powder in fasted and fed conditions, respectively. Immunological studies were carried out after oral administration of nanosuspension for 21 days, the ratio of CD4+/CD8+ was found to be more acceptable than the commercial product. These results demonstrated that nanosuspension is a promising approach for increasing the bioavailability and avoiding the food effect on absorption of CsA which one of the highly variable drugs.

Development of cyclosporine A nanosuspension: cytotoxicity and permeability on Caco-2 cell lines

Cyclosporine A is a calcineurin inhibitor and is usually used as an immunosuppressant medication. The main purpose of this study is to develop nanosuspension of polypeptide cyclosporine A by using the wet milling method for oral administration. Cell culture studies were also performed with human intestinal Caco-2 cell lines. Hydroxypropyl methylcellulose and sodium dodecyl sulfate were used as stabilizers in nanosuspension. In vitro characterization studies such as Fourier-transform infrared analysis and morphological imaging with scanning electron microscopy have been carried out with obtained cyclosporine A nanosuspension. The particle size, particle size distribution, and zeta potential values of the nanosuspension were measured approximately 400 nm, 0.4, and -25 mV, respectively. The solubility of cyclosporine A was increased 4.5 times in nanosuspension compared to the coarse cyclosporine A powder. As a result of cytotoxicity studies conducted with different concentrations, it was decided to conduct permeability studies at a dose equivalent to 150 µg/mL cyclosporine A. Permeation studies have shown that the nanosuspension increases cyclosporine A transport by 5 and 1.5 times, respectively, compared to coarse powder and commercial product.

Increase in Dissolution Rate of Zotepine via Nanomilling Process - Impact of Dried Nanocrystalline Suspensions on Bioavailability

Zotepine is an atypical antipsychotic drug used in the treatment of schizophrenia. However, its poor dissolution properties limit its therapeutic efficacy. In this investigation, a series of nanosuspension-containing zotepine were prepared employing media milling method with an aim to improve its dissolution properties and oral bioavailability. Briefly, Box-Behnken design was applied to investigate the influence of various independent variables such as X₁- amount of stabilizer, X₂- amount of milling agent, and X₃- milling time on the performance of the formulation. Dissolution studies revealed enhancement of dissolution rate as compared to pure drug. Solid state characterization (DSC, PXRD, and SEM) studies demonstrated no polymorphic changes in drug after lyophilization of media-milled nanosuspension. In vivo pharmacokinetic studies of lyophilized nanosuspension was carried out in rat and the results exhibited significant improvement in C_max and AUC_0-t, about 450.0 and 287.45%, respectively, suggesting amelioration in oral bioavailability by 2.87-fold higher as compared to pure drug. Accelerated stability studies of the optimized lyophilized formulation at 40°C and 75% RH suggested stability of the nanocrystals for at least a 6-month period. The obtained nanocrystals successfully showed dissolution enhancement and improved oral bioavailability of poorly water-soluble drug, zotepine.

Curcumin nanoparticles supported gelatin-collagen scaffold: Preparation, characterization, and in vitro study

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Curcumin nanoparticules Biofilms (CNs-BF) was successfully prepared from gelatin, collagen and Curcumin nanoparticules (CNs).

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CNs-BF had necessary mechanical strength and biocompatibility of biofilm production.

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Promising material for tissue regeneration application.

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An alternative method for biofilm production.

It is possible to reveal the potential of water-insoluble drugs by increasing their solubility in water with some nanotechnology techniques. Nanosuspension technology can solve this problem by increasing the water solubility and as well as bioavailability of these drugs. The present work is pointed at the evaluation of nanosuspension of curcumin, a poorly water-soluble drug. The Curcumin nanoparticules (CNs) were prepared with ultrasonnication method using dichloromethane as solvent and water as antisolvent and characterized via spectroscopic methods (UV–vis and FT-IR) and Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM). Curcumin nanoparticules Biofilms (CNs-BF) supported gelatin-collagen scaffold were prepared. Curcumin nanoparticles were obtained by nanosuspension technique. And then, to overcome the limited effects of curcumin such as solubility and bioavailability, nanoparticle films were prepared by incorporating it into the structure of biocompatible collagen-gelatin scaffolds. Curcumin is limited by some factors that limit its clinical applicability, such as low oral bioavailability, poor water solubility and rapid degradation. However, they can be applied clinically when they are included in the structure of biocompatible gelatin-collagen scaffolds.

Celecoxib repurposing in cancer therapy: molecular mechanisms and nanomedicine-based delivery technologies

While cancer remains a significant global health problem, advances in cancer biology, deep understanding of its underlaying mechanism and identification of specific molecular targets allowed the development of new therapeutic options. Drug repurposing poses several advantages as reduced cost and better safety compared with new compounds development. COX-2 inhibitors are one of the most promising drug classes for repurposing in cancer therapy. In this review, we provide an overview of the detailed mechanism and rationale of COX-2 inhibitors as anticancer agents and we highlight the most promising research efforts on nanotechnological approaches to enhance COX-2 inhibitors delivery with special focus on celecoxib as the most widely studied agent for chemoprevention or combined with chemotherapeutic and herbal drugs for combating various cancers.

Current strategies for oral delivery of BCS IV drug nanocrystals: challenges, solutions and future trends

INTRODUCTION

Oral absorption of BCS IV drug benefits little from improved dissolution. Therefore, the absorption of BCS IV drug nanocrystals 'as a whole' strategy is preferred, and structural modification of nanocrystals is required. Surface modification helps the nanocrystals maintain particle structure before drug dissolution is needed, thus enhancing the oral absorption of BCS IV drugs and promoting therapeutic effect. Here, the main challenges and solutions of oral BCS IV drug nanocrystals delivery are discussed. Moreover, strategies for nanocrystal surface modification that facilitates oral bioavailability of BCS IV drugs are highlighted, and provide insights for the innovation in oral drug delivery.

AREAS COVERED

Promising size, shape, and surface modification of nanocrystals have gained interests for application in oral BCS IV drugs.

EXPERT OPINION

Nanocrystal surface modification is a feasible method to maintain the structural integrity of nanocrystals, and the introduced materials can also be modified to integrate additional functions to further facilitate the absorption of nanocrystals. It is expected that the absorption 'as a whole' strategy of nanocrystals will provide different choices for the oral BCS IV drugs.

Celecoxib Loaded In-Situ Provesicular Powder and Its In-Vitro Cytotoxic Effect for Cancer Therapy: Fabrication, Characterization, Optimization and Pharmacokinetic Evaluation

INTRODUCTION

Several recent studies have shown that the role of cyclooxygenase 2 (COX-2) in carcinogenesis has become more evident. It affects angiogenesis, apoptosis, and invasion, and plays a key role in the production of carcinogens. It has also been reported that COX-2 inhibitors such as celecoxib (CLX) might play an effective role in preventing cancer formation and progression. Formulation of CLX into nanovesicles is a promising technique to improve its bioavailability and anticancer efficacy.

AIM

The aim of this study is to optimize and evaluate the anticancer efficacy of CLX-loaded in-situ provesicular powder composed of surfactants and fatty alcohol-based novel nanovesicles in-vitro and determine its pharmacokinetic parameters in-vivo.

METHODS

The novel provesicular powders were prepared by the slurry method and optimized by 3² full factorial design using the desirability function.

RESULTS

Small mean particle size was achieved by the formed vesicles with value of 351.7 ± 1.76 nm and high entrapment efficacy of CLX in the formed vesicles of 97.53 ± 0.84%. Solid state characterization of the optimized formulation showed that the powder was free flowing, showed no incompatibilities between drug and excipients and showed smooth texture. The cytotoxic study of the optimized formula on HCT-116, HepG-2, A-549, PC-3 and MCF-7 cell lines showed significant increase in activity of CLX compared to its free form. The pharmacokinetic study on albino rabbits after oral administration showed significant increase in the area under the curve (AUC)_{0-24 h} and significantly higher oral relative bioavailability of the optimized formulation compared to Celebrex^® 100 mg market product (p < 0.05).

CONCLUSION

All findings of this study suggest the potential improvement of efficacy and bioavailability of CLX when formulated in the form of in-situ provesicular powder composed of surfactants and fatty alcohol-based novel nanovesicles for its repositioned use as an anticancer agent.

Freeze-Drying of Pharmaceutical and Nutraceutical Nanoparticles: The Effects of Formulation and Technique Parameters on Nanoparticles Characteristics

Nanoparticles (NPs) are of the most interesting novel vehicles for effective drug delivery to humans. Freeze drying is known as an engaging process to improve the long lasting stability of NPs formulations. This study aims to elucidate the importance of various parameters involving in freeze-drying of the most common pharmaceutical/nutraceutical NPs including nanosuspensions, nanocrystals (NCs), cocrystals/nanococrystals, nanoemulsions (NEs), nanocapsules (NCPs) and nanospheres (NSPs). Regarding this, the therapeutic goals of NPs and specifications of drug must be considered. According to our survey, the most influential factors for achieving optimum results include type and concentration of cryoprotectant/lyoprotectant, stabilizer structure and concentration, the NPs concentration in solution, freezing, annealing, and drying rate, the interaction between protectants and stabilizer, solvent type and antisolvent to solvent ratio. The study shows that for each class of NPs, specific variables are of highest significance and should be optimized. For instance, about NCs, freezing rate and antisolvent/solvent ratio should be particularly considered and for emulsified NPs, the best results have been obtained by 5-20% of saccharides as cryoprotectants. These findings suggest that to obtain a product with the lowest aggregation and particle size (PS), optimization of the effective factors in formulation and lyophilization process are essential.

Development of Polymer and Surfactant Based Naringenin Nanosuspension for Improvement of Stability, Antioxidant, and Antitumour Activity

Nanosuspensions are widely reported to enhance the solubility of poorly soluble drugs. In addition to enhancement in solubility, improvement of stability and therapeutic efficacy would be an added advantage. In the present study, premilling and subsequent high-pressure homogenization were carried out to produce naringenin nanosuspension. Hydroxypropyl methylcellulose and sodium dodecyl sulfate were evaluated for their performance as stabilizers under various homogenization cycles. The prepared nanosuspensions were studied for average particle size and size distribution, zeta potential, solubility, drug release, antioxidant activity, and in vitro antitumor activity. It was observed that both hydroxypropyl methylcellulose-stabilized nanosuspension and sodium dodecyl sulfate-stabilized nanosuspension produced an enhancement in physical stability, antioxidant potential, and in vitro cytotoxicity compared with naringenin. Furthermore, hydroxypropyl methylcellulose-stabilized nanosuspension was found to be better than sodium dodecyl sulfate-stabilized nanosuspension in terms of particle size and size distribution, storage stability, and drug release. This study showed that nanosuspension formulations could be a potential strategy for improving dissolution and antitumor activity of naringenin.

Fabrication of Ibrutinib Nanosuspension by Quality by Design Approach: Intended for Enhanced Oral Bioavailability and Diminished Fast Fed Variability

Present study was aimed to increase the oral bioavailability and reduce the fast fed variability of Ibrutinib by developing nanosuspension by simple precipitation-ultrasonication method. A three factor, three level, box-behnken design was used for formulation optimization using pluronic F-127 as stabilizer. Size and polydispersity index of the developed formulations were in the range of 278.6 to 453.2 nm and 0.055 to 0.198, respectively. Field emission scanning electron microscope (FESEM) revealed discrete units of nanoparticles. Further, differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and powder X-ray diffraction (PXRD) studies confirmed the transformation of crystal drug to amorphous. The amorphous nature was retained after 6-month storage at room temperature. Size reduction to nano range and polymorphic transformation (crystalline to amorphous) increased the solubility of nanosuspension (21.44-fold higher as compared to plain drug). In vivo studies of plain drug suspension displayed a significant pharmacokinetic variation between fasting and fed conditions. The formulation had shown increased C_max (3.21- and 3.53-fold), AUC_0-t (5.21- and 5.83-fold) in fasting and fed states compared to that of values obtained for plain drug in fasting state (C_max 48.59 ± 3.30 ng/mL and AUC_0-t 137.20 ± 35.47 ng.h/mL). Significant difference was not observed in the pharmacokinetics of nanosuspension in fasting and fed states. The formulation had improved solubility in the intestinal pH, which might be the driving force behind the decreased precipitation and increased absorption at intestinal region. Optimistic results demonstrated nanosuspension as a promising approach for increasing the solubility, extent of absorption and diminishing the fast fed variability.

Enhanced Oral Bioavailability of Celecoxib Nanocrystalline Solid Dispersion based on Wet Media Milling Technique: Formulation, Optimization and In Vitro/In Vivo Evaluation

Celecoxib (CLX), a selective COX-2 inhibitor, is a biopharmaceutics classification system (BCS) class II drug with its bioavailability being limited by thepoor aqueoussolubility. The purpose of this study was to develop and optimize CLX nanocrystalline(CLX-NC) solid dispersion prepared by the wet medium millingtechnique combined with lyophilizationto enhance oral bioavailability. In formulation screening, the resulting CLX-NC usingpolyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) VA64 and sodiumdodecyl sulfate (SDS) as combined stabilizers showed the minimum particle size and a satisfactory stability. The formulation and preparation processwere further optimized by central composite experimentaldesign with PVP VA64 concentration (X₁), SDS concentration (X₂) and milling times (X₃) as independent factors and particle size (Y₁), polydispersity index (PDI, Y₂) and zeta potential (Y₃) as response variables. The optimal condition was determined as a combination of 0.75% PVP VA64, 0.11% SDS with milling for 90 min.The particle size, PDI and zeta potential of optimized CLX-NC were found to be 152.4 ± 1.4 nm, 0.191 ± 0.012 and −34.4 ± 0.6 mV, respectively. The optimized formulation showed homogeneous rod-like morphology as observed by scanning electron microscopy and was in a crystalline state as determined by differential scanning calorimetry and powder X-ray diffraction. In a storage stability study, optimized CLX-NC exhibited an excellent physical stability during six months’ storage at both the refrigeration and room conditions. In vivo pharmacokinetic research in Sprague-Dawley ratsdisplayed that C_max and AUC_0–∞ of CLX-NC were increased by 2.9 and 3.1 fold, compared with physical mixture. In this study, the screening and optimizing strategy of CLX-NC formulation represents a commercially viable approach forenhancing the oral bioavailability of CLX.

Preparation, Pre-clinical and Clinical Evaluation of a Novel Rapidly Absorbed Celecoxib Formulation

Celecoxib (Celebrex®) is the only widely used NSAID that selectively inhibits the COX-2 isoenzyme. Celebrex® is absorbed slowly in the fasted state and food intake further delays absorption. In this work, an amorphous water dispersible granule formulation of celecoxib is described with in vitro characterization, preclinical and clinical data. The formulation exhibited very high passive permeability and apparent solubility, significantly outperforming the micronized celecoxib and the drug product Celebrex®. The granule formulation remained stable for at least 1 year in stability tests. In dog studies, t_max was 1 h with over 50% of C_max reached within 15 min regardless of food intake. A phase 1 clinical trial was conducted with 12 volunteers at 100- and 200-mg doses. Celecoxib plasma concentrations reached 250 ng/ml, the effective therapeutic plasma level, in less than 15 min regardless of food or dose. The novel celecoxib formulation is rapidly absorbed, demonstrating the potential utility as an acute treatment offering advantages over the currently marketed product.

Nanosuspension Technology: Recent Patents on Drug Delivery and their Characterizations

BACKGROUND

Nanosuspension has arisen as a remunerative, lucrative as well as a potent approach to improve the solubility and bioavailability of poorly aqueous soluble drug entities. Several challenges are still present in this approach which need more research. The prime aim of this review is to identify such challenges that can be rectified in the future.

METHODS

Through this review, we enlighten the recent patents and advancement in nanosuspension technology that utilize the different drug moieties, instruments and characterization parameters.

RESULTS

Nanosuspension has been found to possess great potential to rectify the several issues related to poor bioavailability, site-specific drug delivery, dosing frequency, etc. In the past decade, nanosuspension approach has been complementarily utilized to solve the developed grievances, arisen from poorly soluble drugs. But this field still needs more attention to new discoveries.

CONCLUSION

Nanosuspension contributes a crucial role in administering the different drug entities through a variety of routes involving oral, transdermal, ocular, parenteral, pulmonary, etc. with solving the different issues. This review also confirms the significance of nanosuspension in safety, efficacy, and communal as well as the economic expense associated with healthcare.

Development and Evaluation of a Reconstitutable Dry Suspension to Improve the Dissolution and Oral Absorption of Poorly Water-Soluble Celecoxib

This study aims at developing and evaluating reconstitutable dry suspension (RDS) improved for dissolution rate, oral absorption, and convenience of use of poorly water-soluble celecoxib (CXB). Micro-sized CXB particle was used to manufacture nanosuspension by using bead milling and then RDS was made by spray-drying the nanosuspension with effective resuspension agent, dextrin. The redispersibility, morphology, particle size, crystallinity, stability, dissolution, and pharmacokinetic profile of the RDS were evaluated. RDS was effectively reconstituted into nanoparticles in 775.8 ± 11.6 nm. It was confirmed that CXB particles are reduced into needle-shape ones in size after the bead-milling process, and the description of CXB was the same in the reconstituted suspension. Through the CXB crystallinity study using differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and XRD analysis, it was identified that CXB has the CXB active pharmaceutical ingredient (API)’s original crystallinity after the bead milling and spray-drying process. In vitro dissolution of RDS was higher than that of CXB powder (93% versus 28% dissolution at 30 min). Furthermore, RDS formulation resulted in 5.7 and 6.3-fold higher area under the curve (AUC_∞) and peak concentration (C_max) of CXB compared to after oral administration of CXB powder in rats. Collectively, our results suggest that the RDS may be a potential oral dosage formulation for CXB to improve its bioavailability and patient compliance.

Formulation and Evaluation of Naringenin Nanosuspensions for Bioavailability Enhancement

The clinical potential of naringenin (NRG) is compromised due to its poor aqueous solubility and low oral bioavailability. The study is aimed at addressing these issues by means of naringenin nanosuspensions (NRG-NS) formulated using polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP K-90) as stabiliser via antisolvent sonoprecipitation method. Optimisation of sonication time, drug concentration and stabilisers was done based on particle size. Characterisation of pure NRG and NRG-NS was carried out by scanning electron microscopy, differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), x-ray powder diffractometry (XRD) and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). In vitro dissolution, intestinal absorption by non-everted rat intestinal sac model and in situ single pass intestinal perfusion techniques were performed for further investigation. Nanosuspensions prepared using PVP K-90 lead to minimum particle size (117 ± 5 nm) with zeta potential of -14.6 ± 5.6 mV. The particle size was affected by increasing sonication time, concentration of stabiliser and drug. Nanosizing process converted the crystalline drug into amorphous form as predicted from DSC and XRD patterns. FTIR demonstrated the formation of hydrogen bonds between drug and polymer. NRG-NS displayed a higher dissolution amount (91 ± 4.4% during 60 min) compared to NRG powder (42 ± 0.41%). The apparent and effective permeability of NRG-NS was increased as compared to the pure NRG. The in vivo pharmacokinetics demonstrated that the C _max and AUC_0-24 h values of NRG-NS were approximately 2- and 1.8-fold superior than the pure drug. Hence, overall results confirmed nanosuspensions as promising approach for NRG delivery with high absorption in gastrointestinal tract, improved dissolution and oral bioavailability.