How can nanotechnology help the fight against breast cancer?

Theranostics: aptamer-assisted carbon nanotubes as MRI contrast and photothermal agent for breast cancer therapy

Breast cancer is one of the leading causes of death among women globally, making its diagnosis and treatment challenging. The use of nanotechnology for cancer diagnosis and treatment is an emerging area of research. To address this issue, multiwalled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) were ligand exchanged with butyric acid (BA) to gain hydrophilic character. The successful functionalization was confirmed by FTIR spectroscopy. Surface morphology changes were observed using SEM, while TEM confirmed the structural integrity of the MWCNTs after functionalization. Particle size, zeta potential, and UV spectroscopy were also performed to further characterize the nanoparticles. The breast cancer aptamer specific to Mucin-1 (MUC-1) was then conjugated with the functionalized MWCNTs. These MWCNTs successfully targeted breast cancer cells (MDA-MB-231) as examined by cellular uptake studies and exhibited a reduction in cancer-induced inflammation, as evidenced by gene transcription (qPCR) and protein expression (immunoblotting) levels. Immunoblot and confocal-based immunofluorescence assay (IFA) indicated the ability of CNTs to induce photothermal cell death of MDA-MB-231 cells. Upon imaging, cancer cells were effectively visualized due to the MWCNTs' ability to act as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) contrast agents. Additionally, MWCNTs demonstrated photothermal capabilities to eliminate bound cancer cells. Collectively, our findings pave the way for developing aptamer-labeled MWCNTs as viable "theranostic alternatives" for breast cancer treatment.

Nanomaterials-assisted photothermal therapy for breast cancer: State-of-the-art advances and future perspectives

Breast cancer (BC) remains an enigmatic fatal modality ubiquitously prevalent in different parts of the world. Contemporary medicines face severe challenges in remediating and healing breast cancer. Due to its spatial specificity and nominal invasive therapeutic regime, photothermal therapy (PTT) has attracted much scientific attention down the lane. PTT utilizes a near-infrared (NIR) light source to irradiate the tumor target intravenously or non-invasively, which is converted into heat energy over an optical fibre. Dynamic progress in nanomaterial synthesis was achieved with specialized visual, physicochemical, biological, and pharmacological features to make up for the inadequacies and expand the horizon of PTT. Numerous nanomaterials have substantial NIR absorption and can function as efficient photothermal transducers. It is achievable to limit the wavelength range of an absorbance peak for specific nanomaterials by manipulating their synthesis, enhancing the precision and quality of PTT. Along the same lines, various nanomaterials are conjugated with a wide range of surface-modifying chemicals, including polymers and antibodies, which may modify the persistence of the nanomaterial and diminish toxicity concerns. In this article, we tend to put forth specific insights and fundamental conceptualizations on pre-existing PTT and its advances upon conjugation with different biocompatible nanomaterials working in synergy to combat breast cancer, encompassing several strategies like immunotherapy, chemotherapy, photodynamic therapy, and radiotherapy coupled with PTT. Additionally, the role or mechanisms of nanoparticles, as well as possible alternatives to PTT, are summarized as a distinctive integral aspect in this article.

Gold nanoparticles combined baker's yeast as a successful approach for breast cancer treatment

BACKGROUND

Saccharomyces cerevisiae (S. cerevisiae) has been demonstrated in vitro to sensitize several breast cancer cell lines and to be a safe, non-toxic drug with anti-skin cancer action in mice. Furthermore, plasmonic photothermal treatment using gold nanorods has been authorized as a novel method for in vitro and in vivo cancer therapy.

RESULTS

When compared to tumor-free rats, the treatment with S. cerevisiae conjugated to gold nanospheres (GNSs) lowered Bcl-2 levels while increasing FasL, Bax, cytochrome c, and caspases 8, 9, and 3 levels. Histopathological results showed changes reflecting the ability of nanogold conjugated heat-killed yeast to induce apoptosis is greater than heat-killed yeast alone as the nanogold conjugated with heat-killed yeast showed no tumor, no hyperplasia, no granulation tissue formation, no ulceration, and no suppuration. Nanogold conjugated with heat-killed yeast-treated breast cancer group displayed normal levels of ALT and AST, indicating relatively healthy hepatic cells.

CONCLUSION

Our results proved that nanogold conjugated heat-killed yeast can initiate apoptosis and can be used as a safe non-invasive method for breast cancer treatment more effectively than the yeast alone. This, in turn, gives us new insight and a future hope for the first time that breast cancer can be treated by non-invasive, simple, safe, and naturally originated method and achieves a hopeful treatment and a novel method for in vivo cancer therapy.

Autophagy modulation in breast cancer utilizing nanomaterials and nanoparticles

Autophagy regenerates cellular nutrients, recycles metabolites, and maintains hemostasis through multistep signaling pathways, in conjunction with lysosomal degradation mechanisms. In tumor cells, autophagy has been shown to play a dual role as both tumor suppressor and tumor promoter, leading to the discovery of new therapeutic strategies for cancer. Therefore, regulation of autophagy is essential during cancer progression. In this regard, the use of nanoparticles (NPs) is a promising technique in the clinic to modulate autophagy pathways. Here, we summarized the importance of breast cancer worldwide, and we discussed its classification, current treatment strategies, and the strengths and weaknesses of available treatments. We have also described the application of NPs and nanocarriers (NCs) in breast cancer treatment and their capability to modulate autophagy. Then the advantages and disadvantaged of NPs in cancer therapy along with future applications will be disscussed. The purpose of this review is to provide up-to-date information on NPs used in breast cancer treatment and their impacts on autophagy pathways for researchers.

Expression of DNAJB9 and some other genes is more sensitive to SWCNTs in normal human astrocytes than glioblastoma cells

Objective. Single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs) are considered to be one of the nanomaterials attractive for biomedical applications, particularly in the health sciences as imaging probes and drug carriers, especially in the field of cancer therapy. The increasing exploitation of nanotubes necessitates a comprehensive evaluation of the potential impact of these nanomaterials, which purposefully accumulate in the cell nucleus, on the human health and the function of the genome in the normal and tumor tissues. The aim of this study was to investigate the sensitivity of the expression of DNAJB9 and some other genes associated with the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress and cell proliferation to low doses of SWCNTs in normal human astrocytes (NHA/TS) and glioblastoma cells (U87MG) with and without an inhibition of ERN1 signaling pathway of the ER stress. Methods. Normal human astrocytes, line NHA/TS and U87 glioblastoma cells stable transfected by empty vector or dnERN1 (dominant-negative construct of ERN1) were exposed to low doses of SWCNTs (2 and 8 ng/ml) for 24 h. RNA was extracted from the cells and used for cDNA synthesis. The expression levels of DNAJB9, TOB1, BRCA1, DDX58, TFPI2, CLU, and P4HA2 mRNAs were measured by a quantitative polymerase chain reaction and normalized to ACTB mRNA. Results. It was found that the low doses of SWCNTs up-regulated the expression of DNAJB9, TOB1, BRCA1, DDX58, TFPI2, CLU, and P4HA2 genes in normal human astrocytes in dose-dependent (2 and 8 ng/ml) and gene-specific manner. These nanotubes also increased the expression of most studied genes in control (transfected by empty vector) U87 glioblastoma cells, but with much lesser extent than in NHA/TS. However, the expression of CLU gene in control U87 glioblastoma cells treated with SWCNTs was down-regulated in a dose-dependent manner. Furthermore, the expression of TOB1 and P4HA2 genes did not significantly change in these glioblastoma cells treated by lower dose of SWCNTs only. At the same time, inhibition of ERN1 signaling pathway of ER stress in U87 glioblastoma cells led mainly to a stronger resistance of DNAJB9, TOB1, BRCA1, DDX58, TFPI2, and P4HA2 gene expression to both doses of SWCNTs. Conclusion. The data obtained demonstrate that the low doses of SWCNTs disturbed the genome functions by changing the levels of key regulatory gene expressions in gene-specific and dose-dependent manner, but their impact was much stronger in the normal human astrocytes in comparison with the tumor cells. It is possible that ER stress, which is constantly present in tumor cells and responsible for multiple resistances, also created a partial resistance to the SWCNTs action. Low doses of SWCNTs induced more pronounced changes in the expression of diverse genes in the normal human astrocytes compared to glioblastoma cells indicating for a possible both genotoxic and neurotoxic effects with a greater extent in the normal cells.

Characterization of Hyaluronic Acid-Coated PLGA Nanoparticles by Surface-Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy

Nanoparticles (NPs) coated with hyaluronic acid (HA) seem to be increasingly promising for targeted therapy due to HA chemical versatility, which allows them to bind drugs of different natures, and their affinity with the transmembrane receptor CD-44, overexpressed in tumor cells. However, an essential aspect for clinical use of NPs is formulation stability over time. For these reasons, analytical techniques capable of characterizing their physico-chemical properties are needed. In this work, poly(lactide-co-glycolide) (PLGA) NPs with an average diameter of 100-150 nm, coated with a few 10 s of nm of HA, were synthesized. For stability characterization, two complementary investigative techniques were used: Dynamic Light Scattering (DLS) and Surface-Enhanced Raman Scattering (SERS) spectroscopy. The first technique provided information on size, polidispersity index, and zeta-potential, and the second provided a deeper insight on the NP surface chemicals, allowing distinguishing of HA-coated NPs from uncoated ones. Furthermore, in order to estimate formulation stability over time, NPs were measured and monitored for two weeks. SERS results showed a progressive decrease in the signal associated with HA, which, however, is not detectable by the DLS measurements.

Exposure to nanographene oxide induces gene expression dysregulation in normal human astrocytes

Objective. Nanographene oxide, an oxidation derivative of graphene, is considered to be one of the nanomaterials attractive for biomedical applications, although this nanomaterial is toxic. The increasing exploitation of graphene-based materials necessitates a comprehensive evaluation of the potential impact of these materials on the human health. Moreover, it is necessary to investigate in detail the mechanisms of its toxic effect on living cells particularly at the genome level. The present study aimed to evaluate the impact of low doses of nanographene oxide on the expression of key regulatory genes in normal human astrocytes.

Methods. Normal human astrocytes, line NHA/TS, were exposed to low doses of nanographene oxide (1 and 4 ng/ml) for 24 h. RNA was extracted from the cells and used for cDNA synthesis. The expression levels of NAMPT, TSPAN13, BCAR3, BRCA1, PTGS2, P4HA1, and P4HA2 mRNAs as well as microRNAs were measured by quantitative polymerase chain reaction.

Results. It was found that the low doses of nanographene oxide induced a dysregulation in the expression of the key regulatory genes in normal human astrocytes in dose-dependent (1 and 4 ng/ml) and gene-specific manner. Nanographene oxide also strongly suppressed the expression of NAMPT, BCAR3, and TSPAN13 genes and significantly up-regulated BRCA1, PTGS2, P4HA1, and P4HA2 ones with a more significant effect in P4HA1 and P4HA2 genes. The expression of miR-96-5p and miR-145-5p was also down-regulated in astrocytes treated with nanographene oxide in a dose-dependent manner.

Conclusion. The data obtained demonstrate that the low doses of nanographene oxide disturbed the genome functions by changing the expression levels of key regulatory genes in gene-specific and dose-dependent manner. Moreover, a higher dose of nanographene oxide induced more pronounced changes in expression of genes indicating for both genotoxic and neurotoxic possible effects in the normal human astrocytes.

GRAPHENE OXIDE AFFECT THE EXPRESSION OF PROLIFERATION RELATED GENES AND microRNA IN NORMAL HUMAN ASTROCYTES

Aim. In this study we investigate the impact of low doses of graphene oxide on the expression of key regulatory genes which control cell proliferation as well as microRNAs in normal human astrocytes. Methods. The expression level of genes related to cell proliferation was studied by real-time qPCR in normal human astrocytes line NHA/TS (Cambrex Bio Science, Walkersville, MD, USA) using SYBRGreen Mix and specific for each mRNA forward and reverse primers. These astrocytes were treated with graphene oxide (1 and 4 ng/ml of medium) for 24 hrs. Graphene oxide (2 mg/ml, dispersion in water) was received from Sigma-Aldrich Chemie GmbH, Germany. Total RNA was extracted using TRIZOL reagent. For reverse transcription of mRNAs we used Thermo Scientific Verso cDNA Synthesis Kit (Germany). The values of mRNA expressions were normalized to the level of ACTB mRNA and represented as percent of control (100 %). For polyadenylation and reverse transcription of miRNAs we used Mir-X miRNA First-Strand Synthesis Kit (Takara, Japan). The expression level of microRNAs was studied by real-time qPCR using SYBRGreen Mix and specific for each miRNA forward primers and universal reverse primer. For normalization of microRNA expressions the level of U6 RNA expression was used. Results. It was shown that the expression level of TOB1, HSPA5, EDEM1, MYBL1, and MYBL2 significantly increased in normal human astrocytes line NHA/TS, which were treated with graphene oxide (1 and 4 ng/ml of medium) for 24 hrs. Up-regulation of these genes expression was dose-dependent: bigger dose of graphene oxide (4 ng/ml of medium) introduced more significant changes in the expression of all these genes. Furthermore, bioinformatics analysis of 3′-untranslated regions of mRNA allowed identifying binding sites of microRNA: miR-19a for MYBL1, miR-143 for MYBL2 and miR-182 for TOB1. It was also shown that the expression of all these microRNA significantly down-regulated by graphene oxide, supporting the idea of both post-transcriptional and transcriptional regulation of MYBL1, MYBL2 and TOB1 gene expressions. Conclusions. Graphene oxide significantly disturbs genome stability by up-regulation of the expression of key regulatory genes and down-regulation of microRNA.

Nano to rescue: repository of nanocarriers for targeted drug delivery to curb breast cancer

Breast cancer is a heterogeneous disease with different intrinsic subtypes. The conventional treatment of surgical resection, chemotherapy, immunotherapy and radiotherapy has not shown significant improvement in the survival rate of breast cancer patients. The therapeutics used cause bystander toxicities deteriorating healthy tissues. The breakthroughs of nanotechnology have been a promising feat in selective targeting of tumor site thus increasing the therapeutic gain. By the application of nanoenabled carriers, nanomedicines ensure targeted delivery, stability, enhanced cellular uptake, biocompatibility and higher apoptotic efficacy. The present review focuses on breakthrough of nanoscale intervention in targeted drug delivery as novel class of therapeutics. Nanoenabled carriers like polymeric and metallic nanoparticles, dendrimers, quantum dots, liposomes, solid lipid nanoparticles, carbon nanotubes, drug-antibody conjugates and exosomes revolutionized the targeted therapeutic delivery approach. These nanoassemblies have shown additional effect of improving the solubility of drugs such as paclitaxel, reducing the dose and toxicity. The present review provides an insight on the different drug conjugates employed/investigated to curb breast cancer using nanocarrier mediated targeted drug delivery. However, identification of appropriate biomarkers to target, clearer insight of the biological processes, batch uniformity, reproducibility, nanomaterial toxicity and stabilities are the hurdles faced by nanodrugs. The potential of nano-therapeutics delivery necessitates the agglomerated efforts of research community to bridge the route of nanodrugs for scale-up, commercialization and clinical applications.

Paclitaxel-based supramolecular hydrogel loaded with mifepristone for the inhibition of breast cancer metastasis

Breast cancer is the leading cause of cancer death among women and almost all of the breast cancer-caused mortality is related to metastasis. It has been reported that glucocorticoid facilitates the metastasis of breast cancer in mice, and mifepristone can antagonize the effect of glucocorticoid. Paclitaxel is one of the important drugs in the treatment of breast cancer. Mifepristone combined with paclitaxel could be an effective strategy for inhibiting breast cancer metastasis. However, their inherent defects, in terms of short blood circulation half-life and lack of tumor targeting, not only limit their effectiveness but also cause adverse reactions. Therefore, our aim is to explore a novel protocol against breast cancer metastasis, further optimize its therapeutic efficacy by a nanodelivery system, and explore its mechanism. Herein, a paclitaxel-conjugated and mifepristone-loaded hydrogel (PM-nano) was prepared by self-assembly. Its characterizations were studied. The antimetastatic effect was evaluated in vitro and in vivo and its mechanism was also explored by western blot assay. The resultant PM-nano was developed with favorable water solubility and good biocompatibility. Moreover, PM-nano displayed increased cell uptake properties and stimulated drug release in the tumor micro-acidic environment. The PM-nano was more effective in inhibiting the proliferation and metastasis of breast cancer than other groups in vitro and in vivo. The PM-nano might inhibit metastasis through glucocorticoid receptor/receptor tyrosine kinase-like orphan receptor 1 and MMPs. Taken together, PM-nano showed superior antimetastatic effects against breast cancer and excellent biocompatibility in vitro and in vivo, providing a new option for limiting metastasis.

Multifunctional peptides for tumor therapy

Controlled nano-systems for drug delivery are designed to deliver therapeutical drugs to desirable sites on demand. Due to the diverse physiological functions of peptides, it is reasonable to introduce peptides into anti-tumor nano-system. The integration of peptides into nanomaterials has complementary advantages, which not only avoids the rapid degradation of peptides in vivo, but also improves the intelligence and functionality of the nano-system. We summarized the functional peptides with targeting and stimulus-responsive properties, and the present review outlined the most relevant and recent developed peptide-based multifunctional nanomaterials for tumor therapy.

Learning from Nature: Bioinspired Chlorin-Based Photosensitizers Immobilized on Carbon Materials for Combined Photodynamic and Photothermal Therapy

Chlorophylls, which are chlorin-type photosensitizers, are known as the key building blocks of nature and are fundamental for solar energy metabolism during the photosynthesis process. In this regard, the utilization of bioinspired chlorin analogs as photosensitizers for photodynamic therapy constitutes an evolutionary topic of research. Moreover, carbon nanomaterials have been widely applied in photodynamic therapy protocols due to their optical characteristics, good biocompatibility, and tunable systematic toxicity. Herein, we review the literature related to the applications of chlorin-based photosensitizers that were functionalized onto carbon nanomaterials for photodynamic and photothermal therapies against cancer. Rather than a comprehensive review, we intended to highlight the most important and illustrative examples over the last 10 years.

Synthesis, radiolabelling, and biological assessment of folic acid-conjugated G-3 99mTc-dendrimer as the breast cancer molecular imaging agent

Hence, in this study, the authors aimed to develop a dendrimer-based imaging agent comprised of poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG)-citrate, technetium-99 m (99mTc), and folic acid. The dendrimer-G3 was synthesised and conjugated with folic acid, which confirmed by Fourier transform infrared, proton nuclear magnetic resonance, dynamic light scattering, and transition electron microscopy. 2,3-bis-(2-methoxy-4-nitro-5-sulfophenyl)-2H-Tetrazolium-5-Carboxanilide cytotoxicity assay kit was used to measure the cellular toxicity of dendrimer. Imaging and biodistribution studies were conducted on the mice bearing tumour. The results showed that the fabricated dendrimer-G3 has a size of 90 ± 3 nm, which was increased to 100 ± 4 nm following the conjugation with folic acid. The radiostablity investigation showed that the fabricated dendrimers were stable in the human serum at various times. Toxicity assessment confirmed no cellular toxicity against HEK-293 cells at 0.25, 0.5, 1, 2, 4, and 8 mg/μl concentrations. The in vivo studies demonstrated that the synthesised dendrimers were able to provide a bright SPECT image applicable for tumour detection. In conclusion, the authors' study documented the positive aspects of PEG-citrate dendrimer conjugated with folic acid as the SPECT contrast agent for breast cancer detection.

A review of nanotechnology-based approaches for breast cancer and triple-negative breast cancer

Breast cancer (BC) is one of the most prevalent cancers in women. Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) in which the three major receptors i.e. estrogen receptor (ER), progesterone receptor (PR) and human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2), are absent is known to express the most aggressive phenotype and increased metastasis which results in the development of resistance to chemotherapy. It offers various therapeutic advantages in treating BC and TNBC. Nanotechnology offers various unique characteristics such as small size (nanometric), active and passive targeting, and the ability to attach multiple targeting moieties, controlled release, and site-specific targeting. This review focuses on conventional drug therapies, recent treatment strategies, and unique therapeutic approaches available for BC and TNBC. The role of breast cancer stem cells in the recurrence of BC and TNBC has also been highlighted. Several chemotherapeutic agents delivered using nanocarriers such as polymeric nanoparticles/micelles, metallic/inorganic NPs, and lipid-based NPs (Liposome, solid-lipid nanoparticles (SLNs), and nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs)), etc. with excellent responses in the treatment of BC/TNBC along with breast cancer stem cells have been discussed in details. Moreover, the application of nanomedicine including CRISPR nanoparticle, exosomes for the treatment of BC/TNBC and other molecular targets available such as poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP), epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), etc. for further exploration have also been discussed.

Breast cancer: Biology, biomarkers, and treatments

During the past recent years, various therapies emerged in the era of breast cancer. Breast cancer is a heterogeneous disease in which genetic and environmental factors are involved. Breast cancer stem cells (BCSCs) are the main player in the aggressiveness of different tumors and also, these cells are the main challenge in cancer treatment. Moreover, the major obstacle to achieve an effective treatment is resistance to therapies. There are various types of treatment for breast cancer (BC) patients. Therefore, in this review, we present the current treatments, novel approaches such as antibody-drug conjugation systems (ADCs), nanoparticles (albumin-, metal-, lipid-, polymer-, micelle-based nanoparticles), and BCSCs-based therapies. Furthermore, prognostic and predictive biomarkers will be discussed also biomarkers that have been applied by some tests such as Oncotype DX, Mamm αPrint, and uPA/PAI-1 are regarded as suitable prognostic and predictive factors in breast cancer.

Dual Photoluminescence Emission Carbon Dots for Ratiometric Fluorescent GSH Sensing and Cancer Cell Recognition

We developed a facile strategy for the fabrication of dual-emission carbon nanodots (CDs) and demonstrated their applications for ratiometric glutathione (GSH) sensing and for differentiating cancer cells from normal cells. Dual-emission CDs were synthesized using a simple hydrothermal treatment of alizarin carmine as the carbon source, manifesting intriguing dual-emission behavior at 430 and 642 nm. With increasing GSH concentration, the fluorescence band at 430 nm increased gradually, whereas that at 642 nm decreased slightly. With monitoring of the intrinsic ratiometric fluorescence variation (I_430nm/I_642nm), as-prepared CDs were developed as an effective platform for ratiometric fluorescent GSH sensing, with a linear range of 1-10 to 25-150 μM and a detection limit of 0.26 μM. More importantly, confocal fluorescent imaging of cancer cells and normal cells indicated that obtained CDs could be implemented as an effective tool to visualize cancer cells with overexpressing GSH.

Graphene and other 2D materials: a multidisciplinary analysis to uncover the hidden potential as cancer theranostics

Cancer represents one of the main causes of death in the world; hence the development of more specific approaches for its diagnosis and treatment is urgently needed in clinical practice. Here we aim at providing a comprehensive review on the use of 2-dimensional materials (2DMs) in cancer theranostics. In particular, we focus on graphene-related materials (GRMs), graphene hybrids, and graphdiyne (GDY), as well as other emerging 2DMs, such as MXene, tungsten disulfide (WS2), molybdenum disulfide (MoS2), hexagonal boron nitride (h-BN), black phosphorus (BP), silicene, antimonene (AM), germanene, biotite (black mica), metal organic frameworks (MOFs), and others. The results reported in the scientific literature in the last ten years (>200 papers) are dissected here with respect to the wide variety of combinations of imaging methodologies and therapeutic approaches, including drug/gene delivery, photothermal/photodynamic therapy, sonodynamic therapy, and immunotherapy. We provide a unique multidisciplinary approach in discussing the literature, which also includes a detailed section on the characterization methods used to analyze the material properties, highlighting the merits and limitations of the different approaches. The aim of this review is to show the strong potential of 2DMs for use as cancer theranostics, as well as to highlight issues that prevent the clinical translation of these materials. Overall, we hope to shed light on the hidden potential of the vast panorama of new and emerging 2DMs as clinical cancer theranostics.

Applications of Two-Dimensional Nanomaterials in Breast Cancer Theranostics

Breast cancer is the leading cause of cancer-related mortality among women. Early stage diagnosis and treatment of this cancer are crucial to patients' survival. In addition, it is important to avoid severe side effects during the process of conventional treatments (surgery, chemotherapy, hormonal therapy, and targeted therapy) and increase the patients' quality of life. Over the past decade, nanomaterials of all kinds have shown excellent prospects in different aspects of oncology. Among them, two-dimensional (2D) nanomaterials are unique due to their physical and chemical properties. The functional variability of 2D nanomaterials stems from their large specific surface area as well as the diversity of composition, electronic configurations, interlayer forces, surface functionalities, and charges. In this review, the current status of 2D nanomaterials in breast cancer diagnosis and therapy is reviewed. In this respect, sensing of the tumor biomarkers, imaging, therapy, and theranostics are discussed. The ever-growing 2D nanomaterials are building blocks for the development of a myriad of nanotheranostics. Accordingly, there is the possibility to explore yet novel properties, biological effects, and oncological applications.

Nanomedicine in treatment of breast cancer - A challenge to conventional therapy

Amongst the various types of cancer, breast cancer is a highly heterogeneous disease and known as the leading cause of death among women globally. The extensive interdisciplinary investigation in nanotechnology and cancer biomedical research has been evolved over the years for its effective treatment. However, the advent of chemotherapeutic resistance in breast cancer is one of the major confront researchers are facing in achieving successful chemotherapy. Research in the area of cancer nanotechnology over the years have now been revolutionized through the development of smart polymers, lipids, inorganic materials and eventually their surface-engineering with targeting ligands. Moreover, nanotechnology further extended and brings in the notice the new theranostic approach which combining the therapy and imaging simultaneously. Currently, research is being envisaged in the area of novel nano-pharmaceutical design viz. liposome, nanotubes, polymer lipid hybrid system, which focuses to make the chemotherapy curative and long-lasting. In this review, we aimed to discuss the recent advancement of different surface-engineered/targeted nanomedicines that improved the drug efficacy in breast cancer.

Gold Nanomaterials for Imaging-Guided Near-Infrared in vivo Cancer Therapy

In recent years, tremendous efforts have been devoted into the fields of valuable diagnosis and anticancer treatment, such as real-time imaging, photothermal, and photodynamic therapy, and drug delivery. As promising nanocarriers, gold nanomaterials have attracted widespread attention during the last two decades for cancer diagnosis and therapy due to their prominent properties. With the development of nanoscience and nanotechnology, the fascinating bio-applications of functionalized gold nanomaterials have been gradually developed from in vitro to in vivo. This mini-review emphasizes some recent advances of photothermal imaging (PTI), surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) imaging, and photoacoustic imaging (PAI)-guided based on gold nanomaterials in vivo therapy in near infrared region (>800 nm). We focus on the fundamental strategies, characteristics of bio-imaging modalities involving the advantages of multiples imaging modalities for cancer treatment, and then highlight a few examples of each techniques. Finally, we discuss the perspectives and challenges in gold nanomaterial-based cancer therapy.

Nanoparticles-based drug delivery and gene therapy for breast cancer: Recent advancements and future challenges

Breast cancer (BC) is amongst the most lethal cancer among females and conventional treatment methods like surgery, radiotherapy and chemotherapy are not effective enough as expected and suffer concerns of low bioavailability, low cellular uptake, emerging resistance, and adverse toxicities. Gene therapy using free nucleic acids has potential to deal with key candidate genes of BC, but their effect is retarded due to poor cell uptake and instability in circulation. The rapidly evolving field of nanomedicine aiming targeted drug/gene delivery curtailing BC promises to overcome the limitations of conventional therapies. Nanoparticles can be game changer for BC gene therapy as they can be effective carrier of specific drug/gene by improving the circulation time, enhancing bioavailability, reducing the immune system based recognition chances, and delivering the gene regulator accurately. Herein, we discuss the mechanism of nanoparticles targeted drug delivery, recent advancement of therapeutic strategies of nanoparticles based carriers for small interfering RNA, and microRNA, and gene augmentation therapies in BC. We also discuss the future prospect and challenges of nanoparticle-based therapies for BC.

Photodynamic Therapy Based on Graphene and MXene in Cancer Theranostics

Cancer is one of the leading causes of death in the world. Therefore, the development of new advanced and targeted strategies in cancer research for early diagnosis and treatment has become essential to improve diagnosis outcomes and reduce therapy side effects. Graphene and more recently, MXene, are the main representatives of the family of two-dimensional (2D) materials and are widely studied as multimodal nanoplatforms for cancer diagnostics and treatment, in particular leveraging their potentialities as photodynamic therapeutic agents. Indeed, due to their irreplaceable physicochemical properties, they are virtuous allies for photodynamic therapy (PDT) in combination with bioimaging, photothermal therapy, as well as drug and gene delivery. In this review, the rapidly progressing literature related to the use of these promising 2D materials for cancer theranostics is described in detail, highlighting all their possible future advances in PDT.

T-cell-derived extracellular vesicles regulate B-cell IgG production via pyruvate kinase muscle isozyme 2

Intercellular communication between lymphocytes plays a fundamental role in numerous immune responses. Previously, we demonstrated that hyperhomocysteinemia (HHcy) induced T cell intracellular glycolytic-lipogenic reprogramming and IFN-γ secretion via pyruvate kinase muscle isozyme 2 (PKM2) to accelerate atherosclerosis. Usually, B cells partially obtain help from T cells in antibody responses. However, whether PKM2 activation in T cells regulates B cell antibody production is unknown. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are important cellular communication vehicles. Here, we found that PKM2 activator TEPP46-stimulated T-cell-derived EVs promoted B-cell IgG secretion. Conversely, EVs secreted from PKM2-null T cells were internalized into B cells and markedly inhibited B-cell mitochondrial programming, activation, and IgG production. Mechanistically, lipidomics analyses showed that increased ceramides in PKM2-activated T-cell EVs were mainly responsible for enhanced B cell IgG secretion induced by these EVs. Finally, quantum dots (QDs) were packaged with PKM2-null T cell EVs and anti-CD19 antibody to exert B-cell targeting and inhibit IgG production, eventually ameliorating HHcy-accelerated atherosclerosis in vivo. Thus, PKM2-mediated EV ceramides in T cells may be an important cargo for T-cell-regulated B cell IgG production, and QD-CD19-PKM2-null T cell EVs hold high potential to treat B cell overactivation-related diseases.-Yang, J., Dang, G., Lü, S., Liu, H., Ma, X., Han, L., Deng, J., Miao, Y., Li, X., Shao, F., Jiang, C., Xu, Q., Wang, X., Feng, J. T-cell-derived extracellular vesicles regulate B-cell IgG production via pyruvate kinase muscle isozyme 2.

Atomic structures of RNA nanotubes and their comparison with DNA nanotubes

We present a computational framework to model RNA based nanostructures and study their microscopic structures. We model hexagonal nanotubes made of 6 dsRNA (RNTs) connected by double crossover (DX) at different positions. Using several hundred nano-second (ns) long all-atom molecular dynamics simulations, we study the atomic structure, conformational change and elastic properties of RNTs in the presence of explicit water and ions. Based on several structural quantities such as root mean square deviation (RMSD) and root mean square fluctuation (RMSF), we find that the RNTs are almost as stable as DNA nanotubes (DNTs). Although the central portion of the RNTs maintain its cylindrical shape, both the terminal regions open up to give rise to a gating like behavior which can play a crucial role in drug delivery. From the bending angle distribution, we observe that the RNTs are more flexible than DNTs. The calculated persistence length of the RNTs is in the micron range which is an order of magnitude higher than that of a single dsRNA. The stretch modulus of the RNTs from the contour length distribution is in the range of 4-7 nN depending on the sequence. The calculated persistence length and stretch modulus are in the same range of values as in the case of DNTs. To understand the structural properties of RNTs at the individual base-pair level we have also calculated all the helicoidal parameters and analyzed the relative flexibility and rigidity of RNTs having a different sequence. These findings emphasized the fascinating properties of RNTs which will expedite further theoretical and experimental studies in this field.

Promises of Nanotherapeutics in Obesity

The application of nanotechnology to medicine promises a wide range of new tools and possibilities, from earlier diagnostics and improved imaging, to better, more efficient, and more targeted therapies. This emerging field could help address obesity, with advances in drug delivery, nutraceuticals, and genetic and epigenetic therapeutics. Its application to obesity is still largely in the development phase. Here, we review the novel angle of nanotech applied to human consumable products and their specific applications to addressing obesity through nutraceuticals, with respect to benefits and limitations of current nanotechnology methods. Further, we review potential future applications to deliver genetic and epigenetic miRNA therapeutics. Finally, we discuss future directions, including theranostics, combinatory therapy, and personalized medicine.

Gold nanoparticle uptake is enhanced by estradiol in MCF-7 breast cancer cells

Purpose: In the present study, we investigated the effects of 17β-estradiol (E₂) on membrane roughness and gold nanoparticle (AuNP) uptake in MCF-7 breast cancer cells. Methods: Estrogen receptor (ER)-positive breast cancer cells (MCF-7) were exposed to bare 20 nm AuNPs in the presence and absence of 1×10^-9 M E₂ for different time intervals for up to 24 hrs. The effects of AuNP incorporation and E₂ incubation on the MCF-7 cell surface roughness were measured using atomic force microscopy (AFM). Endocytic vesicle formation was studied using confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM). Finally, the results were confirmed by hyperspectral optical microscopy. Results: High-resolution AFM images of the surfaces of MCF-7 membranes (up to 250 nm²) were obtained. The incubation of cells for 12 hrs with AuNP and E₂ increased the cell membrane roughness by 95% and 30% compared with the groups treated with vehicle (ethanol) or AuNPs only, respectively. This effect was blocked by an ER antagonist (7α,17β-[9-[(4,4,5,5,5-Pentafluoropentyl)sulfinyl]nonyl]estra-1,3,5(10)-triene-3,17-diol [ICI] 182,780). Higher amounts of AuNPs were localized inside MCF-7 cells around the nucleus, even after 6 hrs of E₂ incubation, compared with vehicle-treated cells. Endolysosome formation was induced by E₂, which may be associated with an increase in AuNP-uptake. Conclusions: E₂ enhances AuNP incorporation in MCF-7 cells by modulating of plasma membrane roughness and inducing lysosomal endocytosis. These findings provide new insights into combined nanotherapies and hormone therapies for breast cancer.

Size-matching hierarchical micropillar arrays for detecting circulating tumor cells in breast cancer patients' whole blood

Circulating tumor cells (CTCs) are important markers for cancer diagnosis and treatment, but it is still a challenge to recognize and isolate CTCs because they are very rare in the blood. To selectively recognize CTCs and improve the capture efficiency, micro/nanostructured substrates have been fabricated for this application; however the size of CTCs is often ignored in designing and engineering micro/nanostructured substrates. Herein, a spiky polymer micropillar array is fabricated for capturing CTCs with high efficiency. The surface of the micropillar is cactus-like, and is composed of nanospikes. This hierarchical polymer array is designed according to the size of CTCs, which allows for more interactions of the CTCs with the array by setting the size of gaps among the micropillars to match with the CTCs. This polymer array is created by molding on an ordered silicon array, and then it is coated with an antiepithelial cell adhesion molecule antibody (anti-EpCAM). After co-culture with MCF-7 cells for 45 min, the capture efficiency of this array for CTCs is up to 91% ± 2%. Moreover, the anti-EpCAM modified polymer micropillar arrays present an excellent capacity to isolate CTCs from the whole blood samples of breast cancer patients. This study may provide a new concept for capturing target cells by designing and engineering micro/nanostructured substrates according to the size of target cells.

Combination antitumor immunotherapy with VEGF and PIGF siRNA via systemic delivery of multi-functionalized nanoparticles to tumor-associated macrophages and breast cancer cells

Given that vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and placental growth factor (PIGF), over-expressed in breast cancer cells and M2-like tumor-associated macrophages (M2-TAMs) within tumor microenvironment (TME), work synergistically and independently in mediating tumor progression and immunosuppression, combinatorial immune-based approaches targeting them are expected to be a potent therapeutic modality for patients. Here, polyethylene glycol (PEG) and mannose doubly modified trimethyl chitosan (PEG = MT) along with citraconic anhydride grafted poly (allylamine hydrochloride) (PC)-based nanoparticles (NPs) (PEG = MT/PC NPs) with dual pH-responsiveness were developed to deliver VEGF siRNA (siVEGF)/PIGF siRNA (siPIGF) to both M2-TAMs and breast cancer cells for antitumor immunotherapy. With prolonged blood circulation and intelligent pH-sensitivity, PEG = MT/PC NPs were highly accumulated in tumor tissues and then internalized in M2-TAMs and breast cancer cells via mannose-mediated active targeting and passive targeting, respectively. With the charge-reversal of PC, PEG = MT/PC NPs presented effective endosomal/lysosomal escape and intracellular siRNA release, resulting in efficient gene silencing. Due to the synergism between siVEGF and siPIGF in anti-proliferation of tumor cells and reversal of the TME from pro-oncogenic to anti-tumoral, PEG = MT/PC/siVEGF/siPIGF NPs (PEG = MT/PC/siV-P NPs) exerted robust suppression of breast tumor growth and lung metastasis. This combination strategy may provide a promising alternative for breast cancer therapy.