Shikimoyl-ligand decorated gold nanoparticles for use in ex vivo engineered dendritic cell based DNA vaccination

Design and synthesis of a shikimoyl-functionalized cationic di-block copolypeptide for cancer cell specific gene transfection

Targeted and efficient gene delivery systems hold tremendous potential for the improvement of cancer therapy by enabling appropriate modification of biological processes. Herein, we report the design and synthesis of a novel cationic di-block copolypeptide, incorporating homoarginine (HAG) and shikimoyl (LSA) functionalities (HDA-b-PHAGm-b-PLSAn), tailored for enhanced gene transfection specifically in cancer cells. The di-block copolypeptide was synthesized via sequential N-carboxyanhydride (NCA) ring-opening polymerization (ROP) techniques and its physicochemical properties were characterized, including molecular weight, dispersity, secondary conformation, size, morphology, and surface charge. In contrast to the cationic poly-L-homoarginine, we observed a significantly reduced cytotoxic effect of this di-block copolypeptide due to the inclusion of the shikimoyl glyco-polypeptide block, which also added selectivity in internalizing particular cells. This di-block copolypeptide was internalized via mannose-receptor-mediated endocytosis, which was investigated by competitive receptor blocking with mannan. We evaluated the transfection efficiency of the copolypeptide in HEK 293T (noncancerous cells), MDA-MB-231 (breast cancer cells), and RAW 264.7 (dendritic cells) and compared it with commonly employed transfection agents (Lipofectamine). Our findings demonstrate that the homoarginine and shikimoyl-functionalized cationic di-block copolypeptide exhibits potent gene transfection capabilities with minimal cytotoxic effects, particularly in cancer cells, while it is ineffective for normal cells, indicative of its potential as a promising platform for cancer cell-specific gene delivery systems. To evaluate this, we delivered an artificially designed miRNA-plasmid against Hsp90 (amiR-Hsp90) which upon successful transfection depleted the Hsp90 (a chaperone protein responsible for tumour growth) level specifically in cancerous cells and enforced apoptosis. This innovative approach offers a new avenue for the development of targeted therapeutics with an improved efficacy and safety profile in cancer treatment.

Gold nanostructures in melanoma: Advances in treatment, diagnosis, and theranostic applications

Melanoma, a lethal form of skin cancer, poses a significant challenge in oncology due to its aggressive nature and high mortality rates. Gold nanostructures, including gold nanoparticles (GNPs), offer myriad opportunities in melanoma therapy and imaging due to their facile synthesis and functionalization, robust stability, tunable physicochemical and optical properties, and biocompatibility. This review explores the emerging role of gold nanostructures and their composites in revolutionizing melanoma treatment paradigms, bridging the gap between nanotechnology and clinical oncology, and offering insights for researchers, clinicians, and stakeholders. It begins by elucidating the potential of nanotechnology-driven approaches in cancer therapy, highlighting the unique physicochemical properties and versatility of GNPs in biomedical applications. Various therapeutic modalities, including photothermal therapy, photodynamic therapy, targeted drug delivery, gene delivery, and nanovaccines, are discussed in detail, along with insights from ongoing clinical trials. In addition, the utility of GNPs in melanoma imaging and theranostics is explored, showcasing their potential in diagnosis, treatment monitoring, and personalized medicine. Furthermore, safety considerations and potential toxicities associated with GNPs are addressed, underscoring the importance of comprehensive risk assessment in clinical translation. Finally, the review concludes by discussing current challenges and future directions, emphasizing the need for innovative strategies to maximize the clinical impact of GNPs in melanoma therapy.

Advances in engineered nanosystems: immunomodulatory interactions for therapeutic applications

Advances in nanotechnology have led to significant progress in the design and fabrication of nanoparticles (NPs) with improved therapeutic properties. NPs have been explored for modulating the immune system, serving as carriers for drug delivery or vaccine adjuvants, or acting as therapeutics themselves against a wide range of deadly diseases. The combination of NPs with immune system-targeting moieties has facilitated the development of improved targeted immune therapies. Targeted delivery of therapeutic agents using NPs specifically to the disease-affected cells, distinguishing them from other host cells, offers the major advantage of concentrating the therapeutic effect and reducing systemic side effects. Furthermore, the properties of NPs, including size, shape, surface charge, and surface modifications, influence their interactions with the targeted biological components. This review aims to provide insights into these diverse emerging and innovative approaches that are being developed and utilized for modulating the immune system using NPs. We reviewed various types of NPs composed of different materials and their specific application for modulating the immune system. Furthermore, we focused on the mechanistic effects of these therapeutic NPs on primary immune components, including T cells, B cells, macrophages, dendritic cells, and complement systems. Additionally, a recent overview of clinically approved immunomodulatory nanomedicines and potential future perspectives, offering new paradigms of this field, is also highlighted.

The role of dendritic cells in cancer immunity and therapeutic strategies

Dendritic cells (DCs) are asserted as the most potent antigen-presenting cells (APCs) that orchestrate both innate and adaptive immunity, being extremely effective in the induction of robust anti-cancer T cell responses. Hence, the modulation of DCs function represents an attractive target for improving cancer immunotherapy efficacy. A better understanding of the immunobiology of DCs, the interaction among DCs, immune effector cells and tumor cells in tumor microenvironment (TME) and the latest advances in biomedical engineering technology would be required for the design of optimal DC-based immunotherapy. In this review, we focus on elaborating the immunobiology of DCs in healthy and cancer environments, the recent advances in the development of enhancing endogenous DCs immunocompetence via immunomodulators as well as DC-based vaccines. The rapidly developing field of applying nanotechnology to improve DC-based immunotherapy is also highlighted.

Nanotechnology as a Promising Method in the Treatment of Skin Cancer

The incidence of skin cancer continues to grow. There are an estimated 1.5 million new cases each year, of which nearly 350,000 are melanoma, which is often fatal. Treatment is challenging and often ineffective, with conventional chemotherapy playing a limited role in this context. These disadvantages can be overcome by the use of nanoparticles and may allow for the early detection and monitoring of neoplastic changes and determining the effectiveness of treatment. This article briefly reviews the present understanding of the characteristics of skin cancers, their epidemiology, and risk factors. It also outlines the possibilities of using nanotechnology, especially nanoparticles, for the transport of medicinal substances. Research over the previous decade on carriers of active substances indicates that drugs can be delivered more accurately to the tumor site, resulting in higher therapeutic efficacy. The article describes the application of liposomes, carbon nanotubes, metal nanoparticles, and polymer nanoparticles in existing therapies. It discusses the challenges encountered in nanoparticle therapy and the possibilities of improving their performance. Undoubtedly, the use of nanoparticles is a promising method that can help in the fight against skin cancer.

In vivo targeting of a tumor-antigen encoded DNA vaccine to dendritic cells in combination with tumor-selective chemotherapy eradicates established mouse melanoma

Despite remarkable progress during the past decade, eradication of established tumors by targeted cancer therapy and cancer immunotherapy remains an uphill task. Herein, we report on a combination approach for eradicating established mouse melanoma. Our approach employs the use of tumor selective chemotherapy in combination with in vivo dendritic cell (DC) targeted DNA vaccination. Liposomes of a newly synthesized lipopeptide containing a previously reported tumor-targeting CGKRK-ligand covalently grafted in its polar head-group region were used for tumor selective delivery of cancer therapeutics. Liposomally co-loaded STAT3siRNA and WP1066 (a commercially available inhibitor of the JAK2/STAT3 pathway) were used as cancer therapeutics. In vivo targeting of a melanoma antigen (MART-1) encoded DNA vaccine (p-CMV-MART1) to dendritic cells was accomplished by complexing it with a previously reported mannose-receptor selective in vivo DC-targeting liposome. Liposomes of the CGKRK-lipopeptide containing encapsulated FITC-labeled siRNA, upon intravenous administration in B16F10 melanoma bearing mice, showed remarkably higher accumulation in tumors 24 h post i.v. treatment, compared to their degree of accumulation in other body tissues including the lungs, liver, kidneys, spleen and heart. Importantly, the findings in tumor growth inhibition studies revealed that only in vivo DC-targeted genetic immunization or only tumor-selective chemotherapy using the presently described systems failed to eradicate the established mouse melanoma. The presently described combination approach is expected to find future applications in combating various malignancies (with well-defined surface antigens).

Toxicity of metal-based nanoparticles: Challenges in the nano era

With the rapid progress of nanotechnology, various nanoparticles (NPs) have been applicated in our daily life. In the field of nanotechnology, metal-based NPs are an important component of engineered NPs, including metal and metal oxide NPs, with a variety of biomedical applications. However, the unique physicochemical properties of metal-based NPs confer not only promising biological effects but also pose unexpected toxic threats to human body at the same time. For safer application of metal-based NPs in humans, we should have a comprehensive understanding of NP toxicity. In this review, we summarize our current knowledge about metal-based NPs, including the physicochemical properties affecting their toxicity, mechanisms of their toxicity, their toxicological assessment, the potential strategies to mitigate their toxicity and current status of regulatory movement on their toxicity. Hopefully, in the near future, through the convergence of related disciplines, the development of nanotoxicity research will be significantly promoted, thereby making the application of metal-based NPs in humans much safer.

Functionalization of Nanomaterials for Skin Cancer Theranostics

Skin cancer has drawn attention for the increasing incident rates and high morbidity worldwide. Timely diagnosis and efficient treatment are of paramount importance for prompt and effective therapy. Thus, the development of novel skin cancer diagnosis and treatment strategies is of great significance for both fundamental research and clinical practice. Recently, the emerging field of nanotechnology has profoundly impact on early diagnosis and better treatment planning of skin cancer. In this review, we will discuss the current encouraging advances in functional nanomaterials for skin cancer theranostics. Challenges in the field and safety concerns of nanomaterials will also be discussed.

Design and Synthesis of Shikimoylated-Polypeptides for Nuclear Specific Internalization

Targeted delivery of therapeutics such as small molecule drugs or nucleic acids exclusively to the nucleus of diseased mammalian cells poses a significant challenge. The development of targeting ligands that can specifically enter certain cancer cells via a specific receptor-mediated endocytosis and then traffic exclusively to the nucleus to deliver the cargo inside it can achieve this goal. We have developed an end-functionalized shikimoylated-polypeptide with pendant shikimoyl moieties that can enter mammalian cells via the mannose receptors and are then exclusively trafficked into the nucleus. The presence of the shikimoyl group in the polypeptide, which traffics it exclusively to the nucleus, contrasts with the mannosylated or galactosylated glycopolypeptides that are distributed all over the cytoplasm or the mannose-6-phosphate containing polypeptide that is exclusively trafficked to the lysosome. Using challenge experiments, we demonstrate that these polypeptides can enter both dendritic and cancer cells through mannose-receptors and subsequently enter the cell nucleus via the interaction with a nuclear pore complex (NPC) protein importin-α/β1. To the best of our knowledge, this represents the first example of a synthetic polyvalent glycopolypeptide mimic that performs the dual function of entering mammalian cells through specific receptors and subsequently traffics into the nucleus. The conjugation of these end-functionalized shikimoylated-polypeptides to other biological entities, such as recombinant anticancer drugs, DNA, RNA, and CRISPR-Cas9, may be a suitable alternative for delivery of these biological entities into cells affected by cancer and other genetic diseases.

Targeted Delivery of Immunostimulatory CpG Oligodeoxynucleotides to Antigen-Presenting Cells in Draining Lymph Nodes by Stearic Acid Modification and Nanostructurization

Polypod-like structured nucleic acids (polypodnas), which are nanostructured DNAs, are useful for delivering cytosine-phosphate guanine oligodeoxynucleotides (CpG ODNs) to antigen-presenting cells (APCs) expressing Toll-like receptor 9 (TLR9) for immune stimulation. Lipid modification is another approach to deliver ODNs to lymph nodes, where TLR9-positive APCs are abundant, by binding to serum albumin. The combination of these two methods can be useful for delivering CpG ODNs to lymph nodes in vivo. In the present study, CpG1668, a phosphodiester-type CpG ODN, was modified with stearic acid (SA) to obtain SA-CpG1668. Tripodna, a polypodna with three pods, was selected as the nanostructured DNA. Tripodnas loaded with CpG1668 or SA-CpG1668 were obtained in high yields. SA-CpG1668/tripodna bound more efficiently to plasma proteins than CpG1668/tripodna and was more efficiently taken up by macrophage-like RAW264.7 cells than CpG1668/tripodna, whereas the levels of tumor necrosis factor-α released from the cells were comparable between the two. After subcutaneous injection into mice, SA-CpG1668/tripodna induced significantly higher interleukin (IL)-12 p40 production in the draining lymph nodes than SA-CpG1668 or CpG1668/tripodna, with reduced IL-6 levels in plasma. These results indicate that the combination of SA modification and nanostructurization is a useful approach for the targeted delivery of CpG ODNs to lymph nodes.

AIE materials for cancer cell detection, bioimaging and theranostics

AIE materials exhibit weakly emissive or non-emissive properties in dilute solutions while emit powerful fluorescence in the aggregated/solid state. Recently, AIE based materials have gained immense attention due to their multifunctional role in cancer cell detection, bioimaging and cancer theranostics. In this present book chapter, we will highlight recent advancements of AIE materials for different cancer theranostics applications.

Targeting steroid hormone receptors for anti-cancer therapy-A review on small molecules and nanotherapeutic approaches

The steroid hormone receptors (SHRs) among nuclear hormone receptors (NHRs) are steroid ligand-dependent transcription factors that play important roles in the regulation of transcription of genes promoted via hormone responsive elements in our genome. Aberrant expression patterns and context-specific regulation of these receptors in cancer, have been routinely reported by multiple research groups. These gave an window of opportunity to target those receptors in the context of developing novel, targeted anticancer therapeutics. Besides the development of a plethora of SHR-targeting synthetic ligands and the availability of their natural, hormonal ligands, development of many SHR-targeted, anticancer nano-delivery systems and theranostics, especially based on small molecules, have been reported. It is intriguing to realize that these cytoplasmic receptors have become a hot target for cancer selective delivery. This is in spite of the fact that these receptors do not fall in the category of conventional, targetable cell surface bound or transmembrane receptors that enjoy over-expression status. Glucocorticoid receptor (GR) is one such exciting SHR that in spite of it being expressed ubiquitously in all cells, we discovered it to behave differently in cancer cells, thus making it a truly druggable target for treating cancer. This review selectively accumulates the knowledge generated in the field of SHR-targeting as a major focus for cancer treatment with various anticancer small molecules and nanotherapeutics on progesterone receptor, mineralocorticoid receptor, and androgen receptor while selectively emphasizing on GR and estrogen receptor. This review also briefly highlights lipid-modification strategy to convert ligands into SHR-targeted cancer nanotherapeutics. This article is categorized under: Therapeutic Approaches and Drug Discovery > Nanomedicine for Oncologic Disease Biology-Inspired Nanomaterials > Lipid-Based Structures Therapeutic Approaches and Drug Discovery > Emerging Technologies.

Strategies in DNA vaccine for melanoma cancer

According to reports of the international agency for cancer on research, although malignant melanoma shows less prevalence than nonmelanoma skin cancers, it is the major cause of skin cancer mortality. Given that, the production of effective vaccines to control melanoma is eminently required. In this regard, DNA-based vaccines have been extensively investigated for melanoma therapy. DNA vaccines are capable of inducing both cellular and humoral branches of immune responses. These vaccines possess some valuable advantages such as lack of severe side effects and high stability compared to conventional vaccination methods. The ongoing studies are focused on novel strategies in the development of DNA vaccines encoding artificial polyepitope immunogens based on the multiple melanoma antigens, the inclusion of molecular adjuvants to increase the level of immune responses, and the improvement of delivery approaches. In this review, we have outlined the recent advances in the field of melanoma DNA vaccines and described their implications in clinical trials as a strong strategy in the prevention and control of melanoma.

Comparison of two routes of administration of a cationic liposome formulation for a prophylactic DC vaccination in a murine melanoma model

Dendritic cell (DC) vaccination can be achieved via straight loading of vaccine into DCs ex vivo or administration to DCs in vivo. However, there is no certain consensus on which approach is preferable, and each strategy has its advantages and disadvantages, which affect the efficacy and safety of vaccines. It will also be more complicated when a vaccine delivery system is included. In this study, the efficacy of ex vivo pulsed DC-based vaccine compared with in vivo subcutaneous administration of a cationic liposomes (CLs) formulation containing gp100 antigen (gp100-CLs) was evaluated in a murine melanoma model. In combination with an anti-PD-1 antibody, the ex vivo approach of gp100-CLs yielded a significant (P < 0.01) increase in the number of antigen-specific tumors infiltrated lymphocytes (TILs) with a significant upregulation of IFN-γ (P < 0.0001) and PD-1 (P < 0.0001) expression level. They also dampened the function of immunosuppressive regulatory T cells (Tregs) via significant downregulation of IL-10 and TGF-β (P < 0.0001) expression level compared to in vivo approach in the tumor microenvironment (TME). Furthermore, prophylactic immunization with gp100-CLs pulsed DCs ex vivo delayed tumor growth and induced the survival benefit over in vivo immunization. Collectively, the ex vivo DC-based vaccination pulsed with gp100 encapsulated in liposomes synergizes with anti-PD-1 antibody and represents a preferable approach against melanoma.

State-of-the-Art of Nanodiagnostics and Nanotherapeutics against SARS-CoV-2

The pandemic outbreak of SARS-CoV-2, with millions of infected patients worldwide, has severely challenged all aspects of public health. In this regard, early and rapid detection of infected cases and providing effective therapeutics against the virus are in urgent demand. Along with conventional clinical protocols, nanomaterial-based diagnostics and therapeutics hold a great potential against coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Indeed, nanoparticles with their outstanding characteristics would render additional advantages to the current approaches for rapid and accurate diagnosis and also developing prophylactic vaccines or antiviral therapeutics. In this review, besides presenting an overview of the coronaviruses and SARS-CoV-2, we discuss the introduced nanomaterial-based detection assays and devices and also antiviral formulations and vaccines for coronaviruses.

Next-Generation Vaccines: Nanoparticle-Mediated DNA and mRNA Delivery

Nucleic acid vaccines are a method of immunization aiming to elicit immune responses akin to live attenuated vaccines. In this method, DNA or messenger RNA (mRNA) sequences are delivered to the body to generate proteins, which mimic disease antigens to stimulate the immune response. Advantages of nucleic acid vaccines include stimulation of both cell-mediated and humoral immunity, ease of design, rapid adaptability to changing pathogen strains, and customizable multiantigen vaccines. To combat the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic, and many other diseases, nucleic acid vaccines appear to be a promising method. However, aid is needed in delivering the fragile DNA/mRNA payload. Many delivery strategies have been developed to elicit effective immune stimulation, yet no nucleic acid vaccine has been FDA-approved for human use. Nanoparticles (NPs) are one of the top candidates to mediate successful DNA/mRNA vaccine delivery due to their unique properties, including unlimited possibilities for formulations, protective capacity, simultaneous loading, and delivery potential of multiple DNA/mRNA vaccines. This review will summarize the many varieties of novel NP formulations for DNA and mRNA vaccine delivery as well as give the reader a brief synopsis of NP vaccine clinical trials. Finally, the future perspectives and challenges for NP-mediated nucleic acid vaccines will be explored.

Ex vivo-generated dendritic cell-based vaccines in melanoma: the role of nanoparticulate delivery systems

Melanoma is a poor immunogenic cancer and many treatment strategies have been used to enhance specific or nonspecific immunity against it. Dendritic cell (DC)-based cancer vaccine is the most effective therapies that have been used so far. Meanwhile, the efficacy of DC-based immunotherapy relies on critical factors relating to DCs such as the state of maturation and proper delivery of antigens. In this regard, the use of nanoparticulate delivery systems for effective delivery of antigen to ex vivo-generated DC-based vaccines that also poses adjuvanticity would be an ideal approach. In this review article, we attempt to summarize the role of different types of nanoparticulate antigen delivery systems used in the development of ex vivo-generated DC-based vaccines against melanoma and describe their adjuvanticity in mediation of DC maturation, cytoplasmic presentation of antigens to MHC class I molecules, which led to potent antigen-specific immune responses. As were represented, cationic liposomes were the most used approach, which suggest its potential applicability as delivery systems for further experiments in combination with either adjuvants or monoclonal antibodies.

Dendritic Cells in Anticancer Vaccination: Rationale for Ex Vivo Loading or In Vivo Targeting

Dendritic cells (DCs) have shown great potential as a component or target in the landscape of cancer immunotherapy. Different in vivo and ex vivo strategies of DC vaccine generation with different outcomes have been proposed. Numerous clinical trials have demonstrated their efficacy and safety in cancer patients. However, there is no consensus regarding which DC-based vaccine generation method is preferable. A problem of result comparison between trials in which different DC-loading or -targeting approaches have been applied remains. The employment of different DC generation and maturation methods, antigens and administration routes from trial to trial also limits the objective comparison of DC vaccines. In the present review, we discuss different methods of DC vaccine generation. We conclude that standardized trial designs, treatment settings and outcome assessment criteria will help to determine which DC vaccine generation approach should be applied in certain cancer cases. This will result in a reduction in alternatives in the selection of preferable DC-based vaccine tactics in patient. Moreover, it has become clear that the application of a DC vaccine alone is not sufficient and combination immunotherapy with recent advances, such as immune checkpoint inhibitors, should be employed to achieve a better clinical response and outcome.

The aggregation of striped nanoparticles in mixed phospholipid bilayers

The unique and adjustable properties of nanoparticles present enormous opportunities for their use as targeted drug delivery vectors. For example, nanoparticles functionalized with key surface ligands have been shown to pass through phospholipid bilayers without causing localised disruption. However, the further effects nanoparticles have on multi-component phospholipid bilayers remain unclear. We use coarse-grained computational models to investigate the structural properties of mixed phospholipid bilayers in the presence of ligand-functionalized nanoparticles. Model bilayers are composed of DPPC, DUPC, DFPC and cholesterol, and the nanoparticles are striped with a hydrophobic-ligand band and charged-ligand spherical caps. Our results show that nanoparticles aggregate near unsaturated phospholipid regions, phospholipid bilayer phase-separation is promoted in the presence of nanoparticles, and the heterogeneous components of a phospholipid bilayer play a significant role in the lateral organization of nanoparticles. This study highlights the need for considering the complexity of realistic phospholipid bilayers when optimising ligand functionalized nanoparticles for efficient drug delivery vectors.

Integrating Biomaterials and Immunology to Improve Vaccines Against Infectious Diseases

Despite the success of vaccines in preventing many infectious diseases, effective vaccines against pathogens with ongoing challenges - such as HIV, malaria, and tuberculosis - remain unavailable. The emergence of new pathogen variants, the continued prevalence of existing pathogens, and the resurgence of yet other infectious agents motivate the need for new, interdisciplinary approaches to direct immune responses. Many current and candidate vaccines, for example, are poorly immunogenic, provide only transient protection, or create risks of regaining pathogenicity in certain immune-compromised conditions. Recent advances in biomaterials research are creating new potential to overcome these challenges through improved formulation, delivery, and control of immune signaling. At the same time, many of these materials systems - such as polymers, lipids, and self-assembly technologies - may achieve this goal while maintaining favorable safety profiles. This review highlights ways in which biomaterials can advance existing vaccines to safer, more efficacious technologies, and support new vaccines for pathogens that do not yet have vaccines. Biomaterials that have not yet been applied to vaccines for infectious disease are also discussed, and their potential in this area is highlighted.

Recent Advances of Plasmonic Gold Nanoparticles in Optical Sensing and Therapy

:

Gold nanoparticles with special surface plasmon resonance have been widely used in sensing and therapy because of their easy preparation, unique optical properties, excellent biocompatibility, etc. The applications of gold nanoparticles in chemo/biosensing, imaging, and therapy reported in 2016-2019, are summarized in this review. Regarding the gold nanoparticle-based sensing or imaging, sensing mechanisms and strategies are provided to illustrate the concepts for designing sensitive and selective detection platforms. Gold nanoparticlemediated therapy is introduced by surface plasmon resonance-based therapy and delivery-based therapy. Beyond the sole therapeutic system, platforms through synergistic therapy are also discussed. In the end, discussion of the challenges and future trends of gold nanoparticle-based sensing and therapy systems is described.

Recent Advancements of Nanomedicine towards Antiangiogenic Therapy in Cancer

Angiogenesis is a process of generation of de-novo blood vessels from already existing vasculature. It has a crucial role in different physiological process including wound healing, embryonic development, and tumor growth. The methods by which therapeutic drugs inhibit tumor angiogenesis are termed as anti-angiogenesis cancer therapy. Developments of angiogenic inhibiting drugs have various limitations causing a barrier for successful treatment of cancer, where angiogenesis plays an important role. In this context, investigators developed novel strategies using nanotechnological approaches that have demonstrated inherent antiangiogenic properties or used for the delivery of antiangiogenic agents in a targeted manner. In this present article, we decisively highlight the recent developments of various nanoparticles (NPs) including liposomes, lipid NPs, protein NPs, polymer NPs, inorganic NPs, viral and bio-inspired NPs for potential application in antiangiogenic cancer therapy. Additionally, the clinical perspectives, challenges of nanomedicine, and future perspectives are briefly analyzed.

Tumor immune microenvironment modulation-based drug delivery strategies for cancer immunotherapy

The past years have witnessed promising clinical feedback for anti-cancer immunotherapies, which have become one of the hot research topics; however, they are limited by poor delivery kinetics, narrow patient response profiles, and systemic side effects. To the best of our knowledge, the development of cancer is highly associated with the immune system, especially the tumor immune microenvironment (TIME). Based on the comprehensive understanding of the complexity and diversity of TIME, drug delivery strategies focused on the modulation of TIME can be of great significance for directing and improving cancer immunotherapy. This review highlights the TIME modulation in cancer immunotherapy and summarizes the versatile TIME modulation-based cancer immunotherapeutic strategies, medicative principles and accessory biotechniques for further clinical transformation. Remarkably, the recent advances of cancer immunotherapeutic drug delivery systems and future prospects of TIME modulation-based drug delivery systems for much more controlled and precise cancer immunotherapy will be emphatically discussed.

Engineered Nanodelivery Systems to Improve DNA Vaccine Technologies

DNA vaccines offer a flexible and versatile platform to treat innumerable diseases due to the ease of manipulating vaccine targets simply by altering the gene sequences encoded in the plasmid DNA delivered. The DNA vaccines elicit potent humoral and cell-mediated responses and provide a promising method for treating rapidly mutating and evasive diseases such as cancer and human immunodeficiency viruses. Although this vaccine technology has been available for decades, there is no DNA vaccine that has been used in bed-side application to date. The main challenge that hinders the progress of DNA vaccines and limits their clinical application is the delivery hurdles to targeted immune cells, which obstructs the stimulation of robust antigen-specific immune responses in humans. In this updated review, we discuss various nanodelivery systems that improve DNA vaccine technologies to enhance the immunological response against target diseases. We also provide possible perspectives on how we can bring this exciting vaccine technology to bedside applications.

Nanostructured lipid carrier delivering chlorins e6 as in situ dendritic cell vaccine for immunotherapy of gastric cancer

The recent scientific progress has shown the promising effect of the vaccine in immunotherapy of cancer, which relies on the antigen processing/presentation capability of dendritic cells (DCs). As a result, cancer vaccines targeting DC, which also named as DC vaccine, was a hot-spot in vaccine development. Herein, a nanostructured lipid carrier (NLC) was employed to load chlorin e6 (Ce6) to serve as a potential in situ DC vaccine (NLC/Ce6) for effective immunotherapy of gastric cancer. Taking advantage of the photodynamic effect of Ce6 to generate reactive oxygen species (ROS) under laser irradiation, the NLC/Ce6 was able to trigger cell death and expose tumor-associated antigen (TAA). Moreover, mimicking the natural inflammatory response, the ROS can also recruit the DC for the effective processing/presentation of the in situ exposed TAA. As expected, we observed strong capability DC vaccination efficacy of this platform to effectively inhibit the growth of both primary and distant gastric tumors.

Functionalization of Nanomaterials and Their Application in Melanoma Cancer Theranostics

Treatment and cure for melanoma, the most aggressive subcategory of skin cancer, still remains a daunting challenge to be circumvented. When metastasized, it requires radiotherapy, chemotherapy, targeted therapy, immunotherapy, etc. as its treatment, although it can be removed by surgical intervention if detected in its early stage. Development of upgraded therapeutic modalities for melanoma facilitating early diagnosis with subsequent excision before metastasis is, therefore, an urgent need. As we witnessed, nanotechnology has become instrumental with its far-reaching ramifications both in diagnosis and treatment of melanoma. In this review we are going to summarize the encouraging developments made in recent times for functionalization of nanoparticles (including liposomes, polymeric, metal, viral, protein nanoparticles) to create numerous theranostics (therapy plus diagnostics) for melanoma. We will also reflect on the melanoma statistics, molecular biology, conventional therapies, ongoing clinical trials, and future outlook.

Recent Trends of the Bio-Inspired Nanoparticles in Cancer Theranostics

In recent years, various nanomaterials have emerged as an exciting tool in cancer theranostic applications due to their multifunctional property and intrinsic molecular property aiding effective diagnosis, imaging, and successful therapy. However, chemically synthesized nanoparticles have several issues related to the cost, toxicity and effectiveness. In this context, bio-inspired nanoparticles (NPs) held edges over conventionally synthesized nanoparticles due to their low cost, easy synthesis and low toxicity. In this present review article, a detailed overview of the cancer theranostics applications of various bio-inspired has been provided. This includes the recent examples of liposomes, lipid nanoparticles, protein nanoparticles, inorganic nanoparticles, and viral nanoparticles. Finally, challenges and the future scopes of these NPs in cancer therapy and diagnostics applications are highlighted.

Tailored Polymers with Complement Activation Ability To Improve Antitumor Immunity

The complement system plays an important role in host innate immunity, and its activation can be exploited as a potential strategy for vaccine adjuvants. Herein, a pH-responsive micellar vaccine platform (COOH-NPs) was developed using a carboxyl-modified diblock copolymer of poly(2-ethyl-2-oxazoline)-poly(d,l-lactide) (COOH-PEOz-PLA). The copolymer self-assembled into micelles with hydroxyl groups shielding on the surface, which activated the complement system for the enhanced immune responses. Compared with the control nanoparticles (OCH₃-NPs), COOH-NPs significantly enhanced lymph node-resident dendritic cell maturation, antigen-specific IgG production, antigen-specific CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T-cell activation, and the amount of memory T-cell generation in vivo. Furthermore, immunization with COOH-NPs/OVA in E.G7-OVA tumor-bearing mice not only remarkably inhibited tumor growth but also prolonged the survival of tumor-bearing mice. These results indicated that COOH-NPs with the capability of complement activation efficiently boosted the immune responses for the antitumor effect. The study demonstrated the significance of taking advantage of a complement-activating vaccine platform for cancer immunotherapy.

Improved Antitumor Efficacy of Combined Vaccine Based on the Induced HUVECs and DC-CT26 Against Colorectal Carcinoma

Angiogenesis is essential for the development, growth, and metastasis of solid tumors. Vaccination with viable human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) has been used for antitumor angiogenesis. However, the limited immune response induced by HUVECs hinders their clinical application. In the present study, we found that HUVECs induced by a tumor microenvironment using the supernatant of murine CT26 colorectal cancer cells exerted a better antiangiogenic effect than HUVECs themselves. The inhibitory effect on tumor growth in the induced HUVEC group was significantly better than that of the HUVEC group, and the induced HUVEC group showed a strong inhibition in CD31-positive microvessel density in the tumor tissues. Moreover, the level of anti-induced HUVEC membrane protein antibody in mouse serum was profoundly higher in the induced HUVEC group than in the HUVEC group. Based on this, the antitumor effect of a vaccine with a combination of induced HUVECs and dendritic cell-loading CT26 antigen (DC-CT26) was evaluated. Notably, the microvessel density of tumor specimens was significantly lower in the combined vaccine group than in the control groups. Furthermore, the spleen index, the killing effect of cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs), and the concentration of interferon-γ in the serum were enhanced in the combined vaccine group. Based on these results, the combined vaccine targeting both tumor angiogenesis and tumor cells may be an attractive and effective cancer immunotherapy strategy.

Recent Progress in the Theranostics Application of Nanomedicine in Lung Cancer

Lung cancer is one of the leading causes of cancer-related death worldwide. Non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) causes around 80% to 90% of deaths. The lack of an early diagnosis and inefficiency in conventional therapies causes poor prognosis and overall survival of lung cancer patients. Recent progress in nanomedicine has encouraged the development of an alternative theranostics strategy using nanotechnology. The interesting physico-chemical properties in the nanoscale have generated immense advantages for nanoparticulate systems for the early detection and active delivery of drugs for a better theranostics strategy for lung cancer. This present review provides a detailed overview of the recent progress in the theranostics application of nanoparticles including liposomes, polymeric, metal and bio-nanoparticles. Further, we summarize the advantages and disadvantages of each approach considering the improvement for the lung cancer theranostics.

Recent advances in inorganic nanomaterials for wound-healing applications

The emergence of inorganic nanoparticles has generated considerable expectation for solving various biomedical issues including wound healing and tissue regeneration. This review article highlights the role and recent advancements of inorganic nanoparticles for wound healing and tissue regeneration along with their advantages, clinical status, challenges and future directions.