Preparation of bismuth ferric oxide nanoparticles for the microwave-induced photo-degradation of organic pollutants in greywater

This work demonstrates a thorough investigation into the synthesis and characterization of bismuth ferric oxide (BFO) photocatalyst for microwave-induced photodegradation of organic pollutants in greywater. Microwave (MW) irradiation was executed to enhance the generation of reactive oxygen species, contributing to the catalytic effectiveness of the synthesized photocatalyst. Through an efficient ultrasound-assisted synthesis process, perovskite BFO nanoparticles with a rhombohedral crystal structure and a crystallite size of around 15 nm were successfully manufactured. Comprehensive characterization employing various analytical techniques including X-ray diffraction (XRD), Energy Dispersive X-ray Analysis (EDAX), Fourier Transform Infrared and Raman Spectroscopy, UV-Visible Diffuse Reflectance Spectroscopy (UVDRS), photoluminescence spectroscopy, Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), and Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) studies provided insights into the structural, elemental, spectral, optical, morphological, and surface area properties of the nanoparticles. The UV-vis spectroscopy and Tauc's plot were employed to elucidate the band structure of the photocatalyst, providing insights into its essential electronic properties for catalytic applications. With a narrow optical band gap of 2.13 eV, the synthesized photocatalyst demonstrated suitability for optical applications and exhibited substantial catalytic activity in the microwave-induced photocatalytic degradation of greywater. Remarkably, it achieved a 93.5% reduction in total organic carbon (TOC) within 180 min under moderate 50-W illumination. Refining process parameters through optimization studies notably augmented degradation efficiency. Scavenging investigations validated the efficient mineralization of total organic carbon content. Kinetic assessments provided mechanistic insights into improved catalytic activity of BFO, which was attributed to a changed band structure that allows for fast charge transfer across interfacial layers. Moreover, the stability and reusability of the BFO photocatalyst were assessed over five cycles, highlighting its potential practical application as an efficient and reusable photocatalyst for greywater treatment. These findings underscore the promising prospects of BFO in addressing environmental challenges and advancing sustainable wastewater treatment technologies.

Visible Light Excitation of Poly-(para-Phenylene Ethynylene) Enables Heterogeneous Photocatalytic Oxidations of Amines in Flow

Heterogeneous visible light photocatalysis is a compelling approach to address sustainability in synthetic photochemistry. However, the use of solid-state photocatalysts remains very unpopular in organic synthesis because of their limited accessibility and the black-box effect associated to the lack of rational between their molecular structure and their photochemical properties. Herein, we disclose the synthesis, characterization, photocatalytic properties and synthetic applications of a simple and readily available solid-state conjugated organic polymer, poly-(para-phenylene ethynylene) 1, which exhibits a strong oxidative power upon irradiation with visible light (E(1*/1⋅-)=+1.67 V vs SCE). Comparisons with structural analogues highlighted the superior photocatalytic activity of this linear semiconductor, on account of its fully conjugated architecture. The associated excited-state reactivity enabled the transformation of various amines into imines in batch and continuous flow reactors together with straightforward photocatalyst recycling. Mechanistic investigations revealed concomitant photoredox and energy transfer pathways, that led to the formation of the desired products. Ultimately, the inline generation of imines was exploited in telescoped three-component Ugi reactions (3CR) in batch and flow toward biologically relevant α-acylaminoamides.

Structurally and surficially activated TiO2 nanomaterials for photochemical reactions

Renewable fuels and environmental remediation are of paramount importance in today's world due to escalating concerns about climate change, pollution, and the finite nature of fossil fuels. Transitioning to sustainable energy sources and addressing environmental pollution has become an urgent necessity. Photocatalysis, particularly harnessing solar energy to drive chemical reactions for environmental remediation and clean fuel production, holds significant promise among emerging technologies. As a benchmark semiconductor in photocatalysis, TiO2 photocatalyst offers an excellent solution for environmental remediation and serves as a key tool in energy conversion and chemical synthesis. Despite its status as the default photocatalyst, TiO2 suffers from drawbacks such as a high recombination rate of charge carriers, low electrical conductivity, and limited absorption in the visible light spectrum. This review provides an in-depth exploration of the fundamental principles of photocatalytic reactions and presents recent advancements in the development of TiO2 photocatalysts. It specifically focuses on strategic approaches aimed at enhancing the performance of TiO2 photocatalysts, including improving visible light absorption for efficient solar energy harvesting, enhancing charge separation and transportation efficiency, and ensuring stability for robust photocatalysis. Additionally, the review delves into the application of photodegradation and photocatalysis, particularly in critical processes such as water splitting, carbon dioxide reduction, nitrogen fixation, hydrogen peroxide generation, and alcohol oxidation. It also highlights the novel use of TiO2 in plastic polymerization and degradation, showcasing its potential for converting plastic waste into valuable chemicals and fuels, thereby offering sustainable waste management solutions. By addressing these essential areas, the review offers valuable insights into the potential of TiO2 photocatalysis for addressing pressing environmental and energy challenges. Furthermore, the review encompasses the application of TiO2 photochromic systems, expanding its scope to include other innovative research and applications. Finally, it addresses the underlying challenges and provides perspectives on the future development of TiO2 photocatalysts. Through addressing these issues and implementing innovative strategies, TiO2 photocatalysis can continue to evolve and play a pivotal role in sustainable energy and environmental applications.

Photocatalytic furan-to-pyrrole conversion

The identity of a heteroatom within an aromatic ring influences the chemical properties of that heterocyclic compound. Systematically evaluating the effect of a single atom, however, poses synthetic challenges, primarily as a result of thermodynamic mismatches in atomic exchange processes. We present a photocatalytic strategy that swaps an oxygen atom of furan with a nitrogen group, directly converting the furan into a pyrrole analog in a single intermolecular reaction. High compatibility was observed with various furan derivatives and nitrogen nucleophiles commonly used in drug discovery, and the late-stage functionalization furnished otherwise difficult-to-access pyrroles from naturally occurring furans of high molecular complexity. Mechanistic analysis suggested that polarity inversion through single electron transfer initiates the redox-neutral atom exchange processes at room temperature.

Recent progress of metal halide perovskite materials in heterogeneous photocatalytic organic reactions

Photocatalytic technology is widely regarded as an important way to utilize solar energy and achieve carbon neutrality, which has attracted considerable attentions in various fields over the past decades. Metal halide perovskites (MHPs) are recognized as "superstar" materials due to their exceptional photoelectric properties, readily accessible and tunable structure, which made them intensively studied in solar cells, light-emitting diodes, and solar energy conversion fields. Since 2018, increased attention has been focused on applying the MHPs as a heterogeneous visible light photocatalyst in catalyzing organic synthesis reactions. In this review, we present an overview of photocatalytic technology and principles of heterogeneous photocatalysis before delving into the structural characteristics, stability, and classifications of MHPs. We then focus on recent developments of MHPs in photocatalyzing various organic synthesis reactions, such as oxidation, cyclization, C-C coupling etc., based on their classifications and reported reaction types. Finally, we discuss the main limitations and prospects regarding the application of metal halide perovskites in organic synthesis.

Enhanced performance of a Na3.5Co4[Bi2Co2W19.75O70(H2O)6]/porous graphitic carbon nitride heterojunction based photocatalyst realized by the addition of copper sulfide nanoparticles

Photocatalytic hydrogen (H2) evolution can effectively solve the global energy problem, in which the key factor is the synthesis of efficient photocatalytic materials. In this study, we successfully synthesized a novel photocatalyst, BiWCo/CuS/PGCN, by functionalizing porous graphitic carbon nitride (PGCN) with sandwich-type polyoxometalate Na3.5Co4[Bi2Co2W19.75O70(H2O)6]·39.5H2O (BiWCo) and introducing copper sulfide (CuS) nanoparticles as a cocatalyst. This approach was aimed at enhancing the built inner electric field between interfaces, resulting in a significant improvement in photocatalytic H2 evolution performance. This research adopts a step-by-step method to synthesize BiWCo/CuS/PGCN composites with p-n heterojunctions, which has high visible light absorption and a synergistic effect of multiple elements. PGCN with a high specific surface area contributes to the uniform distribution of active sites. In addition, the nano-CuS cocatalyst provides abundant active sites and more electron transfer pathways for photocatalysis. Therefore, the H2 production efficiency of BiWCo/CuS/PGCN is 6.3 times that of PGCN, 4.5 times that of BiWCo and 2.5 times that of BiWCo/PGCN under visible light. The H2 production rate of BiWCo/CuS/PGCN reaches 3477.58 μmol g-1 h-1. At the same time, the ternary photocatalyst shows high stability after 30 hours and 5 cycles. This work demonstrates that BiWCo/CuS/PGCN has good application prospects in H2 evolution, and provides a new strategy for the design of efficient ternary photocatalytic materials.

In situ Diazonium Salt Formation and Photochemical Aryl-Aryl Coupling in Continuous Flow Monitored by Inline NMR Spectroscopy

A novel class of diazonium salts is introduced for the photochemical aryl-aryl coupling to produce (substituted) biphenyls. As common diazonium tetrafluoroborate salts fail, soluble and safe aryl diazonium trifluoroacetates are applied. In this mild synthesis route no catalysts are required to generate an aryl-radical by irradiation with UV-A light (365 nm). This reactive species undergoes direct C-H arylation at an arene, forming the product in reasonable reaction times. With the implementation of a continuous flow setup in a capillary photoreactor 13 different biphenyl derivatives are successfully synthesized. By integrating an inline 19F-NMR benchtop spectrometer, samples are reliably quantified as the fluorine-substituents act as a probe. Here, real-time NMR spectroscopy is a perfect tool to monitor the continuously operated system, which produces fine chemicals of industrial relevance even in a multigram scale.

The Application of Porous Organic Polymers as Metal Free Photocatalysts in Organic Synthesis

Concerns about increasing greenhouse gas emissions and their effect on our environment highlight the urgent need for new sustainable technologies. Visible light photocatalysis allows the clean and selective generation of reactive intermediates under mild conditions. The more widespread adoption of the current generation of photocatalysts, particularly those using precious metals, is hampered by drawbacks such as their cost, toxicity, difficult separation, and limited recyclability. This is driving the search for alternatives, such as porous organic polymers (POPs). This new class of materials is made entirely from organic building blocks, can possess high surface area and stability, and has a controllable composition and functionality. This review focuses on the application of POPs as photocatalysts in organic synthesis. For each reaction type, a representative material is discussed, with special attention to the mechanism of the reaction. Additionally, an overview is given, comparing POPs with other classes of photocatalysts, and critical conclusions and future perspectives are provided on this important field.

Visible-light TiO2-catalyzed synthesis of dihydrobenzofurans by oxidative [3 + 2] annulation of phenols with alkenyl phenols

An oxidative strategy for the preparation of dihydrobenzofurans via heterogeneous photocatalysis is reported. This method leverages the surface interaction between the alkenyl phenol and the TiO2 solid surface, which enables direct activation by visible light without the need for pre-functionalization or surface modification. The resulting alkenyl phenoxyl radical is proposed to be selectively captured by a neutral phenol nucleophile, rendering β-5' coupling with excellent chemo- and regio-selectivity. The reaction proceeds under benign conditions, using an inexpensive, nontoxic, and recyclable photocatalyst under visible light irradiation with air as the terminal oxidant at room temperature.

Multiphasic Continuous-Flow Reactors for Handling Gaseous Reagents in Organic Synthesis: Enhancing Efficiency and Safety in Chemical Processes

The use of reactive gaseous reagents for the production of active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) remains a scientific challenge due to safety and efficiency limitations. The implementation of continuous-flow reactors has resulted in rapid development of gas-handling technology because of several advantages such as increased interfacial area, improved mass- and heat transfer, and seamless scale-up. This technology enables shorter and more atom-economic synthesis routes for the production of pharmaceutical compounds. Herein, we provide an overview of literature from 2016 onwards in the development of gas-handling continuous-flow technology as well as the use of gases in functionalization of APIs.

Light-driven ammonia synthesis under mild conditions using lithium hydride

Photon-driven chemical processes are usually mediated by oxides, nitrides and sulfides whose photo-conversion efficiency is limited by charge carrier recombination. Here we show that lithium hydride undergoes photolysis upon ultraviolet illumination to yield long-lived photon-generated electrons residing in hydrogen vacancies, known as F centres. We demonstrate that photon-driven dehydrogenation and dark rehydrogenation over lithium hydride can be fulfilled reversibly at room temperature, which is about 600 K lower than the corresponding thermal process. As light-driven F centre generation could provide an alternative approach to charge carrier separation to favour chemical transformations that are kinetically or thermodynamically challenging, we show that light-activated lithium hydride cleaves the N≡N triple bond to form a N-H bond under mild conditions. Co-feeding a N2/H2 mixture with low H2 partial pressure leads to photocatalytic ammonia formation at near ambient conditions. This work provides insights into the development of advanced materials and processes for light harvesting and conversion.

Solar-Driven Continuous CO2 Reduction to CO and CH4 using Heterogeneous Photothermal Catalysts: Recent Progress and Remaining Challenges

The urgent need to reduce the carbon dioxide level in the atmosphere and keep the effects of climate change manageable has brought the concept of carbon capture and utilization to the forefront of scientific research. Amongst the promising pathways for this conversion, sunlight-powered photothermal processes, synergistically using both thermal and non-thermal effects of light, have gained significant attention. Research in this field focuses both on the development of catalysts and continuous-flow photoreactors, which offer significant advantages over batch reactors, particularly for scale-up. Here, we focus on sunlight-driven photothermal conversion of CO2 to chemical feedstock CO and CH4 as synthetic fuel. This review provides an overview of the recent progress in the development of photothermal catalysts and continuous-flow photoreactors and outlines the remaining challenges in these areas. Furthermore, it provides insight in additional components required to complete photothermal reaction systems for continuous production (e. g., solar concentrators, sensors and artificial light sources). In addition, our review emphasizes the necessity of integrated collaboration between different research areas, like chemistry, material science, chemical engineering, and optics, to establish optimized systems and reach the full potential of this technology.

CuAs2O4: Design, Hydrothermal Synthesis, Crystal Structure, Photocatalytic Dye Degradation, Hydrogen Evolution Reaction, Knoevenagel Condensation Reaction, and Thermal Studies

CuAs2O4 has been explored as a heterogeneous catalyst in the fields of photocatalysis, electrocatalysis, and solvent-free organic transformation reactions. The homogeneity has been successfully attained for the first time by designing a pH-assisted hydrothermal synthesis technique. Single-crystal X-ray diffraction studies reveal that no phase transition has been observed by lowering the temperature up to 103 K with no existence of satellite reflections. The crystal structure exhibits tetragonal symmetry with space group P42/mbc and consists of [CuO6] octahedra and [AsO3E] tetrahedra (E represents the stereochemically active lone pair). Structural investigation shows a cylindrical void inside the structure, which could lead to interesting physical and chemical properties. The photocatalytic dye degradation efficiency with methylene blue (MB) showed ∼100% degradation, though the degradation efficiency increased by 2-fold with the addition of 6% H2O2. The reusability of the catalyst up to the 10th cycle with ∼35% MB dye degradation has been established. It can exhibit HER activity with a low overpotential of 165 mV with respect to RHE to attain the current density of j = 10 mA cm-2. SEM and TEM revealed rod-shaped particles, which supported the large number of catalytic active sites. The structural consistency of the catalyst after photodegradation and HER studies is confirmed by the PXRD pattern. XPS confirms the oxidation state of Cu and As in the compound. The catalytic activity toward the Knoevenagel condensation reaction at moderate temperature under solvent-free condition is also studied. TG-DTA shows an endothermic minimum (Tmin) at 436 °C due to the mass loss of As2O3.

Photocarrier Recombination Dynamics in Highly Scattering Cu2O Nanocatalyst Clusters

Inversion analysis of transient absorption data to capture the photoexcited charge carrier population rate dynamics is a powerful technique for extracting realistic lifetimes and identifying recombination pathways. However, for highly scattering samples such as Cu2O nanoparticles (NPs) with associated dielectric Mie scattering, the scattering leads to an inaccurate measure of the excited photocarrier. This work studies methods to correct for the scattering to generalize the use of inversion analysis and provide secondary information about the nature of the scattering NPs. Scattering profiles of semitransparent disks containing Cu2O NPs with different shapes and sizes are measured to demonstrate that the inclusion of scattering in analysis reduces the photoexcited carrier density by 1 order of magnitude. It is found that the photocarrier density response is affected by shape rather than size. A Fourier transform of the scattering profiles produces a distribution of length scales within the sample characteristic of the mean separation of scatterers. This analysis reveals that NPs are forming clusters. Links are made between the scattering and carrier dynamics.

Hybrid CdSe/ZnS Quantum Dot-Gold Nanoparticle Composites Assembled by Click Chemistry: Toward Affordable and Efficient Redox Photocatalysts Working with Visible Light

A new modular, easy-to-synthesize photocatalyst was prepared by assembling colloidal CdSe/ZnS quantum dots (QD) and gold nanoparticles (AuNP) via their ligands thanks to copper-catalyzed azide to alkyne cycloaddition (CuAAC) click chemistry. The resulting composite (QD-AuNP) photocatalyst was tested with a benchmark photoredox system previously reported by our group, for which QD alone acted as a photocatalyst but with a modest quantum yield (QY = 0.06%) and turnover number (TON = 350 in 3 h) due to poor charge separation. After optimization, the QD-AuNP composites exhibited much improved photocatalytic performances: up to five times higher TON (2600 in 3 h) and up to 24 times faster reaction in the first 10 min of visible irradiation. Such an improvement is attributed to an efficient electron transfer from QD to AuNP in the photoexcited QD-AuNP composites, which ensures a much better charge separation than that in QD alone. This was confirmed by studying both (i) the quenching of the QD photoluminescence during the synthesis of the QD-AuNP composites and (ii) the blue shift of the AuNP plasmon absorption band due to the accumulation of up to 7400 electrons per AuNP in QD-AuNP composites under visible light irradiation in the presence of electron donors.

The new method of ZnIn2S4 synthesis on the titania nanotubes substrate with enhanced stability and photoelectrochemical performance

In this work, ZnIn2S4 layers were obtained on fluorine doped tin oxide (FTO) glass and TiO2 nanotubes (TiO2NT) using a hydrothermal process as photoanodes for photoelectrochemical (PEC) water splitting. Then, samples were annealed and the effect of the annealing temperature was investigated. Optimization of the deposition process and annealing of ZnIn2S4 layers made it possible to obtain an FTO-based material generating a photocurrent of 1.2 mA cm-2 at 1.62 V vs. RHE in a neutral medium. In contrast, the highest photocurrent in the neutral electrolyte obtained for the TiO2NT-based photoanode reached 0.5 mA cm-2 at 1.62 V vs. RHE. In addition, the use of a strongly acidic electrolyte allowed the generated photocurrent by the TiO2NT-based photoanode to increase to 3.02 mA cm-2 at 0.31 V vs. RHE. Despite a weaker photoresponse in neutral electrolyte than the optimized FTO-based photoanode, the use of TiO2NT as a substrate allowed for a significant increase in the photoanode's operating time. After 2 h of illumination, the photocurrent response of the TiO2NT-based photoanode was 0.21 mA cm-2, which was 42% of the initial value. In contrast, the FTO-based photoanode after the same time generated a photocurrent of 0.02 mA cm-2 which was only 1% of the initial value. The results indicated that the use of TiO2 nanotubes as a substrate for ZnIn2S4 deposition increases the photoanode's long-term stability in photoelectrochemical water splitting. The proposed charge transfer mechanism suggested that the heterojunction between ZnIn2S4 and TiO2 played an important role in improving the stability of the material by supporting charge separation.

Green approach for the fabrication of a ternary nanocatalyst (Ag-ZnONPs@Cy) for visible light-induced photocatalytic reduction of nitroarenes to aminoarenes

In recent times, the incorporation of metal oxide nanoparticles with organic dyes has piqued the interest of numerous researchers due to their diverse applications under visible light instead of UV radiation. This investigation employed a three-step methodology to fabricate cyanidin-sensitized silver-doped zinc oxide nanoparticles (Ag-ZnO@Cy). Initially, cyanidin dye was extracted from fresh black mulberry fruit, followed by the eco-friendly synthesis of Ag-ZnO nanoparticles (Ag-ZnONPs). The successful integration of the prepared cyanidin dye with Ag-ZnONPs was achieved through a straightforward, environmentally benign, and cost-efficient procedure. The resultant ternary composite underwent comprehensive characterization and confirmation utilizing various techniques, such as SEM, FT-IR, EDX, DRS, elemental mapping, and XRD. The experimental results for Ag-ZnONPs@Cy demonstrated that the nanocrystalline wurtzite exhibited spherical shapes with an average crystal size of 27.42 nm. Moreover, the photocatalytic activity of the synthesized Ag-ZnONPs@Cy was meticulously investigated under blue LED light irradiation. This inquiry encompassed examinations of catalyst amount, regeneration, stability, reusability, and the influence of light source on the hydrogenation of nitroarenes to the corresponding aminoarenes. The findings shed light on the potential of this composite for diverse photocatalytic applications.

Enhanced photocatalytic activity of ceria-doped zinc oxide under UV illumination prepared via chemical precipitation

Transition metal oxide has emerged as one of the most potential candidates for environment remediation by utilizing solar energy through photocatalysis. This study compares the optical characteristics of zinc oxide (ZnO) and ceria-doped zinc oxide (CeZnO) nanoparticles synthesized through a facile chemical precipitation method without using any assistant catalyst. The present work investigates the consequences of ceria (cerium dioxide, CeO2 ) intrusion on the photocatalytic activity of ZnO nanoparticles using methylene blue (MB) as a probe pollutant. The CeZnO showed an increase in photoactivity when compared to ZnO nanoparticles for degradation of MB in an aqueous solution under ultraviolet (UV) irradiance. The resulting heterojunction between ZnO and that of ceria enhances the charge separation efficiency showing a strong correlation between ZnO and CeO2 heterojunction on the charge transfer mechanism across the interface.

Visible-Light-Induced Oxidative Coupling of Phenols and Alkenylphenols with a Recyclable, Solid Photocatalyst

A photocatalytic method for phenol and alkenylphenol oxidative coupling is reported using an inexpensive heterogeneous titanium dioxide photocatalyst with air and visible light. During the coupling process, the Ti-substrate complex is activated under visible light through a ligand to metal charge transfer effect, and the diphenol adduct is proposed to form through a radical cation. The heterogeneous TiO2 catalyst remains stable throughout the reaction and can be easily removed and reused multiple times.

Near-Infrared (NIR) Silver Sulfide (Ag2S) Semiconductor Photocatalyst Film for Degradation of Methylene Blue Solution

A silver sulfide (Ag₂S) semiconductor photocatalyst film has been successfully synthesized using a solution casting method. To produce the photocatalyst films, two types of Ag₂S powder were used: a commercialized and synthesized powder. For the commercialized powder (CF/comAg₂S), the Ag₂S underwent a rarefaction process to reduce its crystallite size from 52 nm to 10 nm, followed by incorporation into microcrystalline cellulose using a solution casting method under the presence of an alkaline/urea solution. A similar process was applied to the synthesized Ag₂S powder (CF/syntAg₂S), resulting from the co-precipitation process of silver nitrate (AgNO₃) and thiourea. The prepared photocatalyst films and their photocatalytic efficiency were characterized by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), X-ray diffraction (XRD), and UV-visible spectroscopy (UV-Vis). The results showed that the incorporation of the Ag₂S powder into the cellulose films could reduce the peak intensity of the oxygen-containing functional group, which indicated the formation of a composite film. The study of the crystal structure confirmed that all of the as-prepared samples featured a monoclinic acanthite Ag₂S structure with space group P₂₁/C. It was found that the degradation rate of the methylene blue dye reached 100% within 2 h under sunlight exposure when using CF/comAg₂S and 98.6% for the CF/syntAg₂S photocatalyst film, and only 48.1% for the bare Ag₂S powder. For the non-exposure sunlight samples, the degradation rate of only 33-35% indicated the importance of the semiconductor near-infrared (NIR) Ag₂S photocatalyst used.

Unveiling the Synthetic Potential of 1,3,5-Tri(10H-phenothiazin-10-yl)benzene-Based Optoelectronic Material: A Metal-Free and Recyclable Photocatalyst for Sequential Functionalization of C(sp2)-H Bonds

1,3,5-Tri(10H-phenothiazin-10-yl)benzene (3PTZ) is endowed with unique redox and photoresponsive characteristics and has been utilized as a p-type redox center for organic battery cathode material and a room-temperature phosphorescence (RTP) material, respectively. Conversely, its exploration in other research fields, particularly organic synthesis, remains unknown. Here, we demonstrate that 3PTZ-POP synthesized via cross-linking of 3PTZ is capable of harvesting visible-light photons and selectively converting solar energy to chemical energy. Specifically, 3PTZ-POP functions as a metal-free and recyclable photocatalyst to promote the sequential C(sp²)-H functionalizations of N-arylacrylamides with readily available trifluoromethylsulfonyl chloride as the radical precursor. An array of 3,3-disubstituted 2-oxindoles bearing a pharmaceutically important CF₃ moiety are delivered in moderate to excellent yields under mild and sustainable conditions.

Scale-Up of a Heterogeneous Photocatalytic Degradation Using a Photochemical Rotor-Stator Spinning Disk Reactor

Many chemical reactions contain heterogeneous reagents, products, byproducts, or catalysts, making their transposition from batch to continuous-flow processing challenging. Herein, we report the use of a photochemical rotor–stator spinning disk reactor (pRS-SDR) that can handle and scale solid-containing photochemical reaction conditions in flow. Its ability to handle slurries was showcased for the TiO₂-mediated aerobic photodegradation of aqueous methylene blue. The use of a fast rotating disk imposes high shear forces on the multiphase reaction mixture, ensuring its homogenization, increasing the mass transfer, and improving the irradiation profile of the reaction mixture. The pRS-SDR performance was also compared to other lab-scale reactors in terms of water treated per reactor volume and light power input.

Porous organic polymers for light-driven organic transformations

As a new generation of porous materials, porous organic polymers (POPs), have recently emerged as a powerful platform of heterogeneous photocatalysis. POPs are constructed using extensive organic synthesis methodologies, with various functional organic units being connected via high-energy covalent bonds. This review systematically presents the recent advances in POPs for visible-light driven organic transformations. Herein, we firstly summarize the common construction strategies for POP-based photocatalysts based on two major approaches: pre-design and post-modification; secondly, we categorize and summarize the synthesis methods and organic reaction types for constructing various types of POPs. We then classify and introduce the specific reactions of current light-driven POP-mediated organic transformations. Finally, we outline the current state of development and the problems faced in light-driven organic transformations by POPs, and we present some perspectives to motivate the reader to explore solutions to these problems and confront the present challenges in the development process.

Technological Innovations in Photochemistry for Organic Synthesis: Flow Chemistry, High-Throughput Experimentation, Scale-up, and Photoelectrochemistry

Photoinduced chemical transformations have received in recent years a tremendous amount of attention, providing a plethora of opportunities to synthetic organic chemists. However, performing a photochemical transformation can be quite a challenge because of various issues related to the delivery of photons. These challenges have barred the widespread adoption of photochemical steps in the chemical industry. However, in the past decade, several technological innovations have led to more reproducible, selective, and scalable photoinduced reactions. Herein, we provide a comprehensive overview of these exciting technological advances, including flow chemistry, high-throughput experimentation, reactor design and scale-up, and the combination of photo- and electro-chemistry.

Visible-light-promoted sulfenylation of 6-aminouracils under catalyst-free conditions

Visible-light-promoted reactions have proven to be a decent strategy for the synthesis of complex molecules.

Photocatalytic C-H Azolation of Arenes Using Heterogeneous Carbon Nitride in Batch and Flow

The functionalization of aryl C(sp2 )-H bonds is a useful strategy for the late-stage modification of biologically active molecules, especially for the regioselective introduction of azole heterocycles to prepare medicinally-relevant compounds. Herein, we describe a practical photocatalytic transformation using a mesoporous carbon nitride (mpg-CNx ) photocatalyst, which enables the efficient azolation of various arenes through direct oxidation. The method exhibits a broad substrate scope and is amenable to the late-stage functionalization of several pharmaceuticals. Due to the heterogeneous nature and high photocatalytic stability of mpg-CNx , the catalyst can be easily recovered and reused leading to greener and more sustainable routes, using either batch or flow processing, to prepare these important compounds of interest in pharmaceutical and agrochemical research.

Blue light-powered hydroxynaphthoic acid-titanium dioxide photocatalysis for the selective aerobic oxidation of amines

Solar photocatalysis is the key to resolve many environmental challenges but is usually hard to achieve over a metal oxide semiconductor. Therefore, assembling π-conjugated molecules onto semiconductors becomes an efficient approach to solar conversion via ligand-to-metal charge transfer. Here, a rational design of ligands for titanium dioxide (TiO₂) is presented to produce robust visible light photocatalysts. Three hydroxynaphthoic acids (HNAs) were selected as ligands by extending an extra benzene ring of salicylic acid (SA) at 3,4 or 4,5 or 5,6 positions. These ligands could regulate the performance of TiO₂ in which 2-hydroxy-1-naphthoic acid (2H1NA) endows the best outcome. In detail, blue light-powered cooperative photocatalysis of 2H1NA-TiO₂ with 2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidine-1-oxyl (TEMPO, 5 mol%) inaugurates the expeditious formation of imines by oxidation of amines with atmospheric oxygen (O₂). Interestingly, the increase of the O₂ pressure from 1 atm to 0.4 MPa promoted the selective oxidation of benzylamine but thereafter declined with a further boost to 0.6 MPa. Notably, an electron transfer between the oxidatively quenched 2H1NA-TiO₂ and TEMPO is established, offering a new pathway for environmental applications. This work presents a strategy in designing cutting-edge visible light photocatalysts via altering semiconductors with surface ligands.

Sunlight driven photocatalytic degradation of organic pollutants using a MnV2O6/BiVO4 heterojunction: mechanistic perception and degradation pathways

In the field of photocatalysis, fabrication of a heterojunction structure with effective charge separation at the interface and charge shift to enhance the photocatalytic activity has acquired extensive consideration. In the present investigation, MnV2O6/BiVO4 heterojunction samples with excellent photocatalytic performance under sunlight irradiation were conveniently synthesized by a hydrothermal technique, and characterized by UV-Vis, FTIR, XRD, FESEM, HRTEM, PL, BET and XPS techniques. The prepared samples were investigated as photocatalysts for degrading MB and RhB dyes under sunlight. Among various samples of MnV2O6/BiVO4, the S-V hetero-junction sample exhibited maximum photocatalytic activity with 98% and 96% degradation of MB and RhB dyes, respectively, in 6 and 35 min. The high photocatalytic activity of MnV2O6/BiVO4 may be due to the successful generation and shift of charges in the presence of visible light. The average reduction of chemical oxygen demand (COD) was found to be 75% after irradiation with direct sunlight. In the degradation process of dyes, superoxide anion radicals were the main responsive species, as revealed by trapping experiments. The degradation efficiency of MnV2O6/BiVO4 heterojunction did not diminish even after four cycles. In addition, the catalytic performance of the fabricated heterojunction was also explored for reducing 4-nitrophenols (4-NP) by using NaBH4. Absolute conversion of 4-NP to 4-aminophenol (4-AP) occurred without the production of intermediate byproducts.

Transformation of CuS/ZnS nanomaterials to an efficient visible light photocatalyst by 'photosensitizer' graphene and the potential antimicrobial activities of the nanocomposites

We report the growth of CuS/ZnS (CZS) nanoparticles (NPs) on the graphene sheet by a facile green synthesis process. The CuS/ZnS-graphene (CZSG) nanocomposites exhibit enhanced visible light photocatalytic activity towards organic dye (methylene blue) degradation than that of CZS nanoparticles. To find the reason for the enhanced photo-activity, we propose a new photocatalytic mechanism where graphene in the CZSG nanocomposites acts as a 'photosensitizer' for CZS nanoparticles. This distinctive photocatalytic mechanism is noticeably different from all other previous research works on semiconductor-graphene hybrid photocatalysts where graphene behaves as an electron reservoir to capture the electrons from photo-excited semiconductor. This novel idea of the photocatalytic mechanism in semiconductor-graphene photocatalysts could draw a new track in thinking for designing of graphene-based photocatalysts for solving environmental pollution problems and they also show remarkable antimicrobial activities.

Phosphorene and phosphorene oxides as a toxic gas sensor materials: a theoretical study

A systematic study of the adsorption of several harmful gases (CO₂, NO, SO₂, NH₃y H₂S) onto black phosphorene and three different black phosphorene oxides (BPO) is carried out through density functional theory calculations. In general, it is shown that BPOs are more suitable adsorbents than pure black phosphorene. Smaller values of adsorption energy correspond to CO₂molecules, whilst those exhibiting larger ones are NH₃, H₂S, NO y SO₂. It is found that SO₂shows the greater difference in electronic charge transfer as well as the longer time of recovery among all species, being an electron acceptor molecule. Besides, it is revealed that physisorption induces changes of different order in the electronic, magnetic and optical responses of phosphorene systems involved. Greater changes in the electronic structure are produced in the case of NO adsorption. In that case, semiconductor nature and magnetization features of black phosphorene band structure become significantly modified. Moreover, a notorious effect of an externally applied electric field on the molecule adsorption onto BPOs has been detected. In accordance, adsorption energy changes with the applied electric field direction, in such a way that the higher value is favored through an upwards-directed orientation of NO y SO₂adsorbates. Results presented could help to enhancing the understanding of BPOs as possible candidates for applications in gas sensing.

Unraveling the Origin of Photocatalytic Deactivation in CeO2/Nb2O5 Heterostructure Systems during Methanol Oxidation: Insight into the Role of Cerium Species

The study provides deep insight into the origin of photocatalytic deactivation of Nb₂O₅ after modification with ceria. Of particular interest was to fully understand the role of ceria species in diminishing the photocatalytic performance of CeO₂/Nb₂O₅ heterostructures. For this purpose, ceria was loaded on niobia surfaces by wet impregnation. The as-prepared materials were characterized by powder X-ray diffraction, nitrogen physisorption, UV-visible spectroscopy, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, high-resolution transmission electron microscopy, and photoluminescence measurements. Photocatalytic activity of parent metal oxides (i.e., Nb₂O₅ and CeO₂) and as-prepared CeO₂/Nb₂O₅ heterostructures with different ceria loadings were tested in methanol photooxidation, a model gas-phase reaction. Deep insight into the photocatalytic process provided by operando-IR techniques combined with results of photoluminescence studies revealed that deactivation of CeO₂/Nb₂O₅ heterostructures resulted from increased recombination of photo-excited electrons and holes. The main factor contributing to more efficient recombination of the charge carriers in the heterostructures was the ultrafine size of the ceria species. The presence of such highly dispersed ceria species on the niobia surface provided a strong interface between these two semiconductors, enabling efficient charge transfer from Nb₂O₅ to CeO₂. However, the ceria species supported on niobia exhibited a high defect site concentration, which acted as highly active recombination centers for the photo-induced charge carriers.

Synthesis, characterization and utilization of oxygen vacancy contained metal oxide semiconductors for energy and environmental catalysis

Developing novel functional materials with promising desired properties in enhancing energy conversion and lowering the catalytic reaction barriers is essential for the demand to solve the increasingly severe energy and environmental crisis nowadays. Metal oxide semiconductors (MOS) are widely used in the field of catalysis because of its excellent catalytic characteristics. Introduction of defects, in addition to the adjustment of composition and atomic arrangement in the materials can effectively improve the materials' catalytic performance. Especially, introducing oxygen vacancies (OVs) into the lattice structure of MOS has been developed as a facile route to improve MOS's optical and electronic transmission characteristics. And a large number of metal oxides with rich OVs have been served in oxygen reduction reaction (ORR), oxygen evolution reaction (OER), hydrogen evolution reaction (HER), carbon dioxide reduction reaction (CO₂-RR) photo-degradation of organic pollutants, etc. This small review briefly outlines some preparation techniques to introduce OVs into MOS, and the characterization techniques to identify and quantify the OVs in MOS. The applications of OVs contained MOS especially in energy and environmental catalysis areas are also discussed. The effects of OVs types and concentrations on the catalytic performances are deliberated. Finally, the defective structure-catalytic property relationship is highlighted, and the future status and opportunities of MOS containing OVs in the catalytic field are suggested.