Development of a novel berberine-mediated mitochondria-targeting nano-platform for drug-resistant cancer therapy

Current development and structure-activity relationship study of berberine derivatives

Berberine is a quaternary ammonium isoquinoline alkaloid derived from traditional Chinese medicines Coptis chinensis and Phellodendron chinense. It has many pharmacological activities such as hypoglycemic, hypolipidemic, anti-tumor, antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory. Through structural modifications at various sites of berberine, the introduction of different groups can change berberine's physical and chemical properties, thereby improving the biological activity and clinical efficacy, and expanding the scope of application. This paper reviews the research progress and structure-activity relationships of berberine in recent years, aiming to provide valuable insights for the exploration of novel berberine derivatives.

Nanoplatform-based strategies for enhancing the lethality of current antitumor PDT

Photodynamic therapy (PDT) exhibits great application prospects in future clinical oncology due to its spatiotemporal controllability and good biosafety. However, the antitumor efficacy of PDT is seriously hindered by many factors, including tumor hypoxia, limited light penetration ability, and strong defense mechanisms of tumors. Considering that it is difficult to completely solve the first two problems, enhancing the lethality of antitumor PDT has become a good idea to extend its clinical application. Herein, we summarize the nanoplatform-involved strategies to effectively amplify the tumoricidal capability of current PDT and then discuss the present bottlenecks and prospects of the nanoplatform-based PDT sensitization strategies in tumor therapy. We hope this review will provide some references for others to design high-performance PDT nanoplatforms for tumor therapy.

Cationic Vitamin E-TPGS Mixed Micelles of Berberine to Neutralize Doxorubicin-Induced Cardiotoxicity via Amelioration of Mitochondrial Dysfunction and Impeding Apoptosis

Anthracycline antibiotics, namely, doxorubicin (DOX) and daunorubicin, are among the most widely used anticancer therapies, yet are notoriously associated with severe myocardial damage due to oxidative stress and mitochondrial damage. Studies have indicated the strong pharmacological properties of Berberine (Brb) alkaloid, predominantly mediated via mitochondrial functions and nuclear networks. Despite the recent emphasis on Brb in clinical cardioprotective studies, pharmaceutical limitations hamper its clinical use. A nanoformulation for Brb was developed (mMic), incorporating a cationic lipid, oleylamine (OA), into the TPGS-mixed corona of PEGylated-phosphatidylethanolamine (PEG-PE) micelles. Cationic TPGS/PEG-PE mMic with superior Brb loading and stability markedly enhanced both intracellular and mitochondria-tropic Brb activities in cardiovascular muscle cells. Sub-lethal doses of Brb via cationic OA/TPGS mMic, as a DOX co-treatment, resulted in significant mitochondrial apoptosis suppression. In combination with an intense DOX challenge (up to ~50 µM), mitochondria-protective Brb-OA/TPGS mMic showed a significant 24 h recovery of cell viability (p ≤ 0.05-0.01). Mechanistically, the significant relative reduction in apoptotic caspase-9 and elevation of antiapoptotic Bcl-2 seem to mediate the cardioprotective role of Brb-OA/TPGS mMic against DOX. Our report aims to demonstrate the great potential of cationic OA/TPGS-mMic to selectively enhance the protective mitohormetic effect of Brb to mitigate DOX cardiotoxicity.

Unravelling the potential of mitochondria-targeted liposomes for enhanced cancer treatment

Mitochondria are the primary organelles of cells involved in various physiochemical and biochemical processes. Owing to their crucial role in cellular metabolism, mitochondria are favored therapeutic targets for the treatment and prevention of cancers. Recently, there has been growing interest in the use of mitochondria-specific functional nanoparticles for targeted delivery of therapeutic agents to these organelles. Among several nanosystems, liposomes have garnered considerable attention owing to their exceptional drug delivery capabilities, biocompatibility, biodegradability, ease of manufacturing and established regulatory guidelines for market approval. In this context, the present review provides a brief insight into the association between mitochondria and tumor formation and advantages of mitochondrial targeting in cancer therapy. Furthermore, it discusses mitochondria-targeting functional liposomes for the treatment of various cancers, such as breast, lung, colon, among others.

Development of Berberine-Loaded Nanoparticles for Astrocytoma Cells Administration and Photodynamic Therapy Stimulation

Berberine (BBR) is known for its antitumor activity and photosensitizer properties in anti-cancer photodynamic therapy (PDT), and it has previously been favorably assayed against glioblastoma multiforme (GBM)-derived cells. In this work, two BBR hydrophobic salts, dodecyl sulfate (S) and laurate (L), have been encapsulated in PLGA-based nanoparticles (NPs), chitosan-coated by the addition of chitosan oleate in the preparation. NPs were also further functionalized with folic acid. All the BBR-loaded NPs were efficiently internalized into T98G GBM established cells, and internalization increased in the presence of folic acid. However, the highest mitochondrial co-localization percentages were obtained with BBR-S NPs without folic acid content. In the T98G cells, BBR-S NPs appeared to be the most efficient in inducing cytotoxicity events and were therefore selected to assess the effect of photodynamic stimulation (PDT). As a result, PDT potentiated the viability reduction for the BBR-S NPs at all the studied concentrations, and a roughly 50% reduction of viability was obtained. No significant cytotoxic effect on normal rat primary astrocytes was observed. In GBM cells, a significant increase in early and late apoptotic events was scored by BBR NPs, with a further increase following the PDT scheme. Furthermore, a significantly increased depolarization of mitochondria was highlighted following BBR-S NPs’ internalization and mostly after PDT stimulation, compared to untreated and PDT-only treated cells. In conclusion, these results highlighted the efficacy of the BBR-NPs-based strategy coupled with photoactivation approaches to induce favorable cytotoxic effects in GBM cells.

Tumor Microenvironment Regulation and Cancer Targeting Therapy Based on Nanoparticles

Although we have made remarkable achievements in cancer awareness and medical technology, there are still tremendous increases in cancer incidence and mortality. However, most anti-tumor strategies, including immunotherapy, show low efficiency in clinical application. More and more evidence suggest that this low efficacy may be closely related to the immunosuppression of the tumor microenvironment (TME). The TME plays a significant role in tumorigenesis, development, and metastasis. Therefore, it is necessary to regulate the TME during antitumor therapy. Several strategies are developing to regulate the TME as inhibiting tumor angiogenesis, reversing tumor associated macrophage (TAM) phenotype, removing T cell immunosuppression, and so on. Among them, nanotechnology shows great potential for delivering regulators into TME, which further enhance the antitumor therapy efficacy. Properly designed nanomaterials can carry regulators and/or therapeutic agents to eligible locations or cells to trigger specific immune response and further kill tumor cells. Specifically, the designed nanoparticles could not only directly reverse the primary TME immunosuppression, but also induce effective systemic immune response, which would prevent niche formation before metastasis and inhibit tumor recurrence. In this review, we summarized the development of nanoparticles (NPs) for anti-cancer therapy, TME regulation, and tumor metastasis inhibition. We also discussed the prospect and potential of nanocarriers for cancer therapy.

Oxidative stress induced by berberine-based mitochondria-targeted low temperature photothermal therapy

Introduction: Mitochondria-targeted low-temperature photothermal therapy (LPTT) is a promising strategy that could maximize anticancer effects and overcome tumor thermal resistance. However, the successful synthesis of mitochondria-targeted nanodrug delivery system for LPTT still faces diverse challenges, such as laborious preparations processes, low drug-loading, and significant systemic toxicity from the carriers. Methods: In this study, we used the tumor-targeting folic acid (FA) and mitochondria-targeting berberine (BBR) derivatives (BD) co-modified polyethylene glycol (PEG)-decorated graphene oxide (GO) to synthesize a novel mitochondria-targeting nanocomposite (GO-PEG-FA/BD), which can effectively accumulate in mitochondria of the osteosarcoma (OS) cells and achieve enhanced mitochondria-targeted LPTT effects with minimal cell toxicity. The mitochondria-targeted LPTT effects were validated both in vitro and vivo. Results: In vitro experiments, the nanocomposites (GO-PEG-FA/BD) could eliminate membrane potential (ΔΨm), deprive the ATP of cancer cells, and increase the levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS), which ultimately induce oxidative stress damage. Furthermore, in vivo results showed that the enhanced mitochondria-targeted LPTT could exert an excellent anti-cancer effect with minimal toxicity. Discussion: Taken together, this study provides a practicable strategy to develop an ingenious nanoplatform for cancer synergetic therapy via mitochondria-targeted LPTT, which hold enormous potential for future clinical translation.

Mitochondrial targeting of potent nanoparticulated drugs in combating diseases

Mitochondrial dysfunction, characterized by the electron transport chain (ETC) leakage and reduced adenosine tri-phosphate synthesis, occurs primarily due to free radicals -induced mutations in either the mitochondrial deoxyribonucleic acid (mtDNA) or nuclear (n) DNA caused by pathogenic infections, toxicant exposures, adverse drug-effects, or other environmental exposures, leading to secondary dysfunction affecting ischemic, diabetic, cancerous, and degenerative diseases. In these concerns, mitochondria-targeted remedies may include a significant role in the protection and treatment of mitochondrial function to enhance its activity. Coenzyme Q10 pyridinol and pyrimidinol antioxidant analogues and other potent drug-compounds for their multifunctional radical quencher and other anti-toxic activities may take a significant therapeutic effectivity for ameliorating mitochondrial dysfunction. Moreover, the encapsulation of these bioactive ligands-attached potent compounds in vesicular system may enable them a superb biological effective for the treatment of mitochondria-targeted dysfunction-related diseases with least side effects. This review depicts mainly on mitochondrial enzymatic dysfunction and their amelioration by potent drugs with the usages of nanoparticulated delivery system against mitochondria-affected diseases.

Berberine and folic acid co-modified pH-sensitive cascade-targeted PTX-liposomes coated with Tween 80 for treating glioma

Chemotherapy is a conventional treatment for glioma, but its efficacy is greatly limited due to low blood-brain barrier (BBB) permeability and lack of specificity. Herein, intelligent and tumor microenvironment (TME)-responsive folic acid (FA) derivatives and mitochondria-targeting berberine (BBR) derivatives co-modified liposome coated with Tween 80 loading paclitaxel (PTX-Tween 80-BBR + FA-Lip) was constructed. Specifically speaking, liposomes modified by FA can be effectively target ed to glioma cells. BBR, due to its delocalized positive electricity and lipophilicity, can be attracted by mitochondrial membrane potential and concentrate on mitochondria to achieve mitochondrial targeting and induce cell apoptosis. By simultaneously modifying the liposome with FA and BBR to deliver drugs, leads to a good therapeutic effect of glioma through FA-based glioma targeting and BBR-based mitochondrial targeting. In addition, the surface of the liposome was coated with Tween 80 to further improve BBB penetration. All results exhibited that PTX-Tween 80-BBR + FA-Lip can observably improve the chemotherapy therapeutic efficacy through the highly specific tumor targeting and mitochondrial targeting, which can provide new ideas and methods for the targeted therapy of glioma.

FC-BBR/IND-induced glucose oxidase nanodrugs for targeted combination therapy

Targeted therapy from cells to mitochondria can improve the bioavailability and therapeutic effects of drugs. Combination therapy by combining two or more therapeutic methods comes to be seen a hopeful strategy to overcome the emergence of resistance. Ferrocene (FC) derivatives of the sandwich structure can not only directly inhibit the proliferation of cancer cells but also catalyze the Fenton reaction to enhance chemodynamic therapy. Berberine (BBR) is a Chinese herbal extract with mitochondria-targeted anticancer activity. In our work, glucose oxidase (GOD) was induced to self-assemble by ferrocene-berberine conjugate (FC-BBR) and indomethacin (IND), which was then encapsulated by hyaluronic acid (HA) and formed nanodrugs (FC-BBR/IND@GOD@HA NPs). Molecular simulation results showed that the drugs could be bound to multiple sites of GOD and induce its self-assembly. The prepared nanoassembly could inhibit the proliferation and induce the apoptosis of HepG2 cells, which might be the result of targeted chemodynamic therapy and starvation therapy. Moreover, the FC-BBR/IND@GOD@HA NPs could also promote the production of reactive oxygen species and the loss of mitochondrial membrane potential and block the cells in S phase. More importantly, it could inhibit the movement and migration of cancer cells, which gave it the potential to prevent tumor metastasis.

Berberine Photo-Activation Potentiates Cytotoxicity in Human Astrocytoma Cells through Apoptosis Induction

Photodynamic therapy (PDT) has recently attracted interest as an innovative and adjuvant treatment for different cancers including malignant gliomas. Among these, Glioblastoma (GBM) is the most prevalent neoplasm in the central nervous system. Despite conventional therapeutic approaches that include surgical removal, radiation, and chemotherapy, GBM is characterized by an extremely poor prognosis and a high rate of recurrence. PDT is a physical process that induces tumor cell death through the genesis and accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) produced by light energy interaction with a photosensitizing agent. In this contribution, we explored the potentiality of the plant alkaloid berberine (BBR) as a photosensitizing and cytotoxic agent coupled with a PDT scheme using a blue light source in human established astrocytoma cell lines. Our data mainly indicated for the combined BBR-PDT scheme a potent activation of the apoptosis pathway, through a massive ROS production, a great extent of mitochondria depolarization, and the sub-sequent activation of caspases. Altogether, these results demonstrated that BBR is an efficient photosensitizer agent and that its association with PDT may be a potential anticancer strategy for high malignant gliomas.

Brij-functionalized chitosan nanocarrier system enhances the intestinal permeability of P-glycoprotein substrate-like drugs

The highly expressed P-glycoprotein (Pgp) in the intestine plays a key role in preventing drugs across the intestinal epithelium, which linked by tight junctions (TJs). Thus increasing the oral bioavailability of Pgp substrate-like drugs (PSLDs) remains a great challenge. Herein, we construct a nanocarrier system derived from Brij-grafted-chitosan (BC) to enhance the oral bioavailability and therapeutic effect of berberine (BBR, a typical PLSD) against diabetic kidney disease. The developed BC nanoparticles (BC-NPs) are demonstrated to improve the intestinal permeability of BBR via transiently and reversibly modulating the intercellular TJs (paracellular pathway) and Pgp-mediated drug efflux (transcellular pathway). As compared to free BBR and chitosan nanoparticles, the BC-NPs enhanced the relative oral bioavailability of BBR in rats (4.4- and 2.7-fold, respectively), and the therapeutic potency of BBR in renal function and histopathology. In summary, such strategy may provide an effective nanocarrier system for oral delivery of BBR and PSLDs.

Efficacy of berberine in treatment of rheumatoid arthritis: From multiple targets to therapeutic potential

Rheumatoid arthritis is a systemic autoimmune disorder involved in persistent synovial inflammation. Berberine is a nature-derived alkaloid compound with multiple pharmacological activities in different pathologies, including RA. Recent experimental studies have clarified several determinant cellular and molecular targets of BBR in RA, and provided novel evidence supporting the promising therapeutic potential of BBR to combat RA. In this review, we recapitulate the therapeutic potential of BBR and its mechanism of action in ameliorating RA, and discuss the modulation of gut microbiota by BBR during RA. Collectively, BBR might be a promising lead drug with multi-functional activities for the therapeutic strategy of RA.

Self-assembled nanomedicine combining a berberine derivative and doxorubicin for enhanced antitumor and antimetastatic efficacy via mitochondrial pathways

Mitochondria play a central role in cancer progression and tumor metastasis, and nanomedicines targeting mitochondria have emerged as a promising strategy for tumor therapy. However, mitochondria targeting strategies have not been widely explored in the inhibition of tumor metastasis, and they have disadvantages of complicated preparation, low drug loading, systemic toxicity of the carriers and poor accumulation at tumor sites. Here we firstly developed self-assembled nanodrugs with a high drug loading (∼68%) comprised of a berberine derivative (Ber) and doxorubicin (Dox) by a simple nano-precipitation method, which successfully altered the target location of Dox from the nucleus to mitochondria and therefore inhibited the proliferation, invasion and migration of MDA-MB-231 cells by triggering cell apoptosis. The surface of nanodrugs was modified with DSPE-PEG-folic acid (DSPE-PEG-FA) and hyaluronic acid (HA) for precise tumor recognition and enhanced accumulation (HA-FA-BD NDs). Upon arrival at the tumor site with the help of the enhanced permeability and retention (EPR) effect, the partial degradation of HA by hyaluronidase (HAase) at the tumor site allowed the partial exposure of the positively charged FA-BD NDs to the cells, then nanodrugs would accumulate and enter tumor cells by dual binding to both folic acid (FA) and CD-44 receptors. Once internalized into lysosomes, both the HA outer shell and DSPE-PEG-FA of nanodrugs were degraded or decomposed completely to expose positively charged BD NDs. Driven by delocalized lipophilic cations, nanodrugs could escape from lysosomes and reach mitochondria to induce a cascade reaction and finally cell apoptosis, as well as suppressing matrix metalloprotease (MMP)-2 and -9 activities and finally cell migration and invasion. In a xenograft mice model of MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells, the nanodrugs repaired the defects in Mfn 1/Drp 1 mitochondrial proteins, suppressed the activity of MMP-2 and -9, and significantly inhibited tumor cell proliferation and pulmonary metastasis. Our study showed a promising strategy for the treatment of metastatic breast cancer by targeting mitochondria followed by enhanced apoptosis.

Nanotechnology-Based Strategies for Berberine Delivery System in Cancer Treatment: Pulling Strings to Keep Berberine in Power

Cancer is a multifactorial disease characterized by complex molecular landscape and altered cell pathways that results in an abnormal cell growth. Natural compounds are target-specific and pose a limited cytotoxicity; therefore, can aid in the development of new therapeutic interventions for the treatment of this versatile disease. Berberine is a member of the protoberberine alkaloids family, mainly present in the root, stem, and bark of various trees, and has a reputed anticancer activity. Nonetheless, the limited bioavailability and low absorption rate are the two major hindrances following berberine administration as only 0.5% of ingested berberine absorbed in small intestine while this percentage is further decreased to 0.35%, when enter in systemic circulation. Nano-based formulation is believed to be an ideal candidate to increase absorption percentage as at nano scale level, compounds can absorb rapidly in gut. Nanotechnology-based therapeutic approaches have been implemented to overcome such problems, ultimately promoting a higher efficacy in the treatment of a plethora of diseases. This review present and critically discusses the anti-proliferative role of berberine and the nanotechnology-based therapeutic strategies used for the nano-scale delivery of berberine. Finally, the current approaches and promising perspectives of latest delivery of this alkaloid are also critically analyzed and discussed.

Nanomedicines for Subcellular Targeting: The Mitochondrial Perspective

BACKGROUND

Over the past decade, there has been a surge in the number of mitochondrialactive therapeutics for conditions ranging from cancer to aging. Subcellular targeting interventions can modulate adverse intracellular processes unique to the compartments within the cell. However, there is a dearth of reviews focusing on mitochondrial nano-delivery, and this review seeks to fill this gap with regards to nanotherapeutics of the mitochondria.

METHODS

Besides its potential for a higher therapeutic index than targeting at the tissue and cell levels, subcellular targeting takes into account the limitations of systemic drug administration and significantly improves pharmacokinetics. Hence, an extensive literature review was undertaken and salient information was compiled in this review.

RESULTS

From literature, it was evident that nanoparticles with their tunable physicochemical properties have shown potential for efficient therapeutic delivery, with several nanomedicines already approved by the FDA and others in clinical trials. However, strategies for the development of nanomedicines for subcellular targeting are still emerging, with an increased understanding of dysfunctional molecular processes advancing the development of treatment modules. For optimal delivery, the design of an ideal carrier for subcellular delivery must consider the features of the diseased microenvironment. The functional and structural features of the mitochondria in the diseased state are highlighted and potential nano-delivery interventions for treatment and diagnosis are discussed.

CONCLUSION

This review provides an insight into recent advances in subcellular targeting, with a focus on en route barriers to subcellular targeting. The impact of mitochondrial dysfunction in the aetiology of certain diseases is highlighted, and potential therapeutic sites are identified.

Power of mitochondrial drug delivery systems to produce innovative nanomedicines

Mitochondria carry out various essential functions including ATP production, the regulation of apoptosis and possess their own genome (mtDNA). Delivering target molecules to this organelle, it would make it possible to control the functions of cells and living organisms and would allow us to develop a better understanding of life. Given the fact that mitochondrial dysfunction has been implicated in a variety of human disorders, delivering therapeutic molecules to mitochondria for the treatment of these diseases is an important issue. To date, several mitochondrial drug delivery system (DDS) developments have been reported, but a generalized DDS leading to therapy that exclusively targets mitochondria has not been established. This review focuses on mitochondria-targeted therapeutic strategies including antioxidant therapy, cancer therapy, mitochondrial gene therapy and cell transplantation therapy based on mitochondrial DDS. A particular focus is on nanocarriers for mitochondrial delivery with the goal of achieving mitochondria-targeting therapy. We hope that this review will stimulate the accelerated development of mitochondrial DDS.

Novel mitochondrial targeting charge-reversal polysaccharide hybrid shell/core nanoparticles for prolonged systemic circulation and antitumor drug delivery

Stability in systemic circulation, effective tumor accumulation, and the subsequent crucial subcellular targeting are significant elements that maximize the therapeutic efficacy of a drug. Accordingly, novel nanoparticles based on polysaccharides that simultaneously presented prolonged systemic circulation and mitochondrial-targeted drug release were synthesized. First, the mitochondrial-targeted polymer, 3,4-dihydroxyphenyl propionic acid-chitosan oligosaccharide-dithiodipropionic acid-berberine (DHPA-CDB), was synthesized, which was used to form self-assembled curcumin (Cur)-encapsulated cationic micelles (DHPA-CDB/Cur). Negatively charged oligomeric hyaluronic acid-3-carboxyphenylboronic acid (oHA-PBA), a ligand to sialic acid and CD44, was further added to the surface of the preformed DHPA-CDB/Cur core to shield the positive charges and to prolong blood persistence. oHA-PBA@DHPA-CDB/Cur formed a covalent polyplex of oHA-PBA and DHPA-CDB/Cur via the pH-responsive borate ester bond between PBA and DHPA. The mildly acidic tumor environment led to the degradation of borate ester bonds, thereby realizing the exposure of the cationic micelles and causing a charge reversal from -19.47 to +12.01 mV, to promote cell internalization and mitochondrial localization. Compared with micelles without the oHA-PBA modification, the prepared oHA-PBA@DHPA-CDB/Cur showed enhanced cytotoxicity to PANC-1 cells and greater cellular uptake via receptor-mediated endocytosis. oHA-PBA@DHPA-CDB/Cur was effectively targeted to the mitochondria, which triggered mitochondrial membrane depolarization. In mice xenografted with PANC-1 cells, compared with control mice, oHA-PBA@DHPA-CDB/Cur resulted in more effective tumor suppression and greater biosafety with preferential accumulation in the tumor tissue. Thus, the long-circulating oHA-PBA@DHPA-CDB/Cur, with mitochondrial targeting and tumor environment charge-reversal capabilities, was shown to be an excellent candidate for subcellular-specific drug delivery.

Boosting Cancer Therapy with Organelle-Targeted Nanomaterials

The ultimate goal of cancer therapy is to eliminate malignant tumors while causing no damage to normal tissues. In the past decades, numerous nanoagents have been employed for cancer treatment because of their unique properties over traditional molecular drugs. However, lack of selectivity and unwanted therapeutic outcomes have severely limited the therapeutic index of traditional nanodrugs. Recently, a series of nanomaterials that can accumulate in specific organelles (nucleus, mitochondrion, endoplasmic reticulum, lysosome, Golgi apparatus) within cancer cells have received increasing interest. These rationally designed nanoagents can either directly destroy the subcellular structures or effectively deliver drugs into the proper targets, which can further activate certain cell death pathways, enabling them to boost the therapeutic efficiency, lower drug dosage, reduce side effects, avoid multidrug resistance, and prevent recurrence. In this Review, the design principles, targeting strategies, therapeutic mechanisms, current challenges, and potential future directions of organelle-targeted nanomaterials will be introduced.

Nanopreparations for mitochondria targeting drug delivery system: Current strategies and future prospective

Mitochondria are a novel and promising therapeutic target for diagnosis, treatment and prevention of a lot of human diseases such as cancer, metabolic diseases and neurodegenerative disease. Owing to the mitochondrial special bilayer structure and highly negative potential nature, therapeutic molecules have multiple difficulties in reaching mitochondria. To overcome multiple barriers for targeting mitochondria, the researchers developed various pharmaceutical preparations such as liposomes, polymeric nanoparticles and inorganic nanoparticles modified by mitochondriotropic moieties like dequalinium (DQA), triphenylphosphonium (TPP), mitochondrial penetrating peptides (MPPs) and mitochondrial protein import machinery that allow specific targeting. The targeted formulations exhibited enhanced pharmacological effect and better therapeutic effect than their untargeted counterpart both in vitro and in vivo. Nanocarriers may be used for bio-therapeutic delivery into specific mitochondria that possess a great potential treatment of mitochondria related diseases.

Facile preparation of full-color emissive carbon dots and their applications in imaging of the adhesion of erythrocytes to endothelial cells

Full-color emissive carbon dots were facilely prepared and applied in imaging of endothelial cells and their adhesion with erythrocytes.