Macromolecular crowding tunes 3D collagen architecture and cell morphogenesis

Probing the physical hallmarks of cancer

The physical microenvironment plays a crucial role in tumor development, progression, metastasis and treatment. Recently, we proposed four physical hallmarks of cancer, with distinct origins and consequences, to characterize abnormalities in the physical tumor microenvironment: (1) elevated compressive-tensile solid stresses, (2) elevated interstitial fluid pressure and the resulting interstitial fluid flow, (3) altered material properties (for example, increased tissue stiffness) and (4) altered physical micro-architecture. As this emerging field of physical oncology is being advanced by tumor biologists, cell and developmental biologists, engineers, physicists and oncologists, there is a critical need for model systems and measurement tools to mechanistically probe these physical hallmarks. Here, after briefly defining these physical hallmarks, we discuss the tools and model systems available for probing each hallmark in vitro, ex vivo, in vivo and in clinical settings. We finally review the unmet needs for mechanistic probing of the physical hallmarks of tumors and discuss the challenges and unanswered questions associated with each hallmark.

Global versus local matrix remodeling drives rotational versus invasive collective migration of epithelial cells

The coordinated movement of cell collectives is essential for normal epithelial tissue development, maintenance, and cancer progression. Here, we report on a minimal 3D extracellular matrix (ECM) system wherein both invasive collective migration (ICM) and rotational collective migration (RCM) arise spontaneously from individually seeded epithelial cells of mammary and hepatic origin, regardless of whether they express adherens junctions, and lead to ductal-like and acinar-like structures, respectively. Quantitative microscopy and cellular Potts modeling reveal that initial differences in cell protrusion dynamics and matrix-remodeling localization generate RCM and ICM behavior in confining 3D ECM. Matrix-remodeling activity by matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) is localized to the base of protrusions in cells that initiate ICM, whereas RCM does not require MMPs and is associated with ITGβ1-mediated remodeling localized globally around the cell body. Further analysis in vitro and in vivo supports the concept that distinct matrix-remodeling strategies encode collective migration behaviors and tissue structure.

Modeling collagen fibril degradation as a function of matrix microarchitecture

Collagenolytic degradation is a process fundamental to tissue remodeling. The microarchitecture of collagen fibril networks changes during development, aging, and disease. Such changes to microarchitecture are often accompanied by changes in matrix degradability. In a matrix, the pore size and fibril characteristics such as length, diameter, number, orientation, and curvature are the major variables that define the microarchitecture. In vitro, collagen matrices of the same concentration but different microarchitectures also vary in degradation rate. How do different microarchitectures affect matrix degradation? To answer this question, we developed a computational model of collagen degradation. We first developed a lattice model that describes collagen degradation at the scale of a single fibril. We then extended this model to investigate the role of microarchitecture using Brownian dynamics simulation of enzymes in a multi-fibril three dimensional matrix to predict its degradability. Our simulations predict that the distribution of enzymes around the fibrils is non-uniform and depends on the microarchitecture of the matrix. This non-uniformity in enzyme distribution can lead to different extents of degradability for matrices of different microarchitectures. Our simulations predict that for the same enzyme concentration and collagen concentration, a matrix with thicker fibrils degrades more than that with thinner fibrils. Our model predictions were tested using in vitro experiments with synthetic collagen gels of different microarchitectures. Experiments showed that indeed degradation of collagen depends on the matrix architecture and fibril thickness. In summary, our study shows that the microarchitecture of the collagen matrix is an important determinant of its degradability.

Divergent iron regulatory states contribute to heterogeneity in breast cancer aggressiveness

Contact with dense collagen I (Col1) can induce collective invasion of triple negative breast cancer (TNBC) cells and transcriptional signatures linked to poor patient prognosis. However, this response is heterogeneous and not well understood. Using phenotype-guided sequencing analysis of invasive vs. noninvasive subpopulations, we show that these two phenotypes represent opposite sides of the iron response protein 1 (IRP1)-mediated response to cytoplasmic labile iron pool (cLIP) levels. Invasive cells upregulate iron uptake and utilization machinery characteristic of a low cLIP response, which includes contractility regulating genes that drive migration. Non-invasive cells upregulate iron sequestration machinery characteristic of a high cLIP response, which is accompanied by upregulation of actin sequestration genes. These divergent IRP1 responses result from Col1-induced transient expression of heme oxygenase I (HO-1), which cleaves heme and releases iron. These findings lend insight into the emerging theory that heme and iron fluxes regulate TNBC aggressiveness.

Promoting biological similarity by collagen microfibers in 3D colorectal cancer-stromal tissue: Replicating mechanical properties and cancer stem cell markers

The extracellular matrix (ECM) of cancer tissues is rich in dense collagen, contributing to the stiffening of these tissues. Increased stiffness has been reported to promote cancer cell proliferation, invasion, metastasis, and prevent drug delivery. Replicating the structure and mechanical properties of cancer tissue in vitro is essential for developing cancer treatment drugs that target these properties. In this study, we recreated specific characteristics of cancer tissue, such as collagen density and high elastic modulus, using a colorectal cancer cell line as a model. Using our original material, collagen microfibers (CMFs), and a constructed three-dimensional (3D) cancer-stromal tissue model, we successfully reproduced an ECM highly similar to in vivo conditions. Furthermore, our research demonstrated that cancer stem cell markers expressed in the 3D cancer-stromal tissue model more closely mimic in vivo conditions than traditional two-dimensional cell cultures. We also found that CMFs might affect an impact on how cancer cells express these markers. Our 3D CMF-based model holds promise for enhancing our understanding of colorectal cancer and advancing therapeutic approaches. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: Reproducing the collagen content and stiffness of cancer tissue is crucial in comprehending the properties of cancer and advancing anticancer drug development. Nonetheless, the use of collagen as a scaffold material has posed challenges due to its poor solubility, hindering the replication of a cancer microenvironment. In this study, we have successfully recreated cancer tissue-specific characteristics such as collagen density, stiffness, and the expression of cancer stem cell markers in three-dimensional (3D) colorectal cancer stromal tissue, utilizing a proprietary material known as collagen microfiber (CMF). CMF proves to be an ideal scaffold material for replicating cancer stromal tissue, and these 3D tissues constructed with CMFs hold promise in contributing to our understanding of cancer and the development of therapeutic drugs.

Modeling collagen fibril degradation as a function of matrix microarchitecture

Collagenolytic degradation is a process fundamental to tissue remodeling. The microarchitecture of collagen fibril networks changes during development, aging, and disease. Such changes to microarchitecture are often accompanied by changes in matrix degradability. In vitro, collagen matrices of the same concentration but different microarchitectures also vary in degradation rate. How do different microarchitectures affect matrix degradation? To answer this question, we developed a computational model of collagen degradation. We first developed a lattice model that describes collagen degradation at the scale of a single fibril. We then extended this model to investigate the role of microarchitecture using Brownian dynamics simulation of enzymes in a multi-fibril three dimensional matrix to predict its degradability. Our simulations predict that the distribution of enzymes around the fibrils is non-uniform and depends on the microarchitecture of the matrix. This non-uniformity in enzyme distribution can lead to different extents of degradability for matrices of different microarchitectures. Our model predictions were tested using in vitro experiments with synthesized collagen gels of different microarchitectures. Experiments showed that indeed degradation of collagen depends on the matrix architecture and fibril thickness. In summary, our study shows that the microarchitecture of the collagen matrix is an important determinant of its degradability.

Degradability tunes ECM stress relaxation and cellular mechanics

In native extracellular matrices (ECM), cells can use matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) to degrade and remodel their surroundings. Likewise, synthetic matrices have been engineered to facilitate MMP-mediated cleavage that enables cell spreading, migration, and interactions. However, the intersection of matrix degradability and mechanical properties has not been fully considered. We hypothesized that immediate mechanical changes result from the action of MMPs on the ECM and that these changes are sensed by cells. Using atomic force microscopy (AFM) to measure cell-scale mechanical properties, we find that both fibrillar collagen and synthetic degradable matrices exhibit enhanced stress relaxation after MMP exposure. Cells respond to these relaxation differences by altering their spreading and focal adhesions. We demonstrate that stress relaxation can be tuned through the rational design of matrix degradability. These findings establish a fundamental link between matrix degradability and stress relaxation, which may impact a range of biological applications.

The importance of 3D fibre architecture in cancer and implications for biomaterial model design

The need for improved prediction of clinical response is driving the development of cancer models with enhanced physiological relevance. A new concept of 'precision biomaterials' is emerging, encompassing patient-mimetic biomaterial models that seek to accurately detect, treat and model cancer by faithfully recapitulating key microenvironmental characteristics. Despite recent advances allowing tissue-mimetic stiffness and molecular composition to be replicated in vitro, approaches for reproducing the 3D fibre architectures found in tumour extracellular matrix (ECM) remain relatively unexplored. Although the precise influences of patient-specific fibre architecture are unclear, we summarize the known roles of tumour fibre architecture, underlining their implications in cell-matrix interactions and ultimately clinical outcome. We then explore the challenges in reproducing tissue-specific 3D fibre architecture(s) in vitro, highlighting relevant biomaterial fabrication techniques and their benefits and limitations. Finally, we discuss imaging and image analysis techniques (focussing on collagen I-optimized approaches) that could hold the key to mapping tumour-specific ECM into high-fidelity biomaterial models. We anticipate that an interdisciplinary approach, combining materials science, cancer research and image analysis, will elucidate the role of 3D fibre architecture in tumour development, leading to the next generation of patient-mimetic models for mechanistic studies and drug discovery.

Screening the critical protein subnetwork to delineate potential mechanisms and protective agents associated with arsenic-induced cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma: A toxicogenomic study

Recent studies show that complex mechanisms are involved in arsenic-induced malignant transformation of cells. This study aimed to decipher molecular mechanisms associated with arsenic-induced cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma (cSCC) and suggest potential protective factors. RNA-seq-based differentially expressed genes between arsenic-exposed human keratinocytes (HaCaT) and controls were used to construct a protein-protein interaction (PPI) network and discover critical subnetwork-based mechanisms. Protective compounds against arsenic toxicity were determined and their target interactions in the core sub-network were identified by the comparative toxicogenomic database (CTD). The binding affinity between the effective factor and target was calculated by molecular docking. A total of 15 key proteins were screened out as critical arsenic-responsive subnetwork (FN1, IL-1A, CCN2, PECAM1, FGF5, EDN1, FGF1, PXDN, DNAJB9, XBP1, ERN1, PDIA4, DNAJB11, FOS, PDIA6) and 7 effective protective agents were identified (folic acid, quercetin, zinc, acetylcysteine, methionine, catechin, selenium). The GeneMANIA predicted detailed interactions of the subnetwork and revealed terms related to unfolded protein response as the main processes. FN1, IL1A and CCN2, as top significant genes, had good docking affinity with folic acid and quercetin, as selected key compounds. Integration of gene expression and protein-protein interaction related to arsenic exposure in cSCC explored the potential mechanisms and protective agents.

Macromolecular Crowding Enhances Matrix Protein Deposition in Tissue-Engineered Vascular Grafts

Successful in vitro culture of small-diameter tissue-engineered vascular grafts (TEVGs) requires rapid deposition of biomacromolecules secreted by vascular smooth muscle cells in a polyglycolic acid mesh scaffold's three-dimensional (3D) porous environment. However, common media have lower crowding conditions than in vivo tissue fluids. In addition, during the early stages of construction, most of the biomolecules secreted by the cells into the medium are lost, which negatively affects the TEVG culture process. In this study, we propose the use of macromolecular crowding (MMC) to enhance medium crowding to improve the deposition and self-assembly efficiency of major biomolecules in the early stages of TEVG culture. The addition of carrageenan significantly increased the degree of MMC in the culture medium without affecting cell viability, proliferation, and metabolic activity. Protein analysis demonstrated that the deposition of collagen types I and III and fibronectin increased significantly in the cell layers of two-dimensional and 3D smooth muscle cell cultures after the addition of a MMC agent. Collagen type I in the culture medium decreased significantly compared with that in the medium without a MMC agent. Scanning electron microscopy demonstrated that MMC agents considerably enhanced the formation of matrix protein structures during the early stages of 3D culture. Hence, MMC modifies the crowding degree of the culture medium, resulting in the rapid formation of numerous matrix proteins and fiber structures. Impact Statement Small-diameter tissue-engineered vascular grafts (TEVGs) are one of the most promising means of treating cardiovascular diseases; however, the in vitro construction of TEVGs has some limitations, such as slow deposition of extracellular matrix (ECM), long culture period, and poor mechanical properties. We hypothesized that macromolecular crowding can increase the crowding of the culture medium to construct a more bionic microenvironment, which enhances ECM deposition in the medium to the cell layer and reduces collagen loss, accelerating and enhancing TEVG culture and construction in vitro.

Divergent iron-regulatory states contribute to heterogeneity in breast cancer aggressiveness

Primary tumors with similar mutational profiles can progress to vastly different outcomes where transcriptional state, rather than mutational profile, predicts prognosis. A key challenge is to understand how distinct tumor cell states are induced and maintained. In triple negative breast cancer cells, invasive behaviors and aggressive transcriptional signatures linked to poor patient prognosis can emerge in response to contact with collagen type I. Herein, collagen-induced migration heterogeneity within a TNBC cell line was leveraged to identify transcriptional programs associated with invasive versus non-invasive phenotypes and implicate molecular switches. Phenotype-guided sequencing revealed that invasive cells upregulate iron uptake and utilization machinery, anapleurotic TCA cycle genes, actin polymerization promoters, and a distinct signature of Rho GTPase activity and contractility regulating genes. The non-invasive cell state is characterized by actin and iron sequestration modules along with glycolysis gene expression. These unique tumor cell states are evident in patient tumors and predict divergent outcomes for TNBC patients. Glucose tracing confirmed that non-invasive cells are more glycolytic than invasive cells, and functional studies in cell lines and PDO models demonstrated a causal relationship between phenotype and metabolic state. Mechanistically, the OXPHOS dependent invasive state resulted from transient HO-1 upregulation triggered by contact with dense collagen that reduced heme levels and mitochondrial chelatable iron levels. This induced expression of low cytoplasmic iron response genes regulated by ACO1/IRP1. Knockdown or inhibition of HO-1, ACO1/IRP1, MRCK, or OXPHOS abrogated invasion. These findings support an emerging theory that heme and iron flux serve as important regulators of TNBC aggressiveness.

Adhesion tunes speed and persistence by coordinating protrusions and extracellular matrix remodeling

Cell migration through 3D environments is essential to development, disease, and regeneration processes. Conceptual models of migration have been developed primarily on the basis of 2D cell behaviors, but a general understanding of 3D cell migration is still lacking due to the added complexity of the extracellular matrix. Here, using a multiplexed biophysical imaging approach for single-cell analysis of human cell lines, we show how the subprocesses of adhesion, contractility, actin cytoskeletal dynamics, and matrix remodeling integrate to produce heterogeneous migration behaviors. This single-cell analysis identifies three modes of cell speed and persistence coupling, driven by distinct modes of coordination between matrix remodeling and protrusive activity. The framework that emerges establishes a predictive model linking cell trajectories to distinct subprocess coordination states.

Deformability and collision-induced reorientation enhance cell topotaxis in dense microenvironments

In vivo, cells navigate through complex environments filled with obstacles such as other cells and the extracellular matrix. Recently, the term "topotaxis" has been introduced for navigation along topographic cues such as obstacle density gradients. Experimental and mathematical efforts have analyzed topotaxis of single cells in pillared grids with pillar density gradients. A previous model based on active Brownian particles (ABPs) has shown that ABPs perform topotaxis, i.e., drift toward lower pillar densities, due to decreased effective persistence lengths at high pillar densities. The ABP model predicted topotactic drifts of up to 1% of the instantaneous speed, whereas drifts of up to 5% have been observed experimentally. We hypothesized that the discrepancy between the ABP and the experimental observations could be in 1) cell deformability and 2) more complex cell-pillar interactions. Here, we introduce a more detailed model of topotaxis based on the cellular Potts model (CPM). To model persistent cells we use the Act model, which mimics actin-polymerization-driven motility, and a hybrid CPM-ABP model. Model parameters were fitted to simulate the experimentally found motion of Dictyostelium discoideum on a flat surface. For starved D. discoideum, the topotactic drifts predicted by both CPM variants are closer to the experimental results than the previous ABP model due to a larger decrease in persistence length. Furthermore, the Act model outperformed the hybrid model in terms of topotactic efficiency, as it shows a larger reduction in effective persistence time in dense pillar grids. Also pillar adhesion can slow down cells and decrease topotaxis. For slow and less-persistent vegetative D. discoideum cells, both CPMs predicted a similar small topotactic drift. We conclude that deformable cell volume results in higher topotactic drift compared with ABPs, and that feedback of cell-pillar collisions on cell persistence increases drift only in highly persistent cells.

Biophysical cues of in vitro biomaterials-based artificial extracellular matrix guide cancer cell plasticity

Clinical evidence supports a role for the extracellular matrix (ECM) in cancer plasticity across multiple tumor types. The lack of in vitro models that represent the native ECMs is a significant challenge for cancer research and drug discovery. Therefore, a major motivation for developing new tumor models is to create the artificial ECM in vitro. Engineered biomaterials can closely mimic the architectural and mechanical properties of ECM to investigate their specific effects on cancer progression, offering an alternative to animal models for the testing of cancer cell behaviors. In this review, we focused on the biomaterials from different sources applied in the fabrication of the artificial ECM and their biophysical cues to recapitulate key features of tumor niche. Furthermore, we summarized how the distinct biophysical cues guided cell behaviors of cancer plasticity, including morphology, epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT), enrichment of cancer stem cells (CSCs), proliferation, migration/invasion and drug resistance. We also discuss the future opportunities in using the artificial ECM for applications of tumorigenesis research and precision medicine, as well as provide useful messages of principles for designing suitable biomaterial scaffolds.

Application of an angiogenesis-related genes risk model in lung adenocarcinoma prognosis and immunotherapy

Lung adenocarcinoma (LUAD) is an essential pathological subtype of non-small cell lung cancer and offers a severe problem for worldwide public health. There is mounting proof that angiogenesis is a crucial player in LUAD progression. Consequently, the purpose of this research was to construct a novel LUAD risk assessment model based on genetic markers related to angiogenesis. We accessed The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) and Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) databases for LUAD mRNA sequencing data and clinical information. Based on machine algorithms and bioinformatics, angiogenic gene-related risk scores (RS) were calculated. Patients in the high-risk category had a worse prognosis (p < 0.001) in the discovery TCGA cohort, and the results were confirmed by these three cohorts (validation TCGA cohort, total TCGA cohort, and GSE68465 cohort). Moreover, risk scores for genes involved in angiogenesis were independent risk factors for lung cancer in all four cohorts. The low-risk group was associated with better immune status and lower tumor mutational load. In addition, the somatic mutation study revealed that the low-risk group had a lower mutation frequency than the high-risk group. According to an analysis of tumor stem cell infiltration, HLA expression, and TIDE scores, the low-risk group had higher TIDE scores and HLA expression levels than the high-risk group, and the amount of tumor stem cell infiltration correlated with the risk score. In addition, high-risk groups may benefit from immune checkpoint inhibitors and targeted therapies. In conclusion, we developed an angiogenesis-related gene risk model to predict the prognosis of LUAD patients, which may aid in the classification of patients with LUAD and select medications for LUAD patients.

Three-Dimensional Collagen Topology Shapes Cell Morphology, beyond Stiffness

Cellular heterogeneity is associated with many physiological processes, including pathological ones, such as morphogenesis and tumorigenesis. The extracellular matrix (ECM) is a key player in the generation of cellular heterogeneity. Advances in our understanding rely on our ability to provide relevant in vitro models. This requires obtainment of the characteristics of the tissues that are essential for controlling cell fate. To do this, we must consider the diversity of tissues, the diversity of physiological contexts, and the constant remodeling of the ECM along these processes. To this aim, we have fabricated a library of ECM models for reproducing the scaffold of connective tissues and the basement membrane by using different biofabrication routes based on the electrospinning and drop casting of biopolymers from the ECM. Using a combination of electron microscopy, multiphoton imaging, and AFM nanoindentation, we show that we can vary independently protein composition, topology, and stiffness of ECM models. This in turns allows one to generate the in vivo complexity of the phenotypic landscape of ovarian cancer cells. We show that, while this phenotypic shift cannot be directly correlated with a unique ECM feature, the three-dimensional collagen fibril topology patterns cell shape, beyond protein composition and stiffness of the ECM. On this line, this work is a further step toward the development of ECM models recapitulating the constantly remodeled environment that cells face and thus provides new insights for cancer model engineering and drug testing.

Highway to heal: Influence of altered extracellular matrix on infiltrating immune cells during acute and chronic lung diseases

Environmental insults including respiratory infections, in combination with genetic predisposition, may lead to lung diseases such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, lung fibrosis, asthma, and acute respiratory distress syndrome. Common characteristics of these diseases are infiltration and activation of inflammatory cells and abnormal extracellular matrix (ECM) turnover, leading to tissue damage and impairments in lung function. The ECM provides three-dimensional (3D) architectural support to the lung and crucial biochemical and biophysical cues to the cells, directing cellular processes. As immune cells travel to reach any site of injury, they encounter the composition and various mechanical features of the ECM. Emerging evidence demonstrates the crucial role played by the local environment in recruiting immune cells and their function in lung diseases. Moreover, recent developments in the field have elucidated considerable differences in responses of immune cells in two-dimensional versus 3D modeling systems. Examining the effect of individual parameters of the ECM to study their effect independently and collectively in a 3D microenvironment will help in better understanding disease pathobiology. In this article, we discuss the importance of investigating cellular migration and recent advances in this field. Moreover, we summarize changes in the ECM in lung diseases and the potential impacts on infiltrating immune cell migration in these diseases. There has been compelling progress in this field that encourages further developments, such as advanced in vitro 3D modeling using native ECM-based models, patient-derived materials, and bioprinting. We conclude with an overview of these state-of-the-art methodologies, followed by a discussion on developing novel and innovative models and the practical challenges envisaged in implementing and utilizing these systems.

Brain Cancer Cell-Derived Matrices and Effects on Astrocyte Migration

Cell-derived matrices are useful tools for studying the extracellular matrix (ECM) of different cell types and testing the effects on cell migration or wound repair. These matrices typically are generated using extended culture with ascorbic acid to boost ECM production. Applying this technique to cancer cell cultures could advance the study of cancer ECM and its effects on recruitment and training of the tumor microenvironment, but ascorbic acid is potently cytotoxic to cancer cells. Macromolecular crowding (MMC) agents can also be added to increase matrix deposition based on the excluded volume principle. We report the use of MMC alone as an effective strategy to generate brain cancer cell-derived matrices for downstream analyses and cell migration studies. We cultured the mouse glioblastoma cell line GL261 for 1 week in the presence of three previously reported MMC agents (carrageenan, Ficoll 70/400, and hyaluronic acid). We measured the resulting deposition of collagens and sulfated glycosaminoglycans using quantitative assays, as well as other matrix components by immunostaining. Both carrageenan and Ficoll promoted significantly more accumulation of total collagen content, sulfated glycosaminoglycan content, and fibronectin staining. Only Ficoll, however, also demonstrated a significant increase in collagen I staining. The results were more variable in 3D spheroid culture. We focused on Ficoll MMC matrices, which were isolated using the small molecule Raptinal to induce cancer cell apoptosis and matrix decellularization. The cancer cell-derived matrix promoted significantly faster migration of human astrocytes in a scratch wound assay, which may be explained by focal adhesion morphology and an increase in cellular metabolic activity. Ultimately, these data show MMC culture is a useful technique to generate cancer cell-derived matrices and study the effects on stromal cell migration related to wound repair.

Chick Embryo Experimental Platform for Micrometastases Research in a 3D Tissue Engineering Model: Cancer Biology, Drug Development, and Nanotechnology Applications

Colonization of distant organs by tumor cells is a critical step of cancer progression. The initial avascular stage of this process (micrometastasis) remains almost inaccessible to study due to the lack of relevant experimental approaches. Herein, we introduce an in vitro/in vivo model of organ-specific micrometastases of triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) that is fully implemented in a cost-efficient chick embryo (CE) experimental platform. The model was built as three-dimensional (3D) tissue engineering constructs (TECs) combining human MDA-MB-231 cells and decellularized CE organ-specific scaffolds. TNBC cells colonized CE organ-specific scaffolds in 2–3 weeks, forming tissue-like structures. The feasibility of this methodology for basic cancer research, drug development, and nanomedicine was demonstrated on a model of hepatic micrometastasis of TNBC. We revealed that MDA-MB-231 differentially colonize parenchymal and stromal compartments of the liver-specific extracellular matrix (LS-ECM) and become more resistant to the treatment with molecular doxorubicin (Dox) and Dox-loaded mesoporous silica nanoparticles than in monolayer cultures. When grafted on CE chorioallantoic membrane, LS-ECM-based TECs induced angiogenic switch. These findings may have important implications for the diagnosis and treatment of TNBC. The methodology established here is scalable and adaptable for pharmacological testing and cancer biology research of various metastatic and primary tumors.

Collagen- and hyaluronic acid-based hydrogels and their biomedical applications

Hydrogels have been widely investigated in biomedical fields due to their similar physical and biochemical properties to the extracellular matrix (ECM). Collagen and hyaluronic acid (HA) are the main components of the ECM in many tissues. As a result, hydrogels prepared from collagen and HA hold inherent advantages in mimicking the structure and function of the native ECM. Numerous studies have focused on the development of collagen and HA hydrogels and their biomedical applications. In this extensive review, we provide a summary and analysis of the sources, features, and modifications of collagen and HA. Specifically, we highlight the fabrication, properties, and potential biomedical applications as well as promising commercialization of hydrogels based on these two natural polymers.

Role of Lamin A/C as Candidate Biomarker of Aggressiveness and Tumorigenicity in Glioblastoma Multiforme

Nuclear lamina components have long been regarded as scaffolding proteins, forming a dense fibrillar structure necessary for the maintenance of the nucleus shape in all the animal kingdom. More recently, mutations, aberrant localisation and deregulation of these proteins have been linked to several diseases, including cancer. Using publicly available data we found that the increased expression levels of the nuclear protein Lamin A/C correlate with a reduced overall survival in The Cancer Genome Atlas Research Network (TCGA) patients affected by glioblastoma multiforme (GBM). We show that the expression of the LMNA gene is linked to the enrichment of cancer-related pathways, particularly pathways related to cell adhesion and cell migration. Mimicking the modulation of LMNA in a GBM preclinical cancer model, we confirmed both in vitro and in vivo that the increased expression of LMNA is associated with an increased aggressiveness and tumorigenicity. In addition, delving into the possible mechanism behind LMNA-induced GBM aggressiveness and tumorigenicity, we found that the mTORC2 component, Rictor, plays a central role in mediating these effects.

Development of Cell-Derived Matrices for Three-Dimensional In Vitro Cancer Cell Models

Most morphogenetic and pathological processes are driven by cells responding to the surrounding matrix, such as its composition, architecture, and mechanical properties. Despite increasing evidence for the role of extracellular matrix (ECM) in tissue and disease development, many in vitro substitutes still fail to effectively mimic the native microenvironment. We established a novel method to produce macroscale (>1 cm) mesenchymal cell-derived matrices (CDMs) aimed to mimic the fibrotic tumor microenvironment surrounding epithelial cancer cells. CDMs are produced by human adipose mesenchymal stem cells cultured in sacrificial 3D scaffold templates of fibronectin-coated poly-lactic acid microcarriers (MCs) in the presence of macromolecular crowders. We showed that decellularized CDMs closely mimic the fibrillar protein composition, architecture, and mechanical properties of human fibrotic ECM from cancer masses. CDMs had highly reproducible composition made of collagen types I and III and fibronectin ECM with tunable mechanical properties. Moreover, decellularized and MC-free CDMs were successfully repopulated with cancer cells throughout their 3D structure, and following chemotherapeutic treatment, cancer cells showed greater doxorubicin resistance compared to 3D culture in collagen hydrogels. Collectively, these results support the use of CDMs as a reproducible and tunable tool for developing 3D in vitro cancer models.

Colonization versus encapsulation in cell-laden materials design: porosity and process biocompatibility determine cellularization pathways

Seeding materials with living cells has been-and still is-one of the most promising approaches to reproduce the complexity and the functionality of living matter. The strategies to associate living cells with materials are limited to cell encapsulation and colonization, however, the requirements for these two approaches have been seldom discussed systematically. Here we propose a simple two-dimensional map based on materials' pore size and the cytocompatibility of their fabrication process to draw, for the first time, a guide to building cellularized materials. We believe this approach may serve as a straightforward guideline to design new, more relevant materials, able to seize the complexity and the function of biological materials. This article is part of the theme issue 'Bio-derived and bioinspired sustainable advanced materials for emerging technologies (part 1)'.

Embracing Mechanobiology in Next Generation Organ-On-A-Chip Models of Bone Metastasis

Bone metastasis in breast cancer is associated with high mortality. Biomechanical cues presented by the extracellular matrix play a vital role in driving cancer metastasis. The lack of in vitro models that recapitulate the mechanical aspects of the in vivo microenvironment hinders the development of novel targeted therapies. Organ-on-a-chip (OOAC) platforms have recently emerged as a new generation of in vitro models that can mimic cell-cell interactions, enable control over fluid flow and allow the introduction of mechanical cues. Biomaterials used within OOAC platforms can determine the physical microenvironment that cells reside in and affect their behavior, adhesion, and localization. Refining the design of OOAC platforms to recreate microenvironmental regulation of metastasis and probe cell-matrix interactions will advance our understanding of breast cancer metastasis and support the development of next-generation metastasis-on-a-chip platforms. In this mini-review, we discuss the role of mechanobiology on the behavior of breast cancer and bone-residing cells, summarize the current capabilities of OOAC platforms for modeling breast cancer metastasis to bone, and highlight design opportunities offered by the incorporation of mechanobiological cues in these platforms.

Analysis of Colorectal Carcinogenesis Paradigm between Cold Constitution and Heat Constitution: Earlier ECM Collagen Deposition

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is a common malignant tumor around the world. Studying the unique constitution of CRC patients is conducive to the application of personalized medical treatment for CRC. The most common types of constitution in CRC are cold and heat constitution. A previous study has suggested that the malignant progression in cold and heat constitution CRC are different; however, the mechanism remains unclear. The tumor microenvironment (TME) is likely to vary with each individual constitution, which may affect the tumor growth in different constitutions. The extracellular matrix (ECM), the most important component of TME, plays a critical role in disease progression and outcome in patients with CRC. Moreover, collagen, the major component of the ECM, determines the main functional characteristics of ECM and tissue fibrosis caused by collagen deposition, which is one of the signs of CRC malignant progression. This study aimed to explore the mechanisms leading to different colorectal carcinogenesis paradigms between the cold constitution and heat constitution within the context of ECM collagen deposition. We established the CRC rat models and enrolled 30 CRC patients with cold and heat constitution. The collagen-related parameters were detected by using Sirius red staining combined with polarized light microscope, and expressions of collagen (COL I and COL III) and lysyl oxidase (LOX and LOXL2) were determined using immunohistochemistry, while the mRNA levels of COL1A1, COL3A1, LOX, and LOXL2 were measured by qRT-PCR. We found that a higher degree of collagen deposition in the cold-constitution group. The results suggest cold and heat constitution may affect the colorectal carcinogenesis paradigm by influencing the early collagen deposition in colon tissue. The study may provide an effective idea for clinicians to improve the prognosis of CRC patients with different constitutions.

Investigation on the Composition of Agarose-Collagen I Blended Hydrogels as Matrices for the Growth of Spheroids from Breast Cancer Cell Lines

Three-dimensional (3D) cell culture systems mimic the structural complexity of the tissue microenvironment and are gaining increasing importance as they resemble the extracellular matrix (ECM)–cell and cell–cell physical interactions occurring in vivo. Several scaffold-based culture systems have been already proposed as valuable tools for large-scale production of spheroids, but they often suffer of poor reproducibility or high costs of production. In this work, we present a reliable 3D culture system based on collagen I-blended agarose hydrogels and show how the variation in the agarose percentage affects the physical and mechanical properties of the resulting hydrogel. The influence of the different physical and mechanical properties of the blended hydrogels on the growth, size, morphology, and cell motility of the spheroids obtained by culturing three different breast cancer cell lines (MCF-7, MDA-MB-361, and MDA-MB-231) was also evaluated. As proof of concept, the cisplatin penetration and its cytotoxic effect on the tumor spheroids as function of the hydrogel stiffness were also investigated. Noteworthily, the possibility to recover the spheroids from the hydrogels for further processing and other biological studies has been considered. This feature, in addition to the ease of preparation, the lack of cross-linking chemistry and the high reproducibility, makes this hydrogel a reliable biomimetic matrix for the growth of 3D cell structures.

Bioprintable, Stiffness-Tunable Collagen-Alginate Microgels for Increased Throughput 3D Cell Culture Studies

3D culture platforms with tunable stiffness have the potential to improve many applications, such as drug discovery, organoid studies, and stem cell differentiation. Both dimensionality and stiffness regulate crucial and relevant cellular processes. However, 3D culture models are often limited in throughput and difficult to adopt for widespread use. Here, we demonstrate an accessible 3D, stiffness-tunable tissue culture platform, based on an interpenetrating network of collagen-1 and alginate. When blended with polymers that induce phase separation, these networks can be bioprinted at microliter volumes, using standard liquid handling infrastructure. We demonstrate robust reproducibility in printing these microgels, consistent tunability of mechanical properties, and maintained viability of multiple printed cell types. To highlight the utility and importance of this system, we demonstrate distinct morphological changes to cells in culture, use the system to probe the role of matrix mechanics and soluble factors in a collagen contraction assay, and perform a prototype viability screen against a candidate chemotherapeutic, demonstrating stiffness-dependent responses.

Prognostic Implication of the Expression Level of PECAM-1 in Non-small Cell Lung Cancer

Background: Lung cancer is a malignant disease that threatens human health. Hence, it is crucial to identify effective prognostic factors and treatment targets. Single-cell RNA sequencing can quantify the expression profiles of transcripts in individual cells. Methods: GSE117570 profiles were downloaded from the Gene Expression Omnibus database. Key ligand-receptor genes in the tumor and the normal groups were screened to identify integrated differentially expressed genes (DEGs) from the GSE118370 and The Cancer Genome Atlas Lung Adenocarcinoma databases. DEGs associated with more ligand-receptor pairs were selected as candidate DEGs for Gene Ontology (GO) functional annotation, Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathway analysis, and survival analysis. In addition, we conducted validation immunohistochemical experiments on postoperative specimens of 30 patients with lung cancer. Results: A total of 18 candidate DEGs were identified from the tumor and the normal groups. The analysis of the GO biological process revealed that these DEGs were mainly enriched in wound healing, in response to wounding, cell migration, cell motility, and regulation of cell motility, while the KEGG pathway analysis found that these DEGs were mainly enriched in proteoglycans in cancer, bladder cancer, malaria, tyrosine kinase inhibitor resistance in Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor (EGFR), and the ERBB signaling pathway. Survival analysis showed that a high, rather than a low, expression of platelet endothelial cell adhesion molecule-1 (PECAM-1) was associated with improved survival. Similarly, in postoperative patients with lung cancer, we found that the overall survival of the PECAM-1 high-expression group shows a better trend than the PECAM-1 low-expression group (p = 0.172). Conclusions: The candidate DEGs identified in this study may play some important roles in the occurrence and development of lung cancer, especially PECAM-1, which may present potential prognostic biomarkers for the outcome.

The epithelial-mesenchymal transition and the cytoskeleton in bioengineered systems

The epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) is intrinsically linked to alterations of the intracellular cytoskeleton and the extracellular matrix. After EMT, cells acquire an elongated morphology with front/back polarity, which can be attributed to actin-driven protrusion formation as well as the gain of vimentin expression. Consequently, cells can deform and remodel the surrounding matrix in order to facilitate local invasion. In this review, we highlight recent bioengineering approaches to elucidate EMT and functional changes in the cytoskeleton. First, we review transitions between multicellular clusters and dispersed individuals on planar surfaces, which often exhibit coordinated behaviors driven by leader cells and EMT. Second, we consider the functional role of vimentin, which can be probed at subcellular length scales and within confined spaces. Third, we discuss the role of topographical patterning and EMT via a contact guidance like mechanism. Finally, we address how multicellular clusters disorganize and disseminate in 3D matrix. These new technologies enable controlled physical microenvironments and higher-resolution spatiotemporal measurements of EMT at the single cell level. In closing, we consider future directions for the field and outstanding questions regarding EMT and the cytoskeleton for human cancer progression. Video Abstract.

Tissue engineered platforms for studying primary and metastatic neoplasm behavior in bone

Cancer is the second leading cause of death in the United States, claiming more than 560,000 lives each year. Osteosarcoma (OS) is the most common primary malignant tumor of bone in children and young adults, while bone is a common site of metastasis for tumors initiating from other tissues. The heterogeneity, continual evolution, and complexity of this disease at different stages of tumor progression drives a critical need for physiologically relevant models that capture the dynamic cancer microenvironment and advance chemotherapy techniques. Monolayer cultures have been favored for cell-based research for decades due to their simplicity and scalability. However, the nature of these models makes it impossible to fully describe the biomechanical and biochemical cues present in 3-dimensional (3D) microenvironments, such as ECM stiffness, degradability, surface topography, and adhesivity. Biomaterials have emerged as valuable tools to model the behavior of various cancers by creating highly tunable 3D systems for studying neoplasm behavior, screening chemotherapeutic drugs, and developing novel treatment delivery techniques. This review highlights the recent application of biomaterials toward the development of tumor models, details methods for their tunability, and discusses the clinical and therapeutic applications of these systems.

Macromolecular Crowding as a Tool to Screen Anti-fibrotic Drugs: The Scar-in-a-Jar System Revisited

An unsolved therapeutic problem in fibrosis is the overproduction of collagen. In order to screen the effect of anti-fibrotic drugs on collagen deposition, the Scar-in-a-Jar approach has been introduced about a decade ago. With macromolecular crowding a rapid deposition of collagen is seen, resulting in a substantial decrease in culture time, but the system has never been tested in an adequate way. We therefore have compared six different macromolecular crowders [Ficoll PM 70 (Fc70), Ficoll PM 400 (Fc400), a mixture of Ficoll 70 and 400 (Fc70/400), polyvinylpyrrolidone 40 (PVP40), polyvinylpyrrolidone 360 (PVP360), neutral dextran 670 (ND670), dextran sulfate 500 (DxS500), and carrageenan (CR)] under profibrotic conditions (addition of TGFβ1) with primary human adult dermal fibroblasts in the presence of 0.5 and 10% FBS. We found that (1) collagen deposition and myofibroblast formation was superior with 0.5% FBS, (2) DxS500 and CR results in an aberrant collagen deposition pattern, (3) ND670 does not increase collagen deposition, and (4) CR, DxS500, and Fc40/700 affected important phenotypical properties of the cells when cultured under pro-fibrotic conditions, whereas PVP40 and PVP360 did less or not. Because of viscosity problems with PVP360, we conclude that PVP40 is the most optimal crowder for the screening of anti-fibrotic drugs. Finally, the effect of various concentrations of Imatinib, Galunisertib, Omipalisib or Nintedanib on collagen deposition and myofibroblast formation was tested with PVP40 as the crowder.

A biomimetic model of 3D fluid extracellular macromolecular crowding microenvironment fine-tunes ovarian cancer cells dissemination phenotype

An early fundamental step in ovarian cancer progression is the dissemination of cancer cells through liquid environments, one of them being cancer ascites accumulated in the peritoneal cavity. These biological fluids are highly crowded with a high total macromolecule concentration. This biophysical property of fluids is widely used in tissue engineering for a few decades now, yet is largely underrated in cancer biomimetic models. To unravel the role of fluids extracellular macromolecular crowding (MMC), we exposed ovarian cancer cells (OCC) to high molecular weight inert polymer solutions. High macromolecular composition of extracellular liquid presented a differential effect: i) it impeded non-adherent OCC aggregation in suspension and, decreased their adhesion; ii) it promoted adherent OCC migration by decreasing extracellular matrix deposition. Besides, there seemed to be a direct link between the extracellular MMC and intracellular processes, especially the actin cytoskeleton organization and the nucleus morphology. In conclusion, extracellular fluid MMC orients OCC dissemination phenotype. Integrating MMC seems crucial to produce more relevant mimetic 3D in vitro fluid models to study ovarian dissemination but also to screen drugs.

Bioprinting of Collagen: Considerations, Potentials, and Applications

Collagen is the most abundant extracellular matrix protein that is widely used in tissue engineering (TE). There is little research done on printing pure collagen. To understand the bottlenecks in printing pure collagen, it is imperative to understand collagen from a bottom-up approach. Here it is aimed to provide a comprehensive overview of collagen printing, where collagen assembly in vivo and the various sources of collagen available for TE application are first understood. Next, the current printing technologies and strategy for printing collagen-based materials are highlighted. Considerations and key challenges faced in collagen printing are identified. Finally, the key research areas that would enhance the functionality of printed collagen are presented.

Disentangling the fibrous microenvironment: designer culture models for improved drug discovery

INTRODUCTION

Standard high-throughput screening (HTS) assays rarely identify clinically viable 'hits', likely because cells do not experience physiologically realistic culture conditions. The biophysical nature of the extracellular matrix has emerged as a critical driver of cell function and response and recreating these factors could be critically important in streamlining the drug discovery pipeline.

AREAS COVERED

The authors review recent design strategies to understand and manipulate biophysical features of three-dimensional fibrous tissues. The effects of architectural parameters of the extracellular matrix and their resulting mechanical behaviors are deconstructed; and their individual and combined impact on cell behavior is examined. The authors then illustrate the potential impact of these physical features on designing next-generation platforms to identify drugs effective against breast cancer.

EXPERT OPINION

Progression toward increased culture complexity must be balanced against the demanding technical requirements for high-throughput screening; and strategies to identify the minimal set of microenvironmental parameters needed to recreate disease-relevant responses must be specifically tailored to the disease stage and organ system being studied. Although challenging, this can be achieved through integrative and multidisciplinary technologies that span microfabrication, cell biology, and tissue engineering.

Experimental Models as Refined Translational Tools for Breast Cancer Research

Breast cancer is one of the most common cancers worldwide, which makes it a very impactful malignancy in the society. Breast cancers can be classified through different systems based on the main tumor features and gene, protein, and cell receptors expression, which will determine the most advisable therapeutic course and expected outcomes. Multiple therapeutic options have already been proposed and implemented for breast cancer treatment. Nonetheless, their use and efficacy still greatly depend on the tumor classification, and treatments are commonly associated with invasiveness, pain, discomfort, severe side effects, and poor specificity. This has demanded an investment in the research of the mechanisms behind the disease progression, evolution, and associated risk factors, and on novel diagnostic and therapeutic techniques. However, advances in the understanding and assessment of breast cancer are dependent on the ability to mimic the properties and microenvironment of tumors in vivo, which can be achieved through experimentation on animal models. This review covers an overview of the main animal models used in breast cancer research, namely in vitro models, in vivo models, in silico models, and other models. For each model, the main characteristics, advantages, and challenges associated to their use are highlighted.

Macromolecular gelatin properties affect fibrin microarchitecture and tumor spheroid behavior in fibrin-gelatin gels

The biophysical properties of extracellular matrices (ECM) are known to regulate cell behavior, however decoupling cell behavior changes due to the relative contributions of material microstructure versus biomechanics or nutrient permeability remains challenging, especially within complex, multi-material matrices. We developed four gelatin-fibrin interpenetrating network (IPN) formulations which are identical in composition but possess variable gelatin molecular weight distributions, and display differences in microstructure, biomechanics, and diffusivity. In this work we interrogate the response of multicellular tumor spheroids to these IPN formulations and found that a high stiffness, gelatin-network dominated IPNs impeded remodeling and invasion of multicellular tumor spheroids; whereas relatively lower stiffness, fibrin-network dominated IPNs permitted protease-dependent remodeling and spheroid invasion. Cell proliferation correlated to nutrient diffusivity across tested IPN formulations. These findings demonstrate the complexity of ECM IPNs, relative to single polymer matrices, and highlight that cell response does not derive from a single aspect of the ECM, but rather from the interplay of multiple biomechanical properties. The methodology developed here represents a framework for future studies which aim to characterize cellular phenotypic responses to biophysical cues present within complex, multi-material matrices.

3D collagen architecture regulates cell adhesion through degradability, thereby controlling metabolic and oxidative stress

The collagen-rich tumor microenvironment plays a critical role in directing the migration behavior of cancer cells. 3D collagen architectures with small pores have been shown to confine cells and induce aggressive collective migration, irrespective of matrix stiffness and density. However, it remains unclear how cells sense collagen architecture and transduce this information to initiate collective migration. Here, we tune collagen architecture and analyze its effect on four core cell-ECM interactions: cytoskeletal polymerization, adhesion, contractility, and matrix degradation. From this comprehensive analysis, we deduce that matrix architecture initially modulates cancer cell adhesion strength, and that this results from architecture-induced changes to matrix degradability. That is, architectures with smaller pores are less degradable, and degradability is required for cancer cell adhesion to 3D fibrilar collagen. The biochemical consequences of this 3D low-attachment state are similar to those induced by suspension culture, including metabolic and oxidative stress. One distinction from suspension culture is the induction of collagen catabolism that occurs in 3D low-attachment conditions. Cells also upregulate Snail1 and Notch signaling in response to 3D low-attachment, which suggests a mechanism for the emergence of collective behaviors.