Improvement of the Quality of Wild Rocket (Diplotaxis tenuifolia) with Respect to Health-Related Compounds by Enhanced Growth Irradiance

For healthier human nutrition, it is desirable to provide food with a high content of nutraceuticals such as polyphenolics, vitamins, and carotenoids. We investigated to what extent high growth irradiance influences the content of phenolics, α-tocopherol and carotenoids, in wild rocket (Diplotaxis tenuifolia), which is increasingly used as a salad green. Potted plants were grown in a climate chamber with a 16 h day length at photosynthetic photon flux densities varying from 20 to 1250 μmol m-2 s-1. Measurements of the maximal quantum yield of photosystem II, FV/FM, and of the epoxidation state of the violaxanthin cycle (V-cycle) showed that the plants did not suffer from excessive light for photosynthesis. Contents of carotenoids belonging to the V-cycle, α-tocopherol and several quercetin derivatives, increased nearly linearly with irradiance. Nonintrusive measurements of chlorophyll fluorescence induced by UV-A and blue light relative to that induced by red light, indicating flavonoid and carotenoid content, allowed not only a semiquantitative measurement of both compounds but also allowed to follow their dynamic changes during reciprocal transfers between low and high growth irradiance. The results show that growth irradiance has a strong influence on the content of three different types of compounds with antioxidative properties and that it is possible to determine the contents of flavonoids and specific carotenoids in intact leaves using chlorophyll fluorescence. The results may be used for breeding to enhance healthy compounds in wild rocket leaves and to monitor their content for selection of appropriate genotypes.

Genetic control of abiotic stress-related specialized metabolites in sunflower

BACKGROUND

Abiotic stresses in plants include all the environmental conditions that significantly reduce yields, like drought and heat. One of the most significant effects they exert at the cellular level is the accumulation of reactive oxygen species, which cause extensive damage. Plants possess two mechanisms to counter these molecules, i.e. detoxifying enzymes and non-enzymatic antioxidants, which include many classes of specialized metabolites. Sunflower, the fourth global oilseed, is considered moderately drought resistant. Abiotic stress tolerance in this crop has been studied using many approaches, but the control of specialized metabolites in this context remains poorly understood. Here, we performed the first genome-wide association study using abiotic stress-related specialized metabolites as molecular phenotypes in sunflower. After analyzing leaf specialized metabolites of 450 hybrids using liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry, we selected a subset of these compounds based on their association with previously known abiotic stress-related quantitative trait loci. Eventually, we characterized these molecules and their associated genes.

RESULTS

We putatively annotated 30 compounds which co-localized with abiotic stress-related quantitative trait loci and which were associated to seven most likely candidate genes. A large proportion of these compounds were potential antioxidants, which was in agreement with the role of specialized metabolites in abiotic stresses. The seven associated most likely candidate genes, instead, mainly belonged to cytochromes P450 and glycosyltransferases, two large superfamilies which catalyze greatly diverse reactions and create a wide variety of chemical modifications. This was consistent with the high plasticity of specialized metabolism in plants.

CONCLUSIONS

This is the first characterization of the genetic control of abiotic stress-related specialized metabolites in sunflower. By providing hints concerning the importance of antioxidant molecules in this biological context, and by highlighting some of the potential molecular mechanisms underlying their biosynthesis, it could pave the way for novel applications in breeding. Although further analyses will be required to better understand this topic, studying how antioxidants contribute to the tolerance to abiotic stresses in sunflower appears as a promising area of research.

Fluorescence lifetime imaging microscopy as a tool to characterize spice powder variations for quality and authenticity purposes: A ginger case study

Spices are usually ground for applications and the resulting particle size of the powders is an important product attribute in view of the release of flavour. However, inhomogeneity of the original material may lead to variations in the physicochemical characteristics of the particles. This variation and its linkage to particle size may be examined by particular imaging techniques. This study aimed to explore the potential of Fluorescence Lifetime Imaging Microscopy (FLIM) to characterize spice powders according to particle size variations and correlation with their pigment contents to reveal the chemical information contained within the FLIM data. Ginger powder was used as a representative powder model. The FLIM profiles of the individual samples and populations revealed that FLIM coupled with the phasor approach has the capacity to characterize spice powder according to particle size. Meanwhile, Principal Component Analysis of pre-processed FLIM data revealed clustering of particle size groups. Further correlation analysis between the pigment compound contents and FLIM data of the ginger powders indicated that FLIM reflected chemical information of ginger powder and was able to visualize endogenous fluorophores. The current study revealed the potential of FLIM to characterize ginger powder particles. This approach may be extrapolated to other spice powder products. The new knowledge is a step further in paving the way for the application of innovative techniques, already prevalent in other domains, to food quality and authentication.

Rosmarinic Acid and Flavonoids of the Seagrass Zostera noltei: New Aspects on Their Quantification and Their Correlation with Sunlight Exposure

Seagrasses are plants adapted to the marine environment that inhabit shallow coastal waters, where they may be exposed to direct sunlight during low tides. These plants have photoprotection mechanisms, which could include the use of phenolic secondary metabolites. In this study, rosmarinic acid (RA) and the flavonoids of Zostera noltei from the Bay of Cadiz (Spain) have been analyzed, first to define suitable conditions of leaves (i.e., fresh, dried, or frozen) for quantitative analysis, and then to explore the potential correlation between the phenolic profile of the leaves and sunlight exposure using an in situ experimental approach. Compared with fresh leaves, the contents of RA and flavonoids were significantly lower in air-dried and freeze-dried leaves. Freezing caused highly variable effects on RA and did not affect to flavonoid levels. On the other hand, the content of RA was significantly higher in plants that emerged during low tides than in plants permanently submerged, while plants underneath an artificial UV filter experienced a progressive reduction in RA content. However, the major flavonoids did not show a clear response to sunlight exposure and were unresponsive to diminished UV incidence. The results showed a positive correlation of RA with direct sunlight and UV exposure of leaves, suggesting that this compound contributes to the photoprotection of Z. noltei.

Response of sweet pepper autofluorescence against solar radiation

Shades are adjusted in sweet pepper cultivation, based on solar exposure levels. Pyranometers and photosensitive films have recently been introduced to smart agriculture. However, there are no means of observing biological responses to solar exposure. In this study, we hypothesized that solar exposure levels affect the visible autofluorescence of sweet pepper under 365 nm illumination. To test this hypothesis, we cultivated sweet pepper plants under two exposure conditions, low (half of the normal) and high (the normal). Fluorescence photography (365 nm illumination) revealed that dark-fluorescent peppers only arise when cultivated under high-exposure conditions (0.7-fold decline at emission of 390 nm for high-exposure conditions). Microscopic and spectroscopic observations showed that blue autofluorescence was accompanied by an accumulation of UVB pigments (1.2-factor increase in the absorbance at 300 nm) and epidermal development (1.3-fold thicker cell wall). This study suggests that the autofluorescence of sweet pepper can possibly be used to understand the response of crop to solar radiation at a fruit level in horticulture.

CRISPR/Cas9 suppression of OsAT10, a rice BAHD acyltransferase, reduces p-coumaric acid incorporation into arabinoxylan without increasing saccharification

Ester-linked hydroxycinnamic acids ferulic acid (FA) and para-coumaric acid (p-CA) play important roles in crosslinking within cell wall arabinoxylans (AX) and between AX and lignin in grass cell walls. The addition of hydroxycinnamates to AX, is mediated by the Mitchell clade of BAHD acyl-coenzyme A-utilizing transferases. Overexpression of OsAT10 (a Mitchell clade BAHD acyl transferase) in rice, has previously been shown to increase p-CA content in AX in leaves and stems, leading to increased cell wall digestibility, potentially associated with a concomitant decrease in FA content. To investigate the physiological role of OsAT10 we established CRISPR/Cas9 rice knock-out mutants devoid of OsAT10. Our analysis of hydroxycinnamic acid content in wild type plants revealed that AX associated p-CA is found almost exclusively in rice husks, with very little found in other tissues. Mutant plants were essentially devoid of ester-linked p-CA associated with AX, indicating that OsAT10 represents the major enzyme responsible for the addition of p-CA to arabinoxylan in rice plants. We found no change in the digestibility of rice husk lacking AX-associated p-CA, suggesting that the changes in digestibility seen in OsAT10 overexpressing plants were solely due to compensatory decreases in AX-associated FA.

Solar UV-B effects on composition and UV screening efficiency of foliar phenolics in Arabidopsis thaliana are augmented by temperature

The accumulation of foliar phenolics constitutes one strategy of plants against the potentially harmful effects of ultraviolet-B and A (UV-B, UV-A) radiation. These compounds protect photosensitive tissues by shielding and antioxidative function. It is unknown, however, whether seasonal acclimation to natural conditions may modify the UV-B effect on phenylpropanoid composition and localisation, and thus their screening efficiency. To address this debate, a field experiment with the wildtype of Arabidopsis thaliana accession Landsberg erecta (Ler) was implemented over a whole year with plants exposed to different UV-filter treatments. While seasonal increases of UV-B radiation had a slight negative effect on the amount of hydroxycinnamic acids (HCAs), low temperatures increased foliar HCAs. HCAs, however, did not contribute substantially to seasonal changes of in vivo UV absorbance. Kaempferol and quercetin derivatives increased significantly under ambient UV-B radiation, and low temperature interacted with this effect. A shift of epidermal UV-A shielding from kaempferol to quercetin derivatives was elucidated in UV-B presence. Despite this, a substantial 20-fold increase of quercetin derivatives, during periods with high irradiance and low temperature, did not affect UV absorbance leading to the conclusion that quercetin accumulation was not exclusively in epidermal vacuoles. Using confocal microscopy, the potential occurrence of quercetin in mesophyll cells was demonstrated in plants grown with experimental UV-B radiation at low temperature for the first time in A. thaliana. The presented study discusses the idea that cross-talk of UV-B radiation and temperature might adjust the physiological function of quercetin from an (epidermal) screening to an antioxidant substance.

Untargeted metabotyping to study phenylpropanoid diversity in crop plants

Plant genebanks constitute a key resource for breeding to ensure crop yield under changing environmental conditions. Because of their roles in a range of stress responses, phenylpropanoids are promising targets. Phenylpropanoids comprise a wide array of metabolites; however, studies regarding their diversity and the underlying genes are still limited for cereals. The assessment of barley diversity via genotyping-by-sequencing is in rapid progress. Exploring these resources by integrating genetic association studies to in-depth metabolomic profiling provides a valuable opportunity to study barley phenylpropanoid metabolism; but poses a challenge by demanding large-scale approaches. Here, we report an LC-PDA-MS workflow for barley high-throughput metabotyping. Without prior construction of a species-specific library, this method produced phenylpropanoid-enriched metabotypes with which the abundance of putative metabolic features was assessed across hundreds of samples in a single-processed data matrix. The robustness of the analytical performance was tested using a standard mix and extracts from two selected cultivars: Scarlett and Barke. The large-scale analysis of barley extracts showed (1) that barley flag leaf profiles were dominated by glycosylation derivatives of isovitexin, isoorientin, and isoscoparin; (2) proved the workflow's capability to discriminate within genotypes; (3) highlighted the role of glycosylation in barley phenylpropanoid diversity. Using the barley S42IL mapping population, the workflow proved useful for metabolic quantitative trait loci purposes. The protocol can be readily applied not only to explore the barley phenylpropanoid diversity represented in genebanks but also to study species whose profiles differ from those of cereals: the crop Helianthus annuus (sunflower) and the model plant Arabidopsis thaliana.

The Function of Flavonoids in the Diurnal Rhythm under Rapidly Changing UV Conditions—A Model Study on Okra

Flavonoids are favored compounds in plant responses to UV exposure and act in UV absorption and antioxidant activity. Here, it was investigated, with okra as a model species, how fast plants can react to changing UV conditions and to what extent these reactions take place. Okra (Abelmoschus esculentus) plants were exposed to either full or nearly no UV radiation. The diurnal rhythm of the plants was driven by the UV radiation and showed up to a 50% increase of the flavonoid content (measured optically in the +UV plants). This was reflected only in the trends in UV-absorption and antioxidant activity of the extracts but not in the soluble flavonoid glycosides and hydroxycinnamic acid derivatives. In a second experiment, a transfer from a −UV to a +UV condition at 9:00 CDT showed the immediate start of the diurnal rhythm, while this did not occur if the transfer occurred later in the day; these plants only started a diurnal rhythm the following day. After an adaptation period of seven days, clear differences between the +UV and -UV plants could be found in all parameters, whereas plants transferred to the opposite UV condition settle between the +UV and -UV plants in all parameters. Broadly, it can be seen that the flavonoid contents and associated functions in the plant are subject to considerable changes within one day and within several days due to the UV conditions and that this can have a considerable impact on the quality of plant foods.

Characterization of the PRODUCTION of ANTHOCYANIN PIGMENT 1 Arabidopsis dominant mutant using DLEMMA dual isotope labeling approach

Stable isotope labeling has emerged as a valuable tool for metabolite identification and quantification. In this study, we employed DLEMMA, a dual stable isotope labeling approach to identify and track phenylpropanoid pathway in Arabidopsis thaliana. Three forms of phenylalanine (Phe), including unlabeled, Phe¹³C₆ and Phe¹³C₆²H_5, were used as feeding precursors. The unique isotopic pattern obtained from MS spectra significantly simplified data processing and facilitated global mining of Phe-derived metabolites. Following this approach, we have identified 35 phenylalanine-derived metabolites with high confidence. We next compared phenylpropanoids contents between leaves of wild type (WT) and the dominant PRODUCTION OF ANTHOCYANIN PIGMENT 1 (pap1-D) Arabidopsis thaliana mutant using a combined sample matrices and label-swap approach. This approach was designed to correct any unequal matrix effects between the two divergent samples, and any possible uneven label incorporation efficiency between the two differently labeled Phe precursors. Thirty of the 35 identified metabolites were found differential between WT and pap1-D leaves. Our results shown that the ectopic PAP1 expression led to significant accumulation of cyanidin-type anthocyanins, quercetin-type flavonols and hydroxycinnamic acids and their glycosylated derivatives. While levels of kaempferol glycosides and a hydroxycinnamic acid amide were reduced in the pap1-D leaves.

Grafting Nature-Inspired and Bio-Based Phenolic Esters onto Cellulose Nanocrystals Gives Biomaterials with Photostable Anti-UV Properties

New nature-inspired and plant-derived p-hydroxycinnamate esters and p-hydroxycinnamate diesters provide excellent protection against UV radiation when incorporated into a matrix. Herein, an efficient and sustainable pathway is reported to graft these phenolic compounds onto cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) via click-type copper-catalyzed azide/alkyne cycloaddition (CuAAC) reaction. The successful grafting of the phenolic esters on CNC surface was evidenced by a range of chemical analyses, and the degrees of substitution (DS) of the CNC were found to depend on the structure of the phenolic ester grafted. Moreover, aqueous suspensions of the phenolic ester-grafted CNCs not only strongly absorb in both the UVA and UVB regions, but they also exhibit average to very high photostability. Their wide spectrum UV-absorbing properties and their stability upon exposure to UV are highly influenced by the structure of the phenolic ester, particularly by the extra ester group in p-hydroxycinnamate diesters. These findings demonstrate that cellulose nanocrystals decorated with such plant-derived and nature-inspired phenolic esters are promising sustainable nanomaterials for anti-UV applications.

Specialized phenolic compounds in seeds: structures, functions, and regulations

Plants produce a huge diversity of specialized metabolites (SM) throughout their life cycle that play important physiological and ecological functions. SM can protect plants and seeds against diseases, predators, and abiotic stresses, or support their interactions with beneficial or symbiotic organisms. They also have strong impacts on human nutrition and health. Despite this importance, the biosynthesis and biological functions of most of the SM remain elusive and their diversity and/or quantity have been reduced in most crops during domestication. Seeds present a large number of SM that are important for their physiological, agronomic, nutritional or industrial qualities and hence, provide interesting models for both studying biosynthesis and producing large amounts of specialized metabolites. For instance, phenolics are abundant and widely distributed in seeds. More specifically, flavonoid pathway has been instrumental for understanding environmental or developmental regulations of specialized metabolic pathways, at the molecular and cellular levels. Here, we summarize current knowledge on seed phenolics as model, and discuss how recent progresses in omics approaches could help to further characterize their diversity, regulations, and the underlying molecular mechanisms involved.

Short-Term Pre-Harvest UV-B Supplement Enhances the Polyphenol Content and Antioxidant Capacity of Ocimum basilicum Leaves during Storage

Ocimum basilicum (basil) leaves are rich in polyphenols, conferring them a high antioxidant activity. The application of UV-B can be used to maintain the post-harvest nutraceutical quality of basil leaves. We aimed to investigate the effects of pre-harvest UV-B application on polyphenolic and pigment contents, antioxidant capacity, and the visual quality of basil stored leaves. We also evaluated the applicability of the non-invasive Dualex® for monitoring the accumulation of leaf epidermal phenolics (Flav Index). After exposing plants to white light (control) and to supplemental UV-B radiation for 4 d, the leaves were harvested and stored for 7d (TS7). The UV-B leaves showed both a higher phenolic content and antioxidant capacity than the controls at TS7. In addition, the correlations between the Flav Index and phenolic content demonstrated that Dualex® can reliably assess the content of epidermal phenolics, thus confirming its promising utilization as a non-destructive method for monitoring the phytochemical quality of O. basilicum leaves. In conclusion, a pre-harvesting UV-B application may be a tool for enhancing the content of polyphenols and the antioxidant potential of basil stored leaves without detrimental effects on their visual quality. These results are important considering the nutraceutical value of this plant and its wide commercial distribution.

Advances and Prospects of Phenolic Acids Production, Biorefinery and Analysis

Biotechnological production of phenolic acids is attracting increased interest due to their superior antioxidant activity, as well as other antimicrobial, dietary, and health benefits. As secondary metabolites, primarily found in plants and fungi, they are effective free radical scavengers due to the phenolic group available in their structure. Therefore, phenolic acids are widely utilised by pharmaceutical, food, cosmetic, and chemical industries. A demand for phenolic acids is mostly satisfied by utilising chemically synthesised compounds, with only a low quantity obtained from natural sources. As an alternative to chemical synthesis, environmentally friendly bio-based technologies are necessary for development in large-scale production. One of the most promising sustainable technologies is the utilisation of microbial cell factories for biosynthesis of phenolic acids. In this paper, we perform a systematic comparison of the best known natural sources of phenolic acids. The advances and prospects in the development of microbial cell factories for biosynthesis of these bioactive compounds are discussed in more detail. A special consideration is given to the modern production methods and analytics of phenolic acids.

Association of fruit, pericarp, and epidermis traits with surface autofluorescence in green peppers

The association of green pepper blue autofluorescence (excitation at 365 nm) with the traits of the fruit, pericarp, and epidermis was investigated.

Blue Light Treatment but Not Green Light Treatment After Pre-exposure to UV-B Stabilizes Flavonoid Glycoside Changes and Corresponding Biological Effects in Three Different Brassicaceae Sprouts

Ultraviolet-B (UV-B; 280-315 nm) radiation induces the biosynthesis of secondary plant metabolites such as flavonoids. Flavonoids could also be enhanced by blue (420-490 nm) or green (490-585 nm) light. Flavonoids act as antioxidants and shielding components in the plant's response to UV-B exposure. They are shown to quench singlet oxygen and to be reactive to hydroxyl radical. The aim was to determine whether treatment with blue or green light can alter flavonoid profiles after pre-exposure to UV-B and whether they cause corresponding biological effects in Brassicaceae sprouts. Based on their different flavonoid profiles, three vegetables from the Brassicaceae were selected. Sprouts were treated with five subsequent doses (equals 5 days) of moderate UV-B (0.23 kJ m^-2 day^-1 UV-B_BE), which was followed with two subsequent (equals 2 days) doses of either blue (99 μmol m^-2 s^-1) or green (119 μmol m^-2 s^-1) light. In sprouts of kale, kohlrabi, and rocket salad, flavonoid glycosides were identified by HPLC-DAD-ESI-MSⁿ. Both Brassica oleracea species, kale and kohlrabi, showed mainly acylated quercetin and kaempferol glycosides. In contrast, in rocket salad, the main flavonol glycosides were quercetin glycosides. Blue light treatment after the UV-B treatment showed that quercetin and kaempferol glycosides were increased in the B. oleracea species kale and kohlrabi while-contrary to this-in rocket salad, there were only quercetin glycosides increased. Blue light treatment in general stabilized the enhanced concentrations of flavonoid glycosides while green treatment did not have this effect. Blue light treatment following the UV-B exposure resulted in a trend of increased singlet oxygen scavenging for kale and rocket. The hydroxyl radical scavenging capacity was independent from the light quality except for kale where an exposure with UV-B followed by a blue light treatment led to a higher hydroxyl radical scavenging capacity. These results underline the importance of different light qualities for the biosynthesis of reactive oxygen species that intercept secondary plant metabolites, but also show a pronounced species-dependent reaction, which is of special interest for growers.

Oxidation of polyphenols and inhibition of photosystem II under acute photooxidative stress

We observed a close correlation between the inhibition of photosystem II and the oxidation of polyphenols during an acute oxidative stress in sunflower leaf discs. To assess the physiological significance of polyphenols as antioxidants in planta, we compared the kinetics of polyphenols oxidation with the inhibition of the photosynthetic apparatus in sunflower leaf discs exposed to an acute photooxidative stress. Illumination of leaf discs in the presence of methyl viologen induced a rapid and large non-photochemical quenching of chlorophyll-a fluorescence, which was reversed after 4 h of treatment as indicated by the ≈ 30% increases of the steady-state (F_s) and maximal (F_m') levels of chlorophyll-a fluorescence relative to the first hour of treatment. This event coincided with the accelerated decreases of the maximum (F_v/F_m) and effective (∆F/F_m') quantum yields of photosystem II, and also with the beginning of polyphenols oxidation, estimated by the UV absorbance of methanolic leaf extracts, and supported by the Folin-Ciocalteu method and cyclic voltammetry. The decreases of F_v/F_m and the concentrations of reducing polyphenols were highly correlated (R² = 0.877) during the experiment. Coherent with the decrease of UV absorbance of methanolic extracts, polyphenol oxidation resulted in a marked decrease of UV absorbance of leaf epidermis. Also, polymerization of oxidized polyphenols caused the accumulation of brown pigments in the MV-treated leaf discs, decreasing leaf reflectance, especially at 550 and 740 nm. Fluorescence intensities were also decreased during the MV treatment. Interestingly, the emission fluorescence ratio F⁷⁴⁰/F⁶⁸⁴ (excitation at 550 nm) decreased similarly to F_v/F_m (R² = 0.981) due to the brown pigments. Moreover, the excitation fluorescence ratio F₄₈₄/F₆₈₀ (emission at 740 nm) was linearly correlated (R² = 0.957) to ∆F/F_m', indicating a decrease of efficiency of energy transfer between the antenna pigments to the photosystem II reaction center during the oxidative stress. These results support the view that polyphenols can be effective antioxidants protecting the plants against reactive oxygen species.